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ThreeFailuresofClassicalPhysics

THREEFAILURESOF
CLASSICALPHYSICS
1.BlackbodyRadiation
Anyobjectwithatemperatureaboveabsolutezeroemitslightatallwavelengths.Iftheobjectisperfectly
black(soitdoesn'treflectanylight),thenthelightthatcomesfromitiscalledblackbodyradiation.
Theenergyofblackbodyradiationisnotsharedevenlybyallwavelengthsoflight.Thespectrumof
blackbodyradiation(below)showsthatsomewavelengthsgetmoreenergythanothers.Threespectraare
shown,forthreedifferenttemperatures.(OneofthecurvesisforthesurfacetemperatureoftheSun,5770K.)

Herearesomeexperimentalfactsaboutblackbodyradiation:
a.Theblackbodyspectrumdependsonlyonthetemperatureoftheobject,andnotonwhatitis
madeof.Anironhorseshoe,aceramicvase,andapieceofcharcoalallemitthesame
blackbodyspectrumiftheirtemperaturesarethesame.
b.Asthetemperatureofanobjectincreases,itemitsmoreblackbodyenergyatallwavelengths.
c.Asthetemperatureofanobjectincreases,thepeakwavelengthoftheblackbodyspectrum
becomesshorter(bluer).Forexample,bluestarsarehotterthanredstars.
d.Theblackbodyspectrumalwaysbecomessmallatthelefthandside(theshortwavelength,
highfrequencyside).

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Theexplanationofclassicalphysics:Lightisanelectromagneticwavethatisproducedwhenanelectric
chargevibrates.(Strictlyspeaking,"vibrates"meansanychangeinhowthechargemovesspeedingup,
slowingdown,orchangingdirection.)Nowrecallthatheatisjustthekineticenergyofrandommotion.Ina
hotobject,electronsvibrateinrandomdirectionsandproducelightasaresult.Ahotterobjectmeansmore
energeticvibrationsandsomorelightisemittedbyahotterobjectitglowsbrighter.Sofar,sogood.But
classicalphysicscouldnotexplaintheshapeoftheblackbodyspectrum.
Theelectronsinahotobjectcanvibratewitharangeoffrequencies,rangingfromveryfewvibrationsper
secondtoahugenumberofvibrationspersecond.Infact,thereisnolimittohowgreatthefrequencycanbe.
Classicalphysicssaidthateachfrequencyofvibrationshouldhavethesameenergy.Sincethereisnolimitto
howgreatthefrequencycanbe,thereisnolimittotheenergyofthevibratingelectronsathighfrequencies.
Thismeansthat,accordingtoclassicalphysics,thereshouldbenolimittotheenergyofthelightproducedby
theelectronsvibratingathighfrequencies.WRONG!!Experimentally,theblackbodyspectrumalways
becomessmallatthelefthandside(shortwavelength,highfrequency).
Atabout1900,MaxPlanckcameupwiththesolution.Heproposedthattheclassicalideathateachfrequency
ofvibrationshouldhavethesameenergymustbewrong.Instead,hesaidthatenergyisnotsharedequallyby
electronsthatvibratewithdifferentfrequencies.Plancksaidthatenergycomesinclumps.Hecalledaclump
ofenergyaquantum.Thesizeofaclumpofenergyaquantumdependsonthefrequencyofvibration.
HereisPlanck'srulefortheaquantumofenergyforavibratingelectron:
energyofaquantum=(acalibrationconstant)x(frequencyofvibration)
or
E=hf
whereh,thecalibrationconstant,istodaycalledPlanck'sconstant.Itsvalueisabout6x1034 ,verytiny!
Sohowdoesthisexplainthespectrumofblackbodyradiation?Plancksaidthatanelectronvibratingwitha
frequencyfcouldonlyhaveanenergyof1hf,2hf,3hf,4hf,...thatis,
energyofvibratingelectron=(anyinteger)xhf
Buttheelectronhastohaveatleastonequantumofenergyifitisgoingtovibrate.Ifitdoesn'thaveatleast
anenergyof1hf,itwillnotvibrateatallandcan'tproduceanylight."Aha!"saidPlanck:athighfrequencies
theamountofenergyinaquantum,hf,issolargethatthehighfrequencyvibrationscannevergetgoing!This
iswhytheblackbodyspectrumalwaysbecomessmallatthelefthand(highfrequency)side.

