F# Quick Guide

F#QUICKGUIDE
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/fsharp/fsharp_quick_guide.htm
Copyrighttutorialspoint.com
F#OVERVIEW
F#isafunctionalprogramminglanguage.TounderstandF#constructs,youneedtoreadacoupleof
linesabouttheprogrammingparadigmnamedFunctionalProgramming.
Functionalprogrammingtreatscomputerprogramsasmathematicalfunctions.Infunctional
programming,thefocuswouldbeonconstantsandfunctions,insteadofvariablesandstates.Because
functionsandconstantsarethingsthatdontchange.
Infunctionalprogramming,youwillwritemodularprograms,i.e.,theprogramswouldconsistof
functionsthatwilltakeotherfunctionsasinput.
Programswritteninfunctionalprogramminglanguagetendtobeconcise.
AboutF#
FollowingarethebasicinformationaboutF#
Itwasdevelopedin2005atMicrosoftResearch.
ItisapartofMicrosoftsfamilyof.Netlanguage.
Itisafunctionalprogramminglanguage.
ItisbasedonthefunctionalprogramminglanguageOCaml.
FeaturesofF#
Itis.NetimplementationofOCaml.
Itcompiles.NetCLICommonLanguageInterfacebytecodeorMSILMicrosoftIntermediateLanguage
thatrunsonCLRCommonLanguageRuntime.
Itprovidestypeinference.
Itprovidesrichpatternmatchingconstructs.
Ithasinteractivescriptinganddebuggingcapabilities.
Itallowswritinghigherorderfunctions.
Itprovideswelldevelopedobjectmodel.
UseofF#
F#isnormallyusedinthefollowingareas
Makingscientificmodel
Mathematicalproblemsolving
Artificialintelligenceresearchwork
Financialmodelling
Graphicdesign
CPUdesign
Compilerprogramming
Telecommunications
ItisalsousedinCRUDapps,webpages,GUIgamesandothergeneralpurposeprograms.
F#ENVIRONMENTSETUP
ThetoolsrequiredforF#programmingarediscussedinthischapter.
IntegratedDevelopmentEnvironmentIDEforF#
MicrosoftprovidesVisualStudio2013forF#programming.
ThefreeVisualStudio2013CommunityEditionisavailablefromMicrosoftsofficialwebsite.Visual
Studio2013CommunityandabovecomeswiththeVisualF#Tools.TheVisualF#Toolsincludethe
commandlinecompilerfsc. exeandF#Interactivefsi. exe.
Usingthesetools,youcanwriteallkindsofF#programsfromsimplecommandlineapplicationsto
morecomplexapplications.YoucanalsowriteF#sourcecodefilesusingabasictexteditor,like
Notepad,andcompilethecodeintoassembliesusingthecommandlinecompiler.
YoucandownloaditfromMicrosoftVisualStudio.Itgetsautomaticallyinstalledinyourmachine.
WritingF#ProgramsOnLinks
PleasevisittheF#officialwebsiteforthelatestinstructionsongettingthetoolsasaDebianpackageor
compilingthemdirectlyfromthesourcehttp://fsharp.org/use/linux/.
TryitOptionOnline
WehavesetuptheF#Programmingenvironmentonline.Youcaneasilycompileand
executealltheavailableexamplesonlinealongwithdoingyourtheorywork.Itgives
youconfidenceinwhatyouarereadingandtochecktheresultwithdifferentoptions.
Feelfreetomodifyanyexampleandexecuteitonline.
TrythefollowingexampleusingtheTryitoptionorusetheurl
http://www.compileonline.com/.
(*Thisisacomment*)
(*SampleHelloWorldprogramusingF#*)
printfn"HelloWorld!"
Formostoftheexamplesgiveninthistutorial,youwillfindaTryitoptioninour
websitecodesectionsatthetoprightcornerthatwilltakeyoutotheonlinecompiler.So
justmakeuseofitandenjoyyourlearning.
F#PROGRAMSTRUCTURE
F#isaFunctionalProgramminglanguage.
InF#,functionsworklikedatatypes.Youcandeclareanduseafunctioninthesamewaylikeanyother
variable.
Ingeneral,anF#applicationdoesnothaveanyspecificentrypoint.Thecompilerexecutesalltoplevel
statementsinthefilefromtoptobottom.
However,tofollowproceduralprogrammingstyle,manyapplicationskeepasingletoplevelstatement
thatcallsthemainloop.
ThefollowingcodeshowsasimpleF#program
openSystem
(*Thisisamultilinecomment*)
//Thisisasinglelinecomment
letsignnum=
ifnum>0then"positive"
elifnum<0then"negative"
else"zero"
letmain()=
Console.WriteLine("sign5:{0}",(sign5))
main()
Whenyoucompileandexecutetheprogram,ityieldsthefollowingoutput
sign5:positive
Pleasenotethat
AnF#codefilemightbeginwithanumberofopenstatementsthatisusedtoimportnamespaces.
Thebodyofthefilesincludesotherfunctionsthatimplementthebusinesslogicoftheapplication.
Themainloopcontainsthetopexecutablestatements.
F#BASICSYNTAX
YouhaveseenthebasicstructureofanF#program,soitwillbeeasytounderstandotherbasicbuilding
blocksoftheF#programminglanguage.
TokensinF#
AnF#programconsistsofvarioustokens.Atokencouldbeakeyword,anidentifier,aconstant,astring
literal,orasymbol.WecancategorizeF#tokensintotwotypes
Keywords
SymbolandOperators
F#Keywords
Thefollowingtableshowsthekeywordsandbriefdescriptionsofthekeywords.Wewilldiscusstheuse
ofthesekeywordsinsubsequentchapters.
Keyword
Description
abstract
Indicatesamethodthateitherhasnoimplementationinthetypeinwhichitis
declaredorthatisvirtualandhasadefaultimplementation.
and
Usedinmutuallyrecursivebindings,inpropertydeclarations,andwithmultiple
constraintsongenericparameters.
as
Usedtogivethecurrentclassobjectanobjectname.Alsousedtogiveanametoa
wholepatternwithinapatternmatch.
assert
Usedtoverifycodeduringdebugging.
base
Usedasthenameofthebaseclassobject.
begin
Inverbosesyntax,indicatesthestartofacodeblock.
class
Inverbosesyntax,indicatesthestartofaclassdefinition.
default
Indicatesanimplementationofanabstractmethodusedtogetherwithanabstract
methoddeclarationtocreateavirtualmethod.
delegate
Usedtodeclareadelegate.
do
Usedinloopingconstructsortoexecuteimperativecode.
done
Inverbosesyntax,indicatestheendofablockofcodeinaloopingexpression.
downcast
Usedtoconverttoatypethatislowerintheinheritancechain.
downto
Inaforexpression,usedwhencountinginreverse.
elif
Usedinconditionalbranching.Ashortformofelseif.
else
Usedinconditionalbranching.
end
Intypedefinitionsandtypeextensions,indicatestheendofasectionofmember
definitions.
Inverbosesyntax,usedtospecifytheendofacodeblockthatstartswiththebegin
keyword.
exception
Usedtodeclareanexceptiontype.
extern
Indicatesthatadeclaredprogramelementisdefinedinanotherbinaryorassembly.
false
UsedasaBooleanliteral.
finally
Usedtogetherwithtrytointroduceablockofcodethatexecutesregardlessof
whetheranexceptionoccurs.
for
Usedinloopingconstructs.
fun
Usedinlambdaexpressions,alsoknownasanonymousfunctions.
function
Usedasashorteralternativetothefunkeywordandamatchexpressioninalambda
expressionthathaspatternmatchingonasingleargument.
global
Usedtoreferencethetoplevel.NETnamespace.
if
Usedinconditionalbranchingconstructs.
in
Usedforsequenceexpressionsand,inverbosesyntax,toseparateexpressionsfrom
bindings.
inherit
Usedtospecifyabaseclassorbaseinterface.
inline
Usedtoindicateafunctionthatshouldbeintegrateddirectlyintothecaller'scode.
interface
Usedtodeclareandimplementinterfaces.
internal
Usedtospecifythatamemberisvisibleinsideanassemblybutnotoutsideit.
lazy
Usedtospecifyacomputationthatistobeperformedonlywhenaresultisneeded.
let
Usedtoassociate,orbind,anametoavalueorfunction.
let!
