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Social constructed in HIV/AIDs Preventions: SMARTGirl, why not SMARTGuys
and SmartClients
1‐ Introduction/Background:
HIV/AIDS epidemic was discovered and occurred in Cambodia during the 1991 and
had spread rapidly over the decade, thus the spreading demonstrated was the highest in
Southeast Asia (currently second highest in Southeast Asia) and its decreasing rate has
declined over the last few years (UNIFEM, World Bank, ADB, UNPA and DFID/UK, 2004;
Avert, 2008). The majority of the epidemic victims were found to be infected through
unprotected and unsafe sexual intercourses with female sex workers (ibid).
According to Avert (2008) Cambodia government programs promoted 100% condom
use among brothel‐based sex workers to slowdown spread of the epidemic have declined
from 43% to 21% between 1998 and 2003. Yet, it is no longer the case that 100% condom
use in brothel based is acceptable when sex workers are viewed as the root cause of
HIV/AIDs and exploitation. In that case, the government of Cambodia has passed a law to
“crack‐downs on red‐light areas and arrest of sex workers” (Womensphere, 2008). With the
passing law, it makes sex workers become illegal workers and no longer seek services from
public health and handling condoms is justifiable as evidence of labeling as prostitution, so
sex workers in no way can use condom to protect themselves may increase more risk of
HIV/AIDS. Medias have reported of hundreds of women have been arrested, beaten, jailed
or displaced as the result of such law banning sex workers and getting off this root cause
(ibid; RH Reality Check, 2008; Khmernews, 2008; StraitsTimes, 2008). Former sex workers
now have moved or have to move onto the streets or become informal sex workers 1 in beer
gardens, karaoke and entertainment establishments (Phnom Penh Post, 2009).
To reach these vulnerable groups, NGOs find very hard time to deliver their services.
A current SMARTGirl funded by USAIDS to Family Health International which designed to
help entertainment workers and ‘empower women working in the informal sex industry to
demand safe sex from their partners and protect themselves against HIV and AIDS’ (ibid).
1
Informal sex workers derived from banning sex workers and its industry. Prior passing the law, sex workers
were recognized but after they are no longer accepted, so they are called informal sex workers moving from
brothel to streets, beer gardens, Karaoke and other entertainment premises.
During the launching conference on this SMARTGirl project in Phnom Penh, US Ambassador
to Cambodia Carol Rodley said “in order to help women address their high‐risk sexual
behaviour and curb the spread of HIV and AIDS, the program must move to entertainment
venues like karaoke bars and massage parlours” (Phnom Penh Post, 2009; HealthDev.Net,
2009). Therefore, programs addressing HIV/AIDs must take into account that female sex
workers are playing a great role in HIV/AIDs reduction.
In this essay, I attempt to argue that HIV/AIDs intervention by currently focusing on
female informal sex workers exclusively and its nature of work as problems (as mentioned
above) ignoring larger complex social institutions is a gender issue that need to be revealed.
I also outline some groups (see below) who are at risk of HIV/AIDs but because of some
social determinants as well as gender is very much social constructed, as result, HIV/AIDs
interventions have not much focused on these groups. As gender intersects with norms,
tradition, customary laws and classes (University of Sussex, 2008); I will also analyze how
the intervention would have been more gender responsive as well as transformative.
2‐ HIV/AIDs transmission: A gender blinded response
Gender issue and its socially constructed manner on sexual behaviour does not only
have great negative impact on reproductive health, sexuality and HIV/AIDs epidemic but
also has been reproduced in a way that women position is at disadvantage or lower than
men (UNIFEM, World Bank, ADB, UNPA and DFID/UK, 2004). For example, women are
supposed to be soft, obedience but not allowed to discuss about sexual issues and have
sexual intercourse before marriage (UNFPA, 2002; PSI/ Cambodia, 2002). Societal norms
that negotiating for condom use among the family is unacceptable and only for sex workers
or unfaithful couples/partners use condoms, plus, there has been very limited condoms use
promotion among marriage couples (UNIFEM, World Bank, ADB, UNPA and DFID/UK, 2004;
PSI/Cambodia, 2002; Medel‐Anonuevo, 2002). To quote some of the respondents on a
research in Sweetheart Relationship in Cambodia regarding condom uses;
“It is believed that women who have the condoms along are not good at all. This
is what Khmer tradition says. Even husbands and wives, once condom packet is seen
with any of them, they usually get insulted or mocked”, a female student.
Source: PSI/Cambodia, 2002
“If I use condoms, she will not believe in me and will no longer allow me to have
sex with her”, a male soldier.
Source: PSI/Cambodia, 2002
Besides, those women who lost virginity before marriage are considered “fallen
women” but men are treated normal when going out for sexual intercourses with sex
workers or just involve in pre‐marital sex (GAD‐C, 2003). The dichotomy of what appropriate
for both men and women in society will have impacts on the transmission of HIV/AIDs and
for programs that are working on HIV/AIDs issues to reconsider again their intervention
which address equally in term of responding to the issue as well as preventing.
