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Contents
1 The Scientific Method
2 Matter
2.1 Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Classification of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Measurement of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
2
3
4
3 Sceintific Measurements
4 Componenets of Matter
4.1 Daltons Atomic Theory . . . . .
4.2 Discovery of the Electron . . . . .
4.3 The Nuclear Atom . . . . . . . .
4.4 Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
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References
References of these notes
General Chemistry, 10th ed, by Ralph H. Petrucci, F. Geoffrey Herring,
Jeffy D. Madura, and Carey Bisonnette. (PHMB)
2 Matter
2.1
Properties of Matter
2.2
Classification of Matter
Matter
Pure Substances
Mixtures
Elements
Compounds
Heterogeneous
Homogeneous
Mixtures
Mixturea combination of two or more substances in which each substance
retains its own chemical identity
Homogeneous mixturesmixtures that are uniform in composition
throughout. Also called solutions.
Examples: salt water (NCl and H2 O), brass (Cu and Zn)
Heterogeneous mixturesmixtures that do not have the same
composition, properties, and appearance throughout
Examples: sand, blood.
Classification of Matter
MATTER
HETEROGENOUS
MIXTURES
physically
separable into
HOMOGENEOUS
MIXTURES
physically
separable into
PURE
SUBSTANCES
can either be
chemically separable into
ELEMENTS
COMPOUNDS
combine chemically to form
States of Matter
Matter is generally found in one of three states
In a solid, atoms or molecules are in close contact, often in a highly
organized arrangement.
has a definite shape and occupies a definite volume
In a liquid, atoms or molecules are in close proximity (although generally
not as close as in a solid).
occupies a definite volume, but has the ability to flow and assume
the shape of its container
In a gas, atoms or molecules are generally much more widely separated
than in liquids and solids.
assumes the shape of its container, expands to fill the container, thus
having neither definite shape nor volume
2.3
Measurement of Matter
Unit
meter
kilogram
second
kelvin
mole
ampere
candela
Symbol
m
kg
s
K
mol
A
cd
SI Prefixes
Multiple
1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
102
101
Prefix
exa (E)
peta (P)
tera (T)
giga (G)
mega (M)
kilo (k)
hecto (h)
deka (da)
Multiple
101
102
103
106
109
1012
1015
1018
1021
1024
Prefix
deci (d)
centi (c)
milli (m)
micro ()
nano (n)
pico (p)
femto (f)
atto (a)
zepto (z)
yocto (y)
Mass
Mass describes the quantity of matter in an object.
In SI the standard of mass is 1 kilogram (kg). More commonly we use the
unit gram (g).
Weight is the force of gravity on an object.
W = gm
Time
In SI the standard of time is the second (s).
In 1956, the second was defined as 1/31, 556, 925.9747 of the length of the
year.
With the advent of atomic clocks, a more precise definition became
possible. The second is now defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770
cycles of a particular radiation emitted by certain atoms of the element
cesium (cesium-133).
Temperature
The Celsius scale
the melting point of ice is 0 C, the boiling point of water is 100 C, and the
interval between is divided into 100 equal parts called Celsius degrees.
The SI temperature scale, called the Kelvin scale, assigns a value of zero to the
lowest possible temperature.
The zero on the Kelvin scale is denoted 0 K and it comes at 273.15 C.
The interval on the Kelvin scale, called a kelvin, is the same size as the
Celsius degree.
When writing a Kelvin temperature, we do not use a degree symbol.
The Kelvin scale is an absolute temperature scale; there are no negative
Kelvin temperatures.
3 Sceintific Measurements
Systematic Error
A systematic error is one that recurs regularly in a series of measurements
because of an inherent error in the measuring system.
All measurements are subject to error.
Precision is the degree of reproducibility of a measured quantity
the closeness of agreement among repeated experiments
Accuracy is the closeness of a measured value to the true or accepted value of
a quantity.
Significant Figures
The significant figures (or significant digits) of a number are those digits
that carry meaning contributing to its precision. This includes all digits except:
leading zeros and trailing zeros where they serve merely as placeholders
to indicate the scale of the number.
spurious digits introduced, for example, by calculations carried out to
greater accuracy than that of the original data, or measurements reported
to a greater precision than the equipment supports.
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multiplication,
scientific notation,
4 Componenets of Matter
4.1
4.2
Crookes Tube
A Crookes tube is a sealed glass container in which two electrodes are
separated by a vacuum. When a voltage is applied across the electrodes,
cathode rays are generated, creating a glowing patch where they strike the
glass at the opposite end of the tube.
J.J. Thompson
Atoms were thought to be the smallest possible division of matter until
1897 when Joseph John J.J. Thomson discovered the electron through his
work on cathode rays.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:J.J Thomson.jpg
Cathode Rays
Thomson discovered that the rays could be deflected by an electric field (in
addition to magnetic fields, which was already known).
He concluded that these rays, rather than being a form of light, were
composed of very light negatively charged particles he called corpuscles
(later renamed electrons by other scientists.
Using different elements as the source of the cathode rays, he obtained
always the same result. Therefore these electrons had to be part of all
atoms of all elements.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CRT color.png
Robert A Millikan
Starting in 1908, Robert Millikan and Harvey Fletcher worked on an
oil-drop experiment in which they measured the charge on a single electron.
J.J. Thomson had already discovered the charge-to-mass ratio of the
electron.
Millikan ended up discovering the charge of the electron, and thus the
electrons mass, by manipulating electrical charges and magnetic fields.
His reported mass was 9.10 1028 g.
9.10939 1028 g.
4.3
Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford identified two types of radiation from radioactive
materials, alpha () and beta ().
Alpha particles carry two units of positive charge, have essentially the
same mass as helium atoms, actually identical to He2+ .
Beta particles are negatively charged particles, produced via changes in
the nuclei of radioactive atoms, same properties as electrons.
In 1909 the gold foil experiment was conducted under his supervision
by scientists Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden.
2
1
3
6
7
5
4
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rutherford Scattering.svg
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4.4
Chemical symbol
Properties
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Charge
SI (C)
+1.6022 1019
0
1.6022 1019
Atomic
+1
0
-1
Mass
SI (g)
1.6726 1024
1.6749 1024
9.1094 1028
Atomic (u)
1.0073
1.0087
0.00054858
Isotopes
Isotopes Atoms of the same element containing different numbers of
neutrons and therefore having different masses.
The various isotopes will contribute to the atomic weight of the element
according to their percent natural abundance in the earths crust.
E.g., chlorine (Cl) has two isotopes of atomic mass 35 and 37 a.m.u. The
relative abundance of each atom is 77.35% and 22.65%, respectively. Thus
the atomic weight of Cl is not a whole number, but is equal to 35.453
a.m.u.
E.g.,
20Ne
10
is 90.51%,
21Ne
10
is 0.27%, and
22Ne
10
is 9.22%.
Ions
When atoms lose or gain electrons, the species formed are called ions.
These carry net charges.
An anions is a negatively charged ion.
A cation is a positively charged ion.
number p + number n A # number p - number e
number p Z X
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