Usedinasynchronousworkflowstobindanametotheresultofanasynchronous
computation,or,inothercomputationexpressions,usedtobindanametoaresult,
whichisofthecomputationtype.
match
Usedtobranchbycomparingavaluetoapattern.
member
Usedtodeclareapropertyormethodinanobjecttype.
module
Usedtoassociateanamewithagroupofrelatedtypes,values,andfunctions,to
logicallyseparateitfromothercode.
mutable
Usedtodeclareavariable,thatis,avaluethatcanbechanged.
namespace
Usedtoassociateanamewithagroupofrelatedtypesandmodules,tologically
separateitfromothercode.
new
Usedtodeclare,define,orinvokeaconstructorthatcreatesorthatcancreatean
object.
Alsousedingenericparameterconstraintstoindicatethatatypemusthaveacertain
constructor.
not
null
Notactuallyakeyword.However,notstructincombinationisusedasageneric
parameterconstraint.
Indicatestheabsenceofanobject.
Alsousedingenericparameterconstraints.
of
Usedindiscriminatedunionstoindicatethetypeofcategoriesofvalues,andin
delegateandexceptiondeclarations.
open
Usedtomakethecontentsofanamespaceormoduleavailablewithoutqualification.
or
UsedwithBooleanconditionsasaBooleanoroperator.Equivalentto||.
Alsousedinmemberconstraints.
override
Usedtoimplementaversionofanabstractorvirtualmethodthatdiffersfromthe
baseversion.
private
Restrictsaccesstoamembertocodeinthesametypeormodule.
public
Allowsaccesstoamemberfromoutsidethetype.
rec
Usedtoindicatethatafunctionisrecursive.
return
Usedtoindicateavaluetoprovideastheresultofacomputationexpression.
return!
Usedtoindicateacomputationexpressionthat,whenevaluated,providestheresult
ofthecontainingcomputationexpression.
select
Usedinqueryexpressionstospecifywhatfieldsorcolumnstoextract.Notethatthis
isacontextualkeyword,whichmeansthatitisnotactuallyareservedwordanditonly
actslikeakeywordinappropriatecontext.
static
Usedtoindicateamethodorpropertythatcanbecalledwithoutaninstanceofatype,
oravaluememberthatissharedamongallinstancesofatype.
struct
Usedtodeclareastructuretype.
Alsousedingenericparameterconstraints.
UsedforOCamlcompatibilityinmoduledefinitions.
then
Usedinconditionalexpressions.
Alsousedtoperformsideeffectsafterobjectconstruction.
to
Usedinforloopstoindicatearange.
true
UsedasaBooleanliteral.
try
Usedtointroduceablockofcodethatmightgenerateanexception.Usedtogether
withwithorfinally.
type
Usedtodeclareaclass,record,structure,discriminatedunion,enumerationtype,
unitofmeasure,ortypeabbreviation.
upcast
Usedtoconverttoatypethatishigherintheinheritancechain.
use
UsedinsteadofletforvaluesthatrequireDisposetobecalledtofreeresources.
use!
Usedinsteadoflet!inasynchronousworkflowsandothercomputationexpressions
forvaluesthatrequireDisposetobecalledtofreeresources.
val
Usedinasignaturetoindicateavalue,orinatypetodeclareamember,inlimited
situations.
void
Indicatesthe.NETvoidtype.Usedwheninteroperatingwithother.NETlanguages.
when
UsedforBooleanconditionswhenguardsonpatternmatchesandtointroducea
constraintclauseforagenerictypeparameter.
while
Introducesaloopingconstruct.
with
Usedtogetherwiththematchkeywordinpatternmatchingexpressions.Alsousedin
objectexpressions,recordcopyingexpressions,andtypeextensionstointroduce
memberdefinitions,andtointroduceexceptionhandlers.
yield
Usedinasequenceexpressiontoproduceavalueforasequence.
yield!
Usedinacomputationexpressiontoappendtheresultofagivencomputation
expressiontoacollectionofresultsforthecontainingcomputationexpression.
SomereservedkeywordscamefromtheOCamllanguage
asr
land
lor
lsl
lsr
lxor
mod
sig
SomeotherreservedkeywordsarekeptforfutureexpansionofF#.
atomic
break
checked
component
const
constraint
constructor
continue
eager
event
external
fixed
functor
include
method
mixin
object
parallel
process
protected
pure
sealed
tailcall
trait
virtual
volatile
CommentsinF#
F#providestwotypesofcomments
Onelinecommentstartswith//symbol.
Multilinecommentstartswith andendswith .
ABasicProgramandApplicationEntryPointinF#
Generally,youdonthaveanyexplicitentrypointforF#programs.WhenyoucompileanF#application,
thelastfileprovidedtothecompilerbecomestheentrypointandalltoplevelstatementsinthatfileare
executedfromtoptobottom.
Awellwrittenprogramshouldhaveasingletoplevelstatementthatwouldcallthemainloopofthe
program.
AveryminimalisticF#programthatwoulddisplayHelloWorldonthescreen
(*Thisisacomment*)
(*SampleHelloWorldprogramusingF#*)
printfn"HelloWorld!"
HelloWorld!
F#DATATYPES
ThedatatypesinF#canbeclassifiedasfollows
Integraltypes
Floatingpointtypes
Texttypes
Othertypes
IntegralDataType
ThefollowingtableprovidestheintegraldatatypesofF#.Thesearebasicallyintegerdatatypes.
F#
Type
Size
Range
sbyte
1byte
128to127
Example
Remarks
42y
8bitsigned
integer
11y
byte
1byte
0to255
42uy
200uy
int16
2bytes
32768to32767
42s
8bit
unsigned
integer
16bitsigned
integer
11s
uint16
2bytes
0to65,535
42us
200us
int/int32
4bytes
2,147,483,648to2,147,483,647
42
11
uint32
4bytes
0to4,294,967,295
42u
200u
int64
8bytes
9,223,372,036,854,775,808to
9,223,372,036,854,775,807
42L
16bit
unsigned
integer
32bit
signed
integer
32bit
unsigned
integer
64bit
signed
uint64
8bytes
0to18,446,744,073,709,551,615
11L
integer
42UL
64bit
unsigned
integer
200UL
bigint
Atleast4bytes
anyinteger
42I
1499999
9999999
9999999
9999999
9999I
Example
(*singlebyteinteger*)
letx=268.97f
lety=312.58f
letz=x+y
printfn"x:%f"x
printfn"y:%f"y
printfn"z:%f"z
(*unsigned8bitnaturalnumber*)
letp=2uy
letq=4uy
letr=p+q
printfn"p:%i"p
printfn"q:%i"q
printfn"r:%i"r
(*signed16bitinteger*)
leta=12s
letb=24s
letc=a+b
printfn"a:%i"a
printfn"b:%i"b
printfn"c:%i"c
arbitrary
precision
integer
(*signed32bitinteger*)
letd=212l
lete=504l
letf=d+e
printfn"d:%i"d
printfn"e:%i"e
printfn"f:%i"f
x:1
y:2
z:3
p:2
q:4
r:6
a:12
b:24
c:36
d:212
e:504
f:716
FloatingPointDataTypes
ThefollowingtableprovidesthefloatingpointdatatypesofF#.
F#Type
Size
Range
float32
4bytes
1.5e45to3.4e38
Example
Remarks
42.0F
32bitsignedfloating
pointnumber
7significantdigits
11.0F
float
8bytes
5.0e324to1.7e308
42.0
11.0
decimal
16bytes
1.0e28to7.9e28
42.0M
11.0M
BigRational
Atleast4bytes
Anyrationalnumber.