2.ThePhotoelectricEffect
Whenlightshinesonthesurfaceofametallicsubstance,electronsinthemetalabsorbtheenergyofthelight
andtheycanescapefromthemetal'ssurface.Thisiscalledthephotoelectriceffect,anditisusedtoproduce
theelectriccurrentthatrunsmanysolarpowereddevices.Usingtheideathatlightisawavewiththeenergy
distributedevenlythroughoutthewave,classicalphysicistsexpectedthatwhenusingverydimlight,itwould
takesometimeforenoughlightenergytobuilduptoejectanelectronfromametallicsurface.WRONG!!
Experimentsshowthatiflightofacertainfrequencycanejectelectronsfromametal,itmakesnodifference
howdimthelightis.Thereisneveratimedelay.
In1905,AlbertEinsteincameupwiththesolution.IfMaxPlanck'sideathatenergycomesinclumps(quanta)
iscorrect,thenlightmustconsistofastreamofclumpsofenergy.Eachclumpoflightenergyiscalleda
photon,saidEinstein,andeachphotonhasanenergyequaltohf(Planck'sconstanttimesthefrequencyofthe
light).Thereforetheenergyoflightisnotevenlydistributedalongthewave,butisconcentratedinthe
photons.Adimmerlightmeansfewerphotons,butsimplyturningdownthelight(withoutchangingits
frequency)doesnotaltertheenergyofanindividualphoton.Soforaspecificfrequencylight,ifasingle
photonhasenoughenergytoejectanelectronfromametallicsurface,thenelectronswillalwaysbeejected
immediatelyafterthelightisturnedonandthephotonshitthemetal.
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3.TheHydrogenAtom
Whenasmalltubeofhydrogengasisheated,itbeginstoglowandemitlight.Unliketheblackbodyradiation
thatcomesfromahotdensesolidorgas,thislightconsistsofjustafewcolors(wavelengths):ared
wavelength,aturquoise,andseveralviolets.Classicalphysicistsatthebeginningofthecenturythoughtthey
shouldcertainlybeabletounderstandhydrogen,sinceitisthesimplestatom.Hydrogenconsistsofa
positivelychargedprotonatthecenter,withanegativelychargedelectronorbitingaroundit.Theelectrical
attractionbetweenthepositiveprotonandthenegativeelectronkeepstheelectroninorbit,justlikethe
gravitationalattractionbetweentheSunandtheEarthholdstheEarthinorbit.Therewasjustoneproblem.
Classicalphysicssaidthatbecausetheorbitingelectronisconstantlychangingdirection,itshouldemit
electromagneticradiationlight.Asaresult,theelectronshouldbecontinuallylosingenergy.Infact,
physicistscalculatedthattheelectronshouldloseallofitsenergyandspiraldownintotheprotoninonly
about0.000000000001second!Inotherwords,atomsshouldnotexistlongerthanamere1012 seconds.
WRONG!!

NielsBohrprovidedanexplanationin1913.IntheBohrmodelofthehydrogenatom,theelectroncan'torbit
theprotoninanysizeorbititpleases.Thereareonlycertainallowedorbits,andeachallowedorbithasa
certainradiusandacertainenergy.Bohrinventedarulethatallowedhimtocalculatethesizeandenergyof
eachorbit.Ifyouarecurious,Bohr'srulesaidthat
2x(electronmass)x(electronorbitalspeed)x(orbitradius)=(anyinteger)xh
whichisnottooobvious,tosaytheleast!(Theintegerwouldbe1forthesmallestorbit,2forthenextorbit
out,andsoon.)Bohralsomadeupanewruletoexplainthestabilityofthehydrogenatomwhyitcould
lastlongerthan0.000000000001second.Hesaidthatwhenanelectronisinanallowedorbit,theelectronwill
notproduceelectromagneticradiation.Bohrdidnotexplainwhy,hejustproposedanewlawofnature.And
natureagreedwithNielsBohr.Hisnewmodelofhydrogengavewavelengthsforhydrogengasthatprecisely
agreedwithwhatwasmeasured.
Question:Iftheelectronsdonotproducelightwhentheyareintheirallowedstableorbits,whereisthesource
ofthelightthatcomesfromhydrogen?Answer:AccordingtoBohr,electronshavemoreenergywhenthey
areinlargerorbits.Ifanelectronfallsfromalargerorbitdowntoasmallerorbit,itlosesenergy.Accordingto
thelawofconservationofenergy,theenergylostbytheelectronmustgosomewhere.Bohrexplainedthata
photoncarriesawaythelostenergyfromthehydrogenatomthatis,
photonenergy=(electronenergyinlargerorbit)(electronenergyinsmallerorbit)
Itworkstheotherway,too.Ifaphotonstrikesanatom,theatomcanabsorbthephotonanditsenergyif(and
onlyif)thephoton'senergyisexactlyequaltothedifferencebetweentwoorbitalenergies.Inthiscase,an
electronusesthephoton'senergytojumpfromthesmallerorbituptothelargerorbit.Thisiscalleda
quantumjump.
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Theelectronfallsdowntoalowerorbit
andtheatomlosesenergy.Aphoton
carriesawaytheenergylostbytheatom.

Aphotonisabsorbedbytheatom,which
gainsthephotonsenergy.Theelectron
usesthisenergytojumpuptoahigher
orbit.