Unlike, HIV/AIDs transmitted as mentioned among the group above, men who have
sex with men (MSM) is another group which is very vulnerable to HIV ‘due to both their
large number of sexual partners and the high biological receptivity of the rectal mucosa to
HIV’ (Morineau, Ngak and Sophat, 2004). What has been missing in considering and
acknowledging this group as another risky group of HIV/AIDs transmission was the
concentration of HIV/AIDs intervention during the first decade of epidemic targeted sex
workers that failed to acknowledge that MSM is another highly at risk; plus men has sex
with men never been considered as usual and this has blinded public planners from
acknowledging the MSM group as a target for interventions (ibid)
Research also has shown that new cases of HIV/AIDs spreading is also very high
among women in long‐term relationships and among marriage from husband to wife (close
to 50%) and one third of new HIV/AIDs infections is transmitted from mother to child and
quite number of women currently living with HIV continues to increase (GAD‐C, 2005; World
Bank, 2006; USAID, 2006, Khmer HIV/AIDS NGO Alliance, 2009)
This is extremely the case that HIV/AIDs epidemic is not only at the brothel or within
sex workers but because of how gender perspectives and social norms about HIV/AIDs,
prostitutions and sexuality disregards condoms, men have sex with men and only sex
workers are having the virus which makes more vulnerable for potential infections.
A Cambodian saying ‘men are gold and women are white cloth’ ( Soprach, 2008;
CIDA, 2000) and girl is just turning around the cooking stove (Ogawa, 2004) have really
limited women’s mobility to access to public health, service deliveries and other information
needed and even for her daily lives as well as health aspects. So better need not to study,
just follow what has been told. However, my worry is that why women are so socially and
culturally confined into such roles of turning around the kitchen serving the family forever
or why a man is like gold in any circumstances he has done, he is still be a gold, while a
woman is labeled as white cloth once dropped into the mud, she will never be cleansed. In
addition, the notion of masculinity that those men posses with dominance, privileges and
power in the society mean great challenging for sex workers, wives and partners to
negotiate about condom use. Thus, to be effective HIV/AIDs interventions will need to
address and reshape the power relations, notion of masculinity and social norms of Khmer
sexual behavior. Strategies to reach to couples both in marriage relationship and non‐
marriage relationships as well as people who have sexual activities/interest from the same
sex need to be more developed and addressed in the HIV/AIDs intervention in a wider
context, not just viewing sex workers as root causes. But what is wrong with the focusing on
sex workers alone as gender issue? My attempt to clarify this is in the following paragraph.
It has been agreed that the most influential and determinants of health for men and
women are existed in social, economic and cultural circumstances and these circumstances
or actors will determine which men and women to access to health intervention, different
access and control over resources based on their perceived gender needs and cultural
expectation (Ostlin, George, and Sen, 2001). This has called for a wider analytical in health
intervention that health outcomes do not automatically derive from the provision of health
sectors alone, but how the provision of services connects with public policies, how society
and individual practices either to promote in health equity or reproduced inequity in health
(ibid). Therefore, any narrow focus on a particular health intervention sector (for example,
the SMARTGirl in Cambodia) alone without taking consideration and tackling the ‘socially
constructed gender roles and expectation that may exacerbate health inequalities’ (ibid,
emphasis mine). We recognize that gender is a socially constructed between man, woman,
its relationships and women sex workers in Cambodia are targeted to change their
behaviors to talk about safe sex with male clients and to empower to demand safe sex from
men. But if “women’s identities/positions are to be changed, then men’s must be changed
also” (White, 1994).
The SMARTGirl program is still in question whether it will be able to empower
women exclusively to demand safe sex from their clients if failing to incorporate the man
into the programs. Experiences in Indonesia prevention programs that help empower sex
workers in dealing with clients show that even sex workers are equipped with skills on how
to prevent their STDs, yet they cannot use their skills and have the strong negotiation power
to talk with the clients (Sciortino, 1998). This also can be an example that shows program
exclusively on women may not be working successfully in improving reproductive health
status (ibid).
From the profiles of HIV/AIDs infected persons as mention earlier (for eg. infected
from husband to wives and MSM) there must be another step which also work with those
MSM as they are also in a high risk of HIV/AIDs transmitted. First because these MSM are
hidden/invisible, not recognized by the society that there are such thing existed and second
because having sex with men is socially unrealistic/unacceptable and most Cambodian MSM
try to blend in with the general population. Therefore, it is not easy to identify for MSM or
for programs to see there is a need to work with these groups (Morineau, Ngak and Sophat,
2004) without acknowledging that there is social blockage. This inaccessible to MSM and its
hidden sexual interests have a contribution to HIV/AIDs infections as the study in 2000 in
Phnom Penh measured a 14% HIV prevalence in MSM in Phnom Penh, which was as high as
among indirect female sex workers for the same year (ibid).
From these above cases of how HIV/AIDs are not alone emanating from female
neither sex workers, nor they are the solution by exclusively targeting women for HIV/AIDs
interventions. And here I propose some further inter‐related gender responsive in HIV/AIDs
prevention programs which hope to bring a better strategy that address gender in HIV/AIDs.