42N
64bitsignedfloating
pointnumber
15 16significantdigits
128bitsignedfloating
pointnumber
28 29significantdigits
Arbitraryprecision
rationalnumber.Using
thistyperequiresa
11N
referenceto
FSharp.PowerPack.dll.
Example
(*32bitsignedfloatingpointnumber*)
(*7significantdigits*)
letd=212.098f
lete=504.768f
letf=d+e
printfn"d:%f"d
printfn"e:%f"e
printfn"f:%f"f
(*64bitsignedfloatingpointnumber*)
(*1516significantdigits*)
letx=21290.098
lety=50446.768
letz=x+y
printfn"x:%g"x
printfn"y:%g"y
printfn"z:%g"z
d:212.098000
e:504.768000
f:716.866000
x:21290.1
y:50446.8
z:71736.9
TextDataTypes
ThefollowingtableprovidesthetextdatatypesofF#.
F#Type
Size
Range
char
2bytes
U+0000toU+ffff
Example
Remarks
'x'
Singleunicode
characters
'\t'
string
20+2 string slength

bytes
0toabout2billion
characters
"Hello"
Unicodetext
"World"
Example
letchoice='y'
letname="ZaraAli"
letorg="TutorialsPoint"
printfn"Choice:%c"choice
printfn"Name:%s"name
printfn"Organisation:%s"org
Choice:y
Name:ZaraAli
Organisation:TutorialsPoint
OtherDataTypes
ThefollowingtableprovidessomeotherdatatypesofF#.
F#Type
Size
Range
Example
Remarks
bool
1byte
Onlytwopossiblevalues,trueor
false
true
Storesboolean
values
false
Example
lettrueVal=true
letfalseVal=false
printfn"TrueValue:%b"(trueVal)
printfn"FalseValue:%b"(falseVal)
TrueValue:true
FalseValue:false
F#VARIABLES
Avariableisanamegiventoastorageareathatourprogramscanmanipulate.Eachvariablehasa
specifictype,whichdeterminesthesizeandlayoutofthevariable'smemorytherangeofvaluesthatcan
bestoredwithinthatmemoryandthesetofoperationsthatcanbeappliedtothevariable.
VariableDeclarationinF#
Theletkeywordisusedforvariabledeclaration
Forexample,
letx=10
Itdeclaresavariablexandassignsthevalue10toit.
Youcanalsoassignanexpressiontoavariable
letx=10
lety=20
letz=x+y
Thefollowingexampleillustratestheconcept
Example
letx=10
lety=20
letz=x+y
printfn"x:%i"x
printfn"y:%i"y
printfn"z:%i"z
x:10
y:20
z:30
VariablesinF#areimmutable,whichmeansonceavariableisboundtoavalue,itcantbechanged.
Theyareactuallycompiledasstaticreadonlyproperties.
Thefollowingexampledemonstratesthis.
Example
letx=10
lety=20
letz=x+y
printfn"x:%i"x
printfn"y:%i"y
printfn"z:%i"z
letx=15
lety=20
letz=x+y
printfn"x:%i"x
printfn"y:%i"y
printfn"z:%i"z
Whenyoucompileandexecutetheprogram,itshowsthefollowingerrormessage
Duplicatedefinitionofvalue'x'
Duplicatedefinitionofvalue'Y'
Duplicatedefinitionofvalue'Z'
VariableDefinitionWithTypeDeclaration
Avariabledefinitiontellsthecompilerwhereandhowmuchstorageforthevariableshouldbecreated.A
variabledefinitionmayspecifyadatatypeandcontainsalistofoneormorevariablesofthattypeas
showninthefollowingexample.
Example
letx:int32=10
lety:int32=20
letz:int32=x+y
printfn"x:%d"x
printfn"y:%d"y
printfn"z:%d"z
letp:float=15.99
letq:float=20.78
letr:float=p+q
printfn"p:%g"p
printfn"q:%g"q
printfn"r:%g"r
x:10
y:20
z:30
p:15.99
q:20.78
r:36.77
MutableVariables
Attimesyouneedtochangethevaluesstoredinavariable.Tospecifythattherecouldbeachangeinthe
valueofadeclaredandassignedvariable,inlaterpartofaprogram,F#providesthemutablekeyword.
Youcandeclareandassignmutablevariablesusingthiskeyword,whosevaluesyouwillchange.
Themutablekeywordallowsyoutodeclareandassignvaluesinamutablevariable.
Youcanassignsomeinitialvaluetoamutablevariableusingtheletkeyword.However,toassignnew
subsequentvaluetoit,youneedtousetheoperator.
Forexample,
letmutablex=10
x15
Thefollowingexamplewillcleartheconcept
Example
letmutablex=10
lety=20
letmutablez=x+y
printfn"OriginalValues:"
printfn"x:%i"x
printfn"y:%i"y
printfn"z:%i"z
printfn"Letuschangethevalueofx"
printfn"Valueofzwillchangetoo."
x<15
z<x+y
printfn"NewValues:"
printfn"x:%i"x
printfn"y:%i"y
printfn"z:%i"z
OriginalValues:
x:10
y:20
z:30
Letuschangethevalueofx
Valueofzwillchangetoo.
NewValues:
x:15
y:20
z:35
F#OPERATORS
Anoperatorisasymbolthattellsthecompilertoperformspecificmathematicalorlogical
manipulations.F#isrichinbuiltinoperatorsandprovidesthefollowingtypesofoperators
ArithmeticOperators
ComparisonOperators
BooleanOperators
BitwiseOperators
ArithmeticOperators
ThefollowingtableshowsallthearithmeticoperatorssupportedbyF#language.AssumevariableA
holds10andvariableBholds20then
Operator
Description
Example
Addstwooperands
A+Bwillgive30
Subtractssecondoperandfromthefirst
ABwillgive10
Multipliesbothoperands
A*Bwillgive200
Dividesnumeratorbydenumerator
B/Awillgive2
ModulusOperatorandremainderofafteranintegerdivision
B%Awillgive0
**
ExponentiationOperator,raisesanoperandtothepowerof
another
B**Awillgive2010
Example
leta:int32=21
letb:int32=10
letmutablec=a+b
printfn"Line1Valueofcis%d"c
c<ab;
c<a*b;
c<a/b;
c<a%b;
Line1Valueofcis31
Line2Valueofcis11
Line3Valueofcis210
Line4Valueofcis2
Line5Valueofcis1
ComparisonOperators
ThefollowingtableshowsallthecomparisonoperatorssupportedbyF#language.Thesebinary
comparisonoperatorsareavailableforintegralandfloatingpointtypes.Theseoperatorsreturnvalues
oftypebool.
AssumevariableAholds10andvariableBholds20,then
Operator
Description
Example
Checksifthevaluesoftwooperandsareequalornot,ifyes
thenconditionbecomestrue.
A == Bisnottrue.
<>
Checksifthevaluesoftwooperandsareequalornot,ifvalues
arenotequalthenconditionbecomestrue.
A <> Bistrue.
>
Checksifthevalueofleftoperandisgreaterthanthevalueof
rightoperand,ifyesthenconditionbecomestrue.
A > Bisnottrue.
<
Checksifthevalueofleftoperandislessthanthevalueofright
operand,ifyesthenconditionbecomestrue.
A < Bistrue.
>=
Checksifthevalueofleftoperandisgreaterthanorequalto
thevalueofrightoperand,ifyesthenconditionbecomestrue.
A >= Bisnottrue.
<=
Checksifthevalueofleftoperandislessthanorequaltothe
valueofrightoperand,ifyesthenconditionbecomestrue.
A <= Bistrue.