WAVESORPARTICLES?BOTH!
Whenlightpassesthroughadoubleslit,aninterferencepatternconsistingofbrightbandsanddarkbandsis
seenonascreen.Thisisproducedwhenthewavefromoneslitcombineswiththewavefromtheotherslit.If
twowavecrestsmeetatthescreen,thewavesaddandyougetabrightband.Ifawavecrestfromoneslit
meetsawavetroughfromtheotherslit,thewavescancelandyougetadarkband.Thisprovesthatlightisa
wave.
Ontheotherhand,thephotoelectriceffectprovesthatlightconsistsofmasslessparticlescalled
photons.
Sowhichisit?Islightawaveorastreamofparticles?Theansweris"Yes!"
Lightactslikeawaveifyouwanttoknowhowitpropagates,howittravelsfromoneplacetoanother.To
describehowlighttravelsfromthedoubleslitstothescreen,youhavetousethewavecharacteristicsoflight.
Lightactslikeparticles(photons)ifyouwanttoknowhowlightinteractswithmatter.Todescriberhowlight
interactswiththeelectronsinametalandhowitejectsthemfromthemetal'ssurface,youhavetousethe
particlecharacteristicsoflight.
Wesaythatlightexhibitsawaveparticleduality.Itcanbehavelikeeitherwavesorparticles(butnotbothat
thesametime),dependingonthesituation.
Thinkingaboutthephotoelectriceffectagain,howcanaphoton(whichhasnomass)knockanelectronabout?
Einsteinusedhistheoryofrelativitytoshowthatevenmasslessphotonshavemomentum.Newtondefined
momentum=(mass)x(velocity)foraparticlewithmass,butEinsteinwasabletoshowthatthemomentum
ofamasslessphotondependsonitswavelength:
Thesmallerthewavelength,thegreaterthemomentumofthephoton.
In1923,PrinceLouisdeBroglieofFrancehadanidea.Maybethewaveparticledualityappliestoeverything
innature.Heproposedthateverythingpropagateslikeawave,andthateverythinginteractslikeaparticle.Say
what??Whatdoyoumeanbythewavelengthofanelectron,orthewavelengthofabaseball?DeBroglie
rewroteEinstein'sformulaforthemomentumofaphotonandappliedittoaparticlewithmass:
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Planck'sconstant,h,issotinythatwedon'tnoticethewavelengthofathrownbaseball,whichisonlyabout
1035 meters!Butanelectron'smassisalsotiny,soithasawavelengthabout10,000timesshorterthanthe
wavelengthofvisiblelight.Thisisuseful,becausemicroscopesthatuseelectronwavesinsteadoflightwaves
canseeseveralthousandtimesmoredetail!
Theproofthatelectronspropagatelikeawavecamewhenelectronswerepassedthroughadoubleslitand
countedastheyhitascreen.Iftheelectronstraveledlikeastreamofparticles,theywouldhavesimplypiled
upattwolocationsbehindthetwoslits.Buttheydidn't.Theyshowedadoubleslitinterferencepattern,bright
bandsanddarkbandsjustliketheonesproducedbylightwaves.Withoutadoubt,electronsexhibitthewave
particledualityofnature.Infact,everymassiveobjectexhibitsthewaveparticledualityofnature.Itjustisn't
noticeableonthelargescaleofoureverydayworld.

SUMMARY
Ifyoulookatmostofthe"equations"above,youwillfindPlanck'sconstant,h.Thisisthetrademarkof
"modernphysics."Thefailureofclassicalphysicstoexplainblackbodyradiation,thephotoelectriceffect,and
thehydrogenatomultimatelydemolishedthefoundationsofclassicalphysics.
MaxPlanck,AlbertEinstein,NielsBohr,andLouisdeBrogliemadeinspiredguessesabouthownature
works.Otherpeopleoftheirtimemadedifferentguesses.NatureagreedwithPlanck,Einstein,Bohr,andde
Broglie,butnotwiththeotherswhosenamesarenowforgotten.LikeArcadia'sThomasina,thesewere
intuitivegeniuseswhowentbeyondmeremathematicstomakecreativeconjecturesabouthowtheworld
operates.Thosewhocamelatercalculatedtheconsequencesofthenewphysics,butthiswasjustmathematics
(sometimesbrilliantmathematics,butmathematicsnonetheless).Itisthoserareintuitivegeniuseswho
courageouslydiscardtheoldrulesandinventnewoneswhoareinthefirstrankofphysicists.
Finally,ItisimportanttorememberthatPlanck'sconstantisverytiny,onlyabout6x1034 .Roughly
speaking,thismeansthatinoureverydayworld,quantumeffectslikethewaveparticledualitymakea
differenceonlyinthe34thdecimalplacewhenpredictingthebehaviorofamovingbaseball.Largeobjects
obeyNewton'slaws.Butthebehavioroflargeobjectreflecttheaveragebehavioroftheircomponentatoms,
soitisfairtosaythatNewton'slawsworkonly"onaverage."Thebehaviorofsmallsystemsisradically
differentthanwhatclassicalphysicspredicts.Ultimately,thewholeideaofpredictionthatthesame
conditionsshouldalwaysproducethesameresultswasoverthrown.ThisisexplainedinChapter6of
RichardFeynman'sTheCharacterofPhysicalLaw.

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