First, the programs that target women alone should be revived or incorporated men
into the program. For example why SMART‐Girl in preventing HIV/AIDs but not SMART‐
clients, SMART‐Guys protecting themselves and protecting others? Or why contraceptives
are alone for women, but not for man? Moi‐Lee (1996) has strongly emphasizes that
recognition these ‘men’s participation in HIV/AIDs prevention would be effective and
sustainable in the long term run’ (Moi‐Lee, 1996 quoted in Sciortino, 1998. p. 37).
Second, as I have outlined earlier that different unequal perception about sexuality
has been entrenched in the Khmer society that men are supposed and expected to be more
active in sexuality and therefore having sex before marriage or having sex with sex
workers/partners other than their own wife is alright. While women are constructed to be
shy, soft, passive and talking about sexuality is seemed as inappropriate. But they are both
vulnerable to HIV/AIDs, perhaps more or less. For example men are more vulnerable
because they are socialized or raised to engage in aggressive behaviour as considered
masculinity, while women are vulnerable to HIA/AIDs because they have been taught by the
society, culture, traditions and parents to be ignorance, obedience. In addition, lacking
women’s position in the decision‐making with regard to reproductive intervention also
prohibit or facilitate their access and control over resources such as information about
healthy reproductive health (Medel‐Anonuevo, 2002). However, as we understand that
gender is a socially constructed (Connell, 2002) by the society which traditions and culture
mediate a major role in defining the gender roles of man and woman. In contrast, even
cultures/traditions are supposed to be kept and preserved but all these cultures, traditions,
norms are not static, not immune to change, it evolves from times to times and is
continually being renewed and reshaped (CIDA, 2000, Medel‐Anonuevo, 2002). Yet, I used
to be challenged when I was working in Phnom Penh on a Healthy Love and Healthy Sex
program among Cambodian youths. Many of those who attacked me were saying ‘you are
promoting healthy love and healthy sex; this in fact will motivate more people to have sex’.
My response from healthy sex and love point of view was ‘we don’t prohibit people from
having sex, but we urge, encourage and emphasize that having sex must be voluntarily, no
pressure, no violence, no under‐aged, but protected and safe from STIs, HIV/AIDs and
unwanted pregnancy and if you want to know how this healthy love and healthy sex can be
appreciated, then we invite you to join our program’. And now I think the key elements
here are that gender analysis would allow programmers to identify what are the negative
and positive aspects of these cultures and work to transform and challenge such gender
positions.
Third, I would like again to emphasis the MSM which one of the major growth in
HIV/AIDs transmission. As societal norms do not tolerate or accept homosexuality because
we are supposed to be attracted to opposite sex, but this has been confirmed by research
mentioned earlier that these groups (MSM) are existed and in a high risk. Without
acknowledging and accepting that these are part of the solutions in reaching these MSM,
we still continue to isolate, ignore and even marginalize the MSM. And fourth, there were
numbers as many as 6,500 drug users estimated by Cambodian Ministry of Interior in 2006
that these people are high at risk of HIV/AIDs as they are also injecting drug. These drug
users are looked down and their reasons for using drug are ‘curiosity, peer pressure, family
problems, domestic violence, boredom, unemployment, wanting to forget problems, trying
to stay awake in order to do more work, prolonging a sexual experience and loneliness’
(Khmer HIV/AIDS NGO Alliance, 2007). Now these findings above are complex issues which
can not be resolved by HIV/AIDs intervention focusing on sex workers. Programs therefore
must be more integrated by no marginalizing or ignoring the big amount of drug users, they
are not criminals, but this is not how society perceives drug users. If programs work in
HIV/AIDs reduction/intervention but continue to not to incorporate these drug users, they
will be isolated, number of drug users will be increased and risk of HIV/AIDs transmission
remain non‐decline but increasing. In addition, what necessary is that program planning and
project activity must really pay attention not just only the different health and prevention
needs between men and women but also among women and among men. It other words,
no development or intervention programs can operate its problems focusing on women
alone, rather men and women and its between them. (Ostergaard, 1992).
3‐In conclusion
From the various modes of the transmission of HIV/AIDs as I believe there are more,
however what I have drawn out above are only few that programs seriously incorporate into
their HIV/AIDs interventions. The project of SMARTGirl to help empower women to demand
safer sex from the clients in order to prevent HIV/AIDs epidemic, but experiences show that
this approach is not working well without having men understanding and awareness of the
issues that can be really harmful, not just to the women as sex workers, but the women as
wives and partners. In addition, dealing with gender and health includes HIV/AIDs as a
complex as HIV/AIDs is itself social embedded with gender and therefore the way the
programs response to this epidemic have been critical about gender issues from both non‐
governmental organization and government policy makers. It must also work in hand to
identify what are factors underlying such as cultures, economic, political and respond to it in
a wider context, not just focusing on one particular target group. Failing to understand
these issues and prepare to deal with each of them, we are actually putting more tasks on
the long lists of women and let the men out of the hook. We can no longer afford to see
that every action that needs intervention have to put women first exclusively while the root
causes are the men, but if health issue especially HIV/AIDs is not alone women’s faults or
burden but that both men and women within the transformative society will have to work
together and protect each others. And that is the programs should be about.
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