Example
letmutablea:int32=21
letmutableb:int32=10
if(a=b)then
printfn"Line1aisequaltob"
else
printfn"Line1aisnotequaltob"
if(a<b)then
printfn"Line2aislessthanb"
else
printfn"Line2aisnotlessthanb"
if(a>b)then
printfn"Line3aisgreaterthanb"
else
printfn"Line3aisnotgreaterthanb"
(*Letschangevalueofaandb*)
a<5
b<20
if(a<=b)then
printfn"Line4aiseitherlessthanorequaltob"
else
printfn"Line4aisaisgreaterthanb"
Line1aisnotequaltob
Line2aisnotlessthanb
Line3aisgreaterthanb
Line4aiseitherlessthanorequaltob
BooleanOperators
ThefollowingtableshowsalltheBooleanoperatorssupportedbyF#language.AssumevariableAholds
trueandvariableBholdsfalse,then
Operator
Description
&&
CalledBooleanANDoperator.Ifboththeoperandsarenon
zero,thenconditionbecomestrue.
||
CalledBooleanOROperator.Ifanyofthetwooperandsis
nonzero,thenconditionbecomestrue.
A | | Bistrue.
not
CalledBooleanNOTOperator.Usetoreversesthelogical
stateofitsoperand.IfaconditionistruethenLogicalNOT
operatorwillmakefalse.
not A&&B istrue.
Example
letmutablea:bool=true;
letmutableb:bool=true;
if(a&&b)then
printfn"Line1Conditionistrue"
else
printfn"Line1Conditionisnottrue"
if(a||b)then
else
(*letschangethevalueofa*)
a<false
if(a&&b)then
else
Example
A&&B isfalse.
if(a||b)then
else
Line1Conditionistrue
Line3Conditionisnottrue
BitwiseOperators
Bitwiseoperatorsworkonbitsandperformbitbybitoperation.Thetruthtablesfor&&&bitwiseAND,
|||bitwiseOR,and^^^bitwiseexclusiveORareasfollows
p&&&q
p|||q
p^^^q
AssumeifA=60andB=13nowinbinaryformattheywillbeasfollows
A=00111100
B=00001101
A&&&B=00001100
A|||B=00111101
A^^^B=00110001
~~~A=11000011
TheBitwiseoperatorssupportedbyF#languagearelistedinthefollowingtable.AssumevariableA
holds60andvariableBholds13,then
Operator
Description
&&&
BinaryANDOperatorcopiesabittotheresultifitexists
inbothoperands.
Example
A&&&B willgive12,
whichis00001100
|||
BinaryOROperatorcopiesabitifitexistsineither
operand.
A | | | Bwillgive61,whichis
00111101
^^^
BinaryXOROperatorcopiesthebitifitissetinone
operandbutnotboth.
A^^^B willgive49,which
is00110001
~~~
BinaryOnesComplementOperatorisunaryandhasthe
effectof'flipping'bits.
Awillgive61,whichis
11000011in2's
complementform.
<<<
BinaryLeftShiftOperator.Theleftoperandsvalueis
movedleftbythenumberofbitsspecifiedbytheright
operand.
A<<<2willgive240which
is11110000
>>>
BinaryRightShiftOperator.Theleftoperandsvalueis
movedrightbythenumberofbitsspecifiedbytheright
operand.
A>>>2willgive15whichis
00001111
Example
leta:int32=60//60=00111100
letb:int32=13//13=00001101
letmutablec:int32=0
c<a&&&b//12=00001100
c<a|||b//61=00111101
c<a^^^b//49=00110001
c=~~~a//61=11000011
c<a<<<2//240=11110000
c<a>>>2//15=00001111
Line1Valueofcis12
Line2Valueofcis61
Line3Valueofcis49
Line4Valueofcis49
Line5Valueofcis240
Line6Valueofcis15
OperatorsPrecedence
ThefollowingtableshowstheorderofprecedenceofoperatorsandotherexpressionkeywordsintheF#
language,fromlowestprecedencetothehighestprecedence.
Operator
Associativity
as
Right
when
Right
|pipe
Left
Right
let
Nonassociative
function,fun,match,try
Nonassociative
if
Nonassociative
Right
:=
Right
Nonassociative
or,||
Left
&,&&
Left
<op,>op,=,|op,&op
Left
&&&,|||,^^^,~~~,<<<,>>>
Left
ôp
Right
::
Right
:?>,:?
Nonassociative
op,+op,binary
Left
*op,/op,%op
Left
**op
Right
fxfunctionapplication
Left
|patternmatch
Right
prefixoperators+ op, op,
Left
Left
fx
Left
f<types>
Left
Example
leta:int32=20
letb:int32=10
letc:int32=15
letd:int32=5
letmutablee:int32=0
e<(a+b)*c/d//(30*15)/5
printfn"Valueof(a+b)*c/dis:%d"e
e<((a+b)*c)/d//(30*15)/5
printfn"Valueof((a+b)*c)/dis:%d"e
e<(a+b)*(c/d)//(30)*(15/5)
printfn"Valueof(a+b)*(c/d)is:%d"e
e<a+(b*c)/d//20+(150/5)
printfn"Valueofa+(b*c)/dis:%d"e
Valueof(a+b)*c/dis:90
Valueof((a+b)*c)/dis:90
Valueof(a+b)*(c/d)is:90
Valueofa+(b*c)/dis:50
F#DECISIONMAKING
Decisionmakingstructuresrequirethattheprogrammerspecifyoneormoreconditionstobeevaluated
ortestedbytheprogram.Itshouldbealongwithastatementorstatementstobeexecutedifthe
conditionisdeterminedtobetrue,andoptionally,otherstatementstobeexecutediftheconditionis
determinedtobefalse.
Followingisthegeneralformofatypicaldecisionmakingstructurefoundinmostoftheprogramming
languages
F#programminglanguageprovidesthefollowingtypesofdecisionmakingstatements.
Statement
Description
if/thenstatement
Anif/thenstatementconsistsofaBooleanexpressionfollowed
byoneormorestatements.
if/then/elsestatement
Anif/thenstatementcanbefollowedbyanoptionalelse
statement,whichexecuteswhentheBooleanexpressionisfalse.
if/then/elif/elsestatement
Anif/then/elif/elsestatementallowsyoutohavemultipleelse
branches.
nestedifstatements
Youcanuseoneiforelseifstatementinsideanotheriforelseif
statements.
F#if/thenStatement
Anif/thenstatementconsistsofaBooleanexpressionfollowedbyoneormorestatements.
Syntax
Theif/thenconstructinF#hasthefollowingsyntax
(*simpleif*)
ifexprthen
expr
Flowdiagram
Example
leta:int32=10
(*checkthebooleanconditionusingifstatement*)
if(a<20)then
printfn"aislessthan20\n"
printfn"Valueofais:%d"a
aislessthan20
Valueofais:10
F#if/then/elseStatement
Anif/thenstatementcanbefollowedbyanoptionalelsestatement,whichexecuteswhentheBoolean
expressionisfalse.
Syntax
Thesyntaxofanif/then/elsestatementinF#programminglanguageis
ifexprthen
expr
else
expr
FlowDiagram
Example
leta:int32=100
if(a<20)then
printfn"aislessthan20\n"
else
printfn"aisnotlessthan20\n"
aisnotlessthan20
Valueofais:100
F#if/then/elif/elseStatement
Anif/then/elif/elseconstructhasmultipleelsebranches.
Syntax
Thesyntaxofanif/then/elif/elsestatementinF#programminglanguageis
ifexprthen
expr
elifexprthen
expr
elifexprthen
expr
...
else
expr
Example
leta:int32=100
if(a=10)then
printfn"Valueofais10\n"
elif(a=20)then
elif(a=30)then
else
printfn"Noneofthevaluesarematching\n"
Noneofthevaluesarematching
Valueofais:100
F#NestedifStatements
ItisalwayslegalinF#programmingtonestif/thenorif/then/elsestatements,whichmeansyoucanuse
oneiforelseifstatementinsideanotheriforelseifstatements.
Syntax
ifexprthen
expr
ifexprthen
expr
else
expr
else
expr
Example
leta:int32=100
letb:int32=200
if(a=100)then
(*ifconditionistruethencheckthefollowing*)
if(b=200)then
printfn"Valueofais100andbis200\n"
printfn"Exactvalueofais:%d"a
printfn"Exactvalueofbis:%d"b
Valueofais100andbis200
Exactvalueofais:100
Exactvalueofbis:200
F#LOOPS
Programminglanguagesprovidevariouscontrolstructuresthatallowformorecomplicatedexecution
paths.
Aloopstatementallowsustoexecuteastatementorgroupofstatementsmultipletimesandfollowingis
thegeneralformofaloopstatementinmostoftheprogramminglanguages
F#providesthefollowingtypesofloopstohandletheloopingrequirements.
LoopType
Description
fortoandfordowntoexpressions
Thefor...toexpressionisusedtoiterateinaloopover
arangeofvaluesofaloopvariable.Thefordownto
expressionreducesthevalueofloopvariable.
forinexpression
Thisformofforloopisusedtoiterateovercollections
ofitemsi.e.,loopsovercollectionsandsequences
Whiledoloop
Repeatsastatementorgroupofstatementswhilea
givenconditionistrue.Itteststheconditionbefore
executingtheloopbody.
nestedloops
Youcanuseoneormoreloopinsideanyotherforor
whileloop.
F#for...toandfor...downtoExpressions
Aforloopisarepetitioncontrolstructurethatallowsyoutoefficientlywritealoopthatneedsto
executeaspecificnumberoftimes.
Syntax
ThesyntaxofafortoloopinF#programminglanguageis
forvar=startexprtoendexprdo
...//loopbody
ThesyntaxofafordowntoloopinF#programminglanguageis
forvar=startexprdowntoendexprdo
...//loopbody
Example1
Thefollowingprogramprintsoutthenumbers120
letmain()=
fori=1to20do
printfn"i:%i"i
main()
i:1
i:2
i:3
i:4
i:5
i:6
i:7
i:8
i:9
i:10
i:11
i:12
i:13
i:14
i:15
i:16
i:17
i:18
i:19
i:20
Example2
Thefollowingprogramcountsinreverseandprintsoutthenumbers201
letmain()=
fori=20downto1do
printfn"i:%i"i
main()
i:20
i:19
i:18
i:17
i:16
i:15
i:14
i:13
i:12
i:11
i:10
i:9
i:8
i:7
i:6
i:5
i:4
i:3
i:2
i:1
F#for...inExpressions
Thisloopingconstructisusedtoiterateoverthematchesofapatterninanenumerablecollectionsuch
asarangeexpression,sequence,list,array,orotherconstructthatsupportsenumeration.
Syntax
forpatterninenumerableexpressiondo
bodyexpression
Example
Thefollowingprogramillustratestheconcept
//Loopingoveralist.
letlist1=[10;25;34;45;78]
foriinlist1do
printfn"%d"i
//Loopingoverasequence.
letseq1=seq{foriin1..10>(i,i*i)}
for(a,asqr)inseq1do
printfn"%dsquaredis%d"aasqr
10
25
34
45
78
1squaredis1
2squaredis4
3squaredis9
4squaredis16
5squaredis25
6squaredis36
7squaredis49
8squaredis64
9squaredis81
10squaredis100
F#WhiledoExpressions
Thewhile...doexpressionisusedtoperformiterativeexecutionwhileaspecifiedtestconditionistrue.
Syntax
whiletestexpressiondo
bodyexpression
Thetestexpressionisevaluatedfirstifitistrue,thebodyexpressionisexecutedandthetest
expressionisevaluatedagain.Thebodyexpressionmusthavetypeunit,i.e.,itshouldnotreturnany
value.Ifthetestexpressionisfalse,theiterationends.
Example
letmutablea=10
while(a<20)do
printfn"valueofa:%d"a
a<a+1
valueofa:10
valueofa:11
valueofa:12
valueofa:13
valueofa:14
valueofa:15
valueofa:16
valueofa:17
valueofa:18
valueofa:19
F#NestedLoops
F#programminglanguageallowstouseoneloopinsideanotherloop.
Syntax
Thesyntaxforanestedforloopstatementcouldbeasfollows
forvar1=startexpr1toendexpr1do
forvar2=startexpr2toendexpr2do
...//loopbody
Thesyntaxforanestedwhileloopstatementcouldbeasfollows
whiletestexpression1do
whiletestexpression2do
bodyexpression
Example
letmain()=
fori=1to5do
printf"\n"
forj=1to3do
printf"*"
main()
***
***
***
***
***
F#FUNCTIONS
InF#,functionsworklikedatatypes.Youcandeclareanduseafunctioninthesamewaylikeanyother
variable.
Sincefunctionscanbeusedlikeanyothervariables,youcan
Createafunction,withanameandassociatethatnamewithatype.
Assignitavalue.
Performsomecalculationonthatvalue.
Passitasaparametertoanotherfunctionorsubroutine.
Returnafunctionastheresultofanotherfunction.
DefiningaFunction
Functionsaredefinedbyusingtheletkeyword.Afunctiondefinitionhasthefollowingsyntax
let[inline]functionnameparameterlist[:returntype]
=functionbody
Where,
functionnameisanidentifierthatrepresentsthefunction.
parameterlistgivesthelistofparametersseparatedbyspaces.Youcanalsospecifyanexplicit
typeforeachparameterandifnotspecifiedcompilertendstodeduceitfromthefunctionbody
likevariables.
functionbodyconsistsofanexpression,oracompoundexpressionconsistingofanumberof
expressions.Thefinalexpressioninthefunctionbodyisthereturnvalue.
returntypeisacolonfollowedbyatypeandisoptional.Ifthereturntypeisnotspecified,then
thecompilerdeterminesitfromthefinalexpressioninthefunctionbody.
ParametersofaFunction
Youlistthenamesofparametersrightafterthefunctionname.Youcanspecifythetypeofaparameter.
Thetypeoftheparametershouldfollowthenameoftheparameterseparatedbyacolon.
Ifnoparametertypeisspecified,itisinferredbythecompiler.
Forexample
letdoubleIt(x:int)=2*x
CallingaFunction
Afunctioniscalledbyspecifyingthefunctionnamefollowedbyaspaceandthenanyarguments
separatedbyspaces.
Forexample
letvol=cylinderVolume3.05.0
Thefollowingprogramsillustratetheconcepts.
Example1
Thefollowingprogramcalculatesthevolumeofacylinderwhentheradiusandlengtharegivenas
parameters.
//thefunctioncalculatesthevolumeof
//acylinderwithradiusandlengthasparameters
letcylinderVolumeradiuslength:float=
//functionbody
letpi=3.14159
length*pi*radius*radius
letvol=cylinderVolume3.05.0
printfn"Volume:%g"vol
Volume:141.372
Example2
Thefollowingprogramreturnsthelargervalueoftwogivenparameters
//thefunctionreturnsthelargervaluebetweentwo
//arguments
letmaxnum1num2:int32=
//functionbody
if(num1>num2)then
num1
else
num2
letres=max3952
printfn"MaxValue:%d"res
MaxValue:52
Example3
letdoubleIt(x:int)=2*x
printfn"Double19:%d"(doubleIt(19))
Double19:38
RecursiveFunctions
Recursivefunctionsarefunctionsthatcallthemselves.
Youdefinearecursiveusingtheletreckeywordcombination.
Syntaxfordefiningarecursivefunctionis
//Recursivefunctiondefinition
letrecfunctionnameparameterlist=recursivefunctionbody
Forexample
letrecfibn=ifn<2then1elsefib(n1)+fib(n2)
Example1
ThefollowingprogramreturnsFibonacci1to10
letrecfibn=ifn<2then1elsefib(n1)+fib(n2)
fori=1to10do
printfn"Fibonacci%d:%d"i(fibi)
Fibonacci1:1
Fibonacci2:2
Fibonacci3:3
Fibonacci4:5
Fibonacci5:8
Fibonacci6:13
Fibonacci7:21
Fibonacci8:34
Fibonacci9:55
Fibonacci10:89
Example2
Thefollowingprogramreturnsfactorial8
openSystem
letrecfactx=
ifx<1then1
elsex*fact(x1)
Console.WriteLine(fact8)
40320
ArrowNotationsinF#
F#reportsaboutdatatypeinfunctionsandvalues,usingachainedarrownotation.Letustakean
exampleofafunctionthattakesoneintinput,andreturnsastring.Inarrownotation,itiswrittenas
int>string
Datatypesarereadfromlefttoright.
Letustakeanotherhypotheticalfunctionthattakestwointdatainputsandreturnsastring.
letmydivfunctionxy=(x/y).ToString();;
F#reportsthedatatypeusingchainedarrownotationas
valmydivfunction:x:int>y:int>string
Thereturntypeisrepresentedbytherightmostdatatypeinchainedarrownotation.
Somemoreexamples
Notation
Meaning
floatfloatfloat
Thefunctiontakestwofloatinputs,returnsanotherfloat.
intstringfloat
Thefunctiontakesanintandastringinput,returnsafloat.
LambdaExpressions
Alambdaexpressionisanunnamedfunction.
Letustakeanexampleoftwofunctions
letapplyFunction(f:int>int>int)xy=fxy
letmulxy=x*y
letres=applyFunctionmul57
printfn"%d"res
35
Nowintheaboveexample,ifinsteadofdefiningthefunctionmul,wecouldhaveusedlambda
expressionsas
letapplyFunction(f:int>int>int)xy=fxy
letres=applyFunction(funxy>x*y)57
printfn"%d"res
35
FunctionCompositionandPipelining
InF#,onefunctioncanbecomposedfromotherfunctions.
Thefollowingexampleshowsthecompositionofafunctionnamedf,fromtwofunctionsfunction1and
function2
letfunction1x=x+1
letfunction2x=x*5
letf=function1>>function2
letres=f10
printfn"%d"res
55
F#alsoprovidesafeaturecalledpipeliningoffunctions.Pipeliningallowsfunctioncallstobe
chainedtogetherassuccessiveoperations.
Thefollowingexampleshowsthat
letfunction1x=x+1
letfunction2x=x*5
letres=10|>function1|>function2
printfn"%d"res
55
F#STRINGS
InF#,thestringtyperepresentsimmutabletextasasequenceofUnicodecharacters.
StringLiterals
Stringliteralsaredelimitedbythequotationmark " character.
Somespecialcharactersarethereforspecialuseslikenewline,tab,etc.Theyareencodedusing
backslash(\)character.Thebackslashcharacterandtherelatedcharactermaketheescapesequence.
ThefollowingtableshowstheescapesequencesupportedbyF#.
Character
Escapesequence
Backspace
\b
Newline
\n
Carriagereturn
\r
Tab
\t
Backslash
\\
Quotationmark
\"
Apostrophe
\'
Unicodecharacter
\uXXXXor\UXXXXXXXXwhereXindicatesahexadecimaldigit
WaysoflgnoringtheEscapeSequence
Thefollowingtwowaysmakesthecompilerignoretheescapesequence
Usingthe@symbol.
Enclosingthestringintriplequotes.
Whenastringliteralisprecededbythe@symbol,itiscalledaverbatimstring.Inthatway,allescape
sequencesinthestringareignored,exceptthattwoquotationmarkcharactersareinterpretedasone
quotationmarkcharacter.
Whenastringisenclosedbytriplequotes,thenalsoallescapesequencesareignored,includingdouble
quotationmarkcharacters.
Example
ThefollowingexampledemonstratesthistechniqueshowinghowtoworkwithXMLorotherstructures
thatincludeembeddedquotationmarks
//Usingaverbatimstring
letxmldata=@"<bookauthor=""Lewis,C.S""title=""Narnia"">"
printfn"%s"xmldata
<bookauthor="Lewis,C.S"title="Narnia">
BasicOperatorsonStrings
Thefollowingtableshowsthebasicoperationsonstrings
Value
Description
collect:char stringstringstring
Createsanewstringwhosecharactersarethe
resultsofapplyingaspecifiedfunctiontoeachof
thecharactersoftheinputstringand
concatenatingtheresultingstrings.
concat:stringseq<string>string
Returnsanewstringmadebyconcatenatingthe
givenstringswithaseparator.
exists:char boolstringbool
Testsifanycharacterofthestringsatisfiesthe
givenpredicate.
forall:char boolstringbool
Testsifallcharactersinthestringsatisfythegiven
predicate.
init:intint stringstring
resultsofapplyingaspecifiedfunctiontoeach
indexandconcatenatingtheresultingstrings.
iter:char unitstringunit
Appliesaspecifiedfunctiontoeachcharacterin
thestring.
iteri:int char unitstringunit
Appliesaspecifiedfunctiontotheindexofeach
characterinthestringandthecharacteritself.
length:stringint
Returnsthelengthofthestring.
map:char charstringstring
resultsofapplyingaspecifiedfunctiontoeachof
thecharactersoftheinputstring.
mapi:int char charstringstring
resultsofapplyingaspecifiedfunctiontoeach
characterandindexoftheinputstring.
replicate:intstringstring
Returnsastringbyconcatenatingaspecified
numberofinstancesofastring.
Thefollowingexamplesdemonstratetheusesofsomeoftheabovefunctionalities
Example1
TheString.collectfunctionbuildsanewstringwhosecharactersaretheresultsofapplyingaspecified
functiontoeachofthecharactersoftheinputstringandconcatenatingtheresultingstrings.
letcollectTestinginputS=
String.collect(func>sprintf"%c"c)inputS
printfn"%s"(collectTesting"HappyNewYear!")
HappyNewYear!
Example2
TheString.concatfunctionconcatenatesagivensequenceofstringswithaseparatorandreturnsanew
string.
letstrings=["TutorialsPoint";"CodingGround";"AbsoluteClasses"]
letourProducts=String.concat"\n"strings
printfn"%s"ourProducts
TutorialsPoint
CodingGround
AbsoluteClasses
Example3
TheString.replicatemethodreturnsastringbyconcatenatingaspecifiednumberofinstancesofastring.
printfn"%s"<|String.replicate10"*!"
*!*!*!*!*!*!*!*!*!*!
F#OPTIONS
TheoptiontypeinF#isusedincalculationswhentheremayormaynotexistavalueforavariableor
function.Optiontypesareusedforrepresentingoptionalvaluesincalculations.Theycanhavetwo
possiblevaluesSomexorNone.
Forexample,afunctionperformingadivisionwillreturnavalueinnormalsituation,butwillthrow
exceptionsincaseofazerodenominator.Usingoptionsherewillhelptoindicatewhetherthefunction
hassucceededorfailed.
Anoptionhasanunderlyingtypeandcanholdavalueofthattype,oritmightnothaveavalue.
UsingOptions
Letustaketheexampleofdivisionfunction.Thefollowingprogramexplainsthis
Letuswriteafunctiondiv,andsendtwoargumentstoit20and5
letdivxy=x/y
letres=div205
printfn"Result:%d"res
Result:4
Ifthesecondargumentiszero,thentheprogramthrowsanexception
letdivxy=x/y
letres=div200
printfn"Result:%d"res
UnhandledException:
System.DivideByZeroException:Divisionbyzero
Insuchcases,wecanuseoptiontypestoreturnSomevaluewhentheoperationissuccessfulorNoneif
theoperationfails.
Thefollowingexampledemonstratestheuseofoptions
Example
letdivxy=
matchywith
|0>None
|_>Some(x/y)
letres:intoption=div204
printfn"Result:%A"res
Result:Some5
OptionPropertiesandMethods
Theoptiontypesupportsthefollowingpropertiesandmethods
Propertyormethod
Type
Description
None
'Toption
Astaticpropertythatenablesyoutocreateanoption
valuethathastheNonevalue.
IsNone
bool
ReturnstrueiftheoptionhastheNonevalue.
IsSome
bool
Returnstrueiftheoptionhasavaluethatisnot
None.
Some
'Toption
Astaticmemberthatcreatesanoptionthathasavalue
thatisnotNone.
Value
'T
Returnstheunderlyingvalue,orthrowsa
NullReferenceExceptionifthevalueisNone.
Example1
letcheckPositive(a:int)=
ifa>0then
Some(a)
else
None
letres:intoption=checkPositive(31)
Result:<null>
Example2
letdivxy=
matchywith
|0>None
|_>Some(x/y)
letres:intoption=div204
printfn"Result:%A"res.Value
Result:Some5
Result:5
Example3
letisHundred=function
|Some(100)>true
|Some(_)|None>false
printfn"%A"(isHundred(Some(45)))
printfn"%A"(isHundred(Some(100)))
printfn"%A"(isHundredNone)
false
true
false
F#TUPLES
Atupleisacommaseparatedcollectionofvalues.Theseareusedforcreatingadhocdatastructures,
whichgrouptogetherrelatedvalues.
Forexample,ZaraAli, Hyderabad, 10isa3tuplewithtwostringvaluesandanintvalue,ithasthetype
string string int.
Tuplescouldbepairs,triples,andsoon,ofthesameordifferenttypes.
Someexamplesareprovidedhere
//Tupleoftwointegers.
(4,5)
//Tripleofstrings.
("one","two","three")
//Tupleofunknowntypes.
(a,b)
//Tuplethathasmixedtypes.
("AbsoluteClasses",1,2.0)
//Tupleofintegerexpressions.
(a*4,b+7)
Example
Thisprogramhasafunctionthattakesatupleoffourfloatvaluesandreturnstheaverage
letaverageFour(a,b,c,d)=
letsum=a+b+c+d
sum/4.0
letavg:float=averageFour(4.0,5.1,8.0,12.0)
printfn"Avgoffournumbers:%f"avg
Avgoffournumbers:7.275000
AccessingIndividualTupleMembers
Theindividualmembersofatuplecouldbeassessedandprintedusingpatternmatching.
Example
letdisplaytuple1=
matchtuple1with
|(a,b,c)>printfn"DetailInfo:%A%A%A"abc
display("ZaraAli","Hyderabad",10)
DetailInfo:"ZaraAli""Hyderabad"10
F#hastwobuiltinfunctions,fstandsnd,whichreturnthefirstandseconditemsina2tuple.
Example
printfn"Firstmember:%A"(fst(23,30))
printfn"Secondmember:%A"(snd(23,30))
printfn"Firstmember:%A"(fst("Hello","World!"))
printfn"Secondmember:%A"(snd("Hello","World!"))
letnameTuple=("Zara","Ali")
printfn"FirstName:%A"(fstnameTuple)
printfn"SecondName:%A"(sndnameTuple)
Firstmember:23
Secondmember:30
Firstmember:"Hello"
Secondmember:"World!"
FirstName:"Zara"
SecondName:"Ali"
F#RECORDS
Arecordissimilartoatuple,howeveritcontainsnamedfields.Forexample,
typewebsite=
{title:string;
url:string}
DefiningRecord
Arecordisdefinedasatypeusingthetypekeyword,andthefieldsoftherecordaredefinedasa
semicolonseparatedlist.
Syntaxfordefiningarecordis
typerecordName=
{[fieldName:dataType]+}
CreatingaRecord
Youcancreatearecordbyspecifyingtherecord'sfields.Forexample,letuscreateawebsiterecord
namedhomepage
lethomepage={Title="TutorialsPoint";Url="www.tutorialspoint.com"}
Thefollowingexampleswillexplaintheconcepts
Example1
Thisprogramdefinesarecordtypenamedwebsite.Thenitcreatessomerecordsoftypewebsiteand
printstherecords.
(*definingarecordtypenamedwebsite*)
typewebsite=
{Title:string;
Url:string}
(*creatingsomerecords*)
lethomepage={Title="TutorialsPoint";Url="www.tutorialspoint.com"}
letcpage={Title="LearnC";Url="www.tutorialspoint.com/cprogramming/index.htm"}
letfsharppage={Title="LearnF#";Url="www.tutorialspoint.com/fsharp/index.htm"}
letcsharppage={Title="LearnC#";Url="www.tutorialspoint.com/csharp/index.htm"}
(*printingrecords*)
(printfn"HomePage:Title:%A\n\tURL:%A")homepage.Titlehomepage.Url
(printfn"CPage:Title:%A\n\tURL:%A")cpage.Titlecpage.Url
(printfn"F#Page:Title:%A\n\tURL:%A")fsharppage.Titlefsharppage.Url
(printfn"C#Page:Title:%A\n\tURL:%A")csharppage.Titlecsharppage.Url
HomePage:Title:"TutorialsPoint"
URL:"www.tutorialspoint.com"
CPage:Title:"LearnC"
URL:"www.tutorialspoint.com/cprogramming/index.htm"
F#Page:Title:"LearnF#"
URL:"www.tutorialspoint.com/fsharp/index.htm"
C#Page:Title:"LearnC#"
URL:"www.tutorialspoint.com/csharp/index.htm"
Example2
typestudent=
{Name:string;
ID:int;
RegistrationText:string;
IsRegistered:bool}
letgetStudentnameid=
{Name=name;ID=id;RegistrationText=null;IsRegistered=false}
letregisterStudentst=
{stwith
RegistrationText="Registered";
IsRegistered=true}
letprintStudentmsgst=
printfn"%s:%A"msgst
letmain()=
letpreRegisteredStudent=getStudent"Zara"10
letpostRegisteredStudent=registerStudentpreRegisteredStudent
printStudent"BeforeRegistration:"preRegisteredStudent
printStudent"AfterRegistration:"postRegisteredStudent
main()
BeforeRegistration::{Name="Zara";
ID=10;
RegistrationText=null;
IsRegistered=false;}
AfterRegistration::{Name="Zara";
ID=10;
RegistrationText="Registered";
IsRegistered=true;}
F#LISTS
InF#,alistisanordered,immutableseriesofelementsofthesametype.Itistosomeextentequivalent
toalinkedlistdatastructure.
TheF#module,Microsoft.FSharp.Collections.List,hasthecommonoperationsonlists.However
F#importsthismoduleautomaticallyandmakesitaccessibletoeveryF#application.
CreatingandInitializingaList
Followingarethevariouswaysofcreatinglists
Usinglistliterals.
Usingcons:: operator.
UsingtheList.initmethodofListmodule.
UsingsomesyntacticconstructscalledListComprehensions.
ListLiterals
Inthismethod,youjustspecifyasemicolondelimitedsequenceofvaluesinsquarebrackets.For
example:
letlist1=[1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9;10]
Thecons :: Operator
Withthismethod,youcanaddsomevaluesbyprependingorconsingittoanexistinglistusingthe::
operator.Forexample
letlist1=[1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9;10]
[]denotesanemptylist.
ListinitMethod
TheList.initmethodoftheListmoduleisoftenusedforcreatinglists.Thismethodhasthetype
valinit:int>(int>'T)>'Tlist
Thefirstargumentisthedesiredlengthofthenewlist,andthesecondargumentisaninitializer
function,whichgeneratesitemsinthelist.
Forexample,
letlist5=List.init5(funindex>(index,index*index,index*index*index))
Here,theindexfunctiongeneratesthelist.
ListComprehensions
Listcomprehensionsarespecialsyntacticconstructsusedforgeneratinglists.
F#listcomprehensionsyntaxcomesintwoformsrangesandgenerators.
Rangeshavetheconstructs[start..end]and[start..step..end]
Forexample,
letlist3=[1..10]
Generatorshavetheconstruct[forxincollectiondo...yieldexpr]
Forexample,
letlist6=[forain1..10doyield(a*a)]
Astheyieldkeywordpushesasinglevalueintoalist,thekeyword,yield!,pushesacollectionofvalues
intothelist.
Thefollowingfunctiondemonstratestheabovemethods
Example
(*usinglistliterals*)
letlist1=[1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9;10]
printfn"Thelist:%A"list1
(*usingconsoperator*)
letlist2=1::2::3::[]
(*usingrangeconstructs*)
letlist3=[1..10]
(*usingrangeconstructs*)
letlist4=['a'..'m']
(*usinginitmethod*)
letlist5=List.init5(funindex>(index,index*index,index*index*index))
(*usingyieldoperator*)
letlist6=[forain1..10doyield(a*a)]
(*usingyieldoperator*)
letlist7=[forain1..100doifa%3=0&&a%5=0thenyielda]
(*usingyield!operator*)
letlist8=[forain1..3doyield![a..a+3]]
Thelist:[1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9;10]
Thelist:[1;2;3]
Thelist:[1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9;10]
Thelist:['a';'b';'c';'d';'e';'f';'g';'h';'i';'j';'k';'l';'m']
Thelist:[(0,0,0);(1,1,1);(2,4,8);(3,9,27);(4,16,64)]
Thelist:[1;4;9;16;25;36;49;64;81;100]
Thelist:[15;30;45;60;75;90]
Thelist:[1;2;3;4;2;3;4;5;3;4;5;6]
PropertiesofListDataType
Thefollowingtableshowsvariouspropertiesoflistdatatype
Property
Type
Description
Head
'T
Thefirstelement.
Empty
'Tlist
Astaticpropertythatreturnsanemptylistoftheappropriatetype.
IsEmpty
bool
trueifthelisthasnoelements.
Item
'T
Theelementatthespecifiedindexzero based.
Length
int
Thenumberofelements.
Tail
'Tlist
Thelistwithoutthefirstelement.
Thefollowingexampleshowstheuseoftheseproperties
Example
letlist1=[2;4;6;8;10;12;14;16]
//UseofProperties
printfn"list1.IsEmptyis%b"(list1.IsEmpty)
printfn"list1.Lengthis%d"(list1.Length)
printfn"list1.Headis%d"(list1.Head)
printfn"list1.Tail.Headis%d"(list1.Tail.Head)
printfn"list1.Tail.Tail.Headis%d"(list1.Tail.Tail.Head)
printfn"list1.Item(1)is%d"(list1.Item(1))
list1.IsEmptyisfalse
list1.Lengthis8
list1.Headis2
list1.Tail.Headis4
list1.Tail.Tail.Headis6
list1.Item(1)is4
BasicOperatorsonList
Thefollowingtableshowsthebasicoperationsonlistdatatype
Value
Description
append:'Tlist'Tlist'Tlist
Returnsanewlistthatcontainstheelementsofthe
firstlistfollowedbyelementsofthesecond.
average:'Tlist^T
Returnstheaverageoftheelementsinthelist.
averageBy: T U'TlistÛ
Returnstheaverageoftheelementsgeneratedby
applyingthefunctiontoeachelementofthelist.
choose: T Uoption'Tlist'Ulist
Appliesthegivenfunctiontoeachelementofthe
list.Returnsthelistcomprisedoftheresultsfor
eachelementwherethefunctionreturnsSome.
collect: T Ulist'Tlist'Ulist
Foreachelementofthelist,appliesthegiven
function.Concatenatesalltheresultsandreturn
thecombinedlist.
concat:seq<'Tlist>'Tlist
Returnsanewlistthatcontainstheelementsof
eachthelistsinorder.
empty:'Tlist
Returnsanemptylistofthegiventype.
exists: T bool'Tlistbool
Testsifanyelementofthelistsatisfiesthegiven
predicate.
exists2: T1 T2 bool'T1list'T2list
bool
Testsifanypairofcorrespondingelementsofthe
listssatisfiesthegivenpredicate.
filter: T bool'Tlist'Tlist
Returnsanewcollectioncontainingonlythe
elementsofthecollectionforwhichthegiven
predicatereturnstrue.
find: T bool'Tlist'T
Returnsthefirstelementforwhichthegiven
functionreturnstrue.
findIndex: T bool'Tlistint
Returnstheindexofthefirstelementinthelist
thatsatisfiesthegivenpredicate.
fold: State T State'State'Tlist

'State
Appliesafunctiontoeachelementofthecollection,
threadinganaccumulatorargumentthroughthe
computation.Thisfunctiontakesthesecond
argument,andappliesthefunctiontoitandthe
firstelementofthelist.Then,itpassesthisresult
intothefunctionalongwiththesecondelement,
andsoon.Finally,itreturnsthefinalresult.Ifthe
inputfunctionisfandtheelementsarei0...iN,
thenthisfunctioncomputesf. . . (fsi0i1...)iN.
fold2: State T1 T2 State'State
'T1list'T2list'State
Appliesafunctiontocorrespondingelementsof
twocollections,threadinganaccumulator
argumentthroughthecomputation.The
collectionsmusthaveidenticalsizes.Iftheinput
functionisfandtheelementsarei0...iNand
j0...jN,thenthisfunctioncomputesf. . . (fsi0j0...)
iNjN.
foldBack: T State State'Tlist

'State'State
computation.Iftheinputfunctionisfandthe
elementsarei0...iNthencomputesfi0. . . (fiNs).
foldBack2: T1 T2 State State'T1

list'T2list'State'State
Appliesafunctiontocorrespondingelementsof
twocollections,threadinganaccumulator
argumentthroughthecomputation.The
collectionsmusthaveidenticalsizes.Iftheinput
functionisfandtheelementsarei0...iNand
j0...jN,thenthisfunctioncomputesfi0j0
. . . (fiNjNs).
forall: T bool'Tlistbool
Testsifallelementsofthecollectionsatisfythe
givenpredicate.
forall2: T1 T2 bool'T1list'T2list
bool
Testsifallcorrespondingelementsofthecollection
satisfythegivenpredicatepairwise.
head:'Tlist'T
Returnsthefirstelementofthelist.
init:intint T'Tlist
Createsalistbycallingthegivengeneratoroneach
index.
isEmpty:'Tlistbool
Returnstrueifthelistcontainsnoelements,false
otherwise.
iter: T unit'Tlistunit
collection.
iter2: T1 T2 unit'T1list'T2list
unit
Appliesthegivenfunctiontotwocollections
simultaneously.Thecollectionsmusthaveidentical
size.
iteri:int T unit'Tlistunit
collection.Theintegerpassedtothefunction
indicatestheindexofelement.
iteri2:int T1 T2 unit'T1list'T2
listunit
simultaneously.Thecollectionsmusthaveidentical
size.Theintegerpassedtothefunctionindicates
theindexofelement.
length:'Tlistint
Returnsthelengthofthelist.
map: T U'Tlist'Ulist
Createsanewcollectionwhoseelementsarethe
resultsofapplyingthegivenfunctiontoeachofthe
elementsofthecollection.
map2: T1 T2 U'T1list'T2list
'Ulist
resultsofapplyingthegivenfunctiontothe
correspondingelementsofthetwocollections
pairwise.
map3: T1 T2 T3 U'T1list'T2
list'T3list'Ulist
correspondingelementsofthethreecollections
simultaneously.
mapi:int T U'Tlist'Ulist
elementsofthecollection.Theintegerindex
passedtothefunctionindicatestheindexfrom0of
elementbeingtransformed.
mapi2:int T1 T2 U'T1list'T2
list'Ulist
LikeList.mapi,butmappingcorresponding
elementsfromtwolistsofequallength.
max:'Tlist'T
Returnsthegreatestofallelementsofthelist,
comparedbyusingOperators.max.
maxBy: T U'Tlist'T
Returnsthegreatestofallelementsofthelist,
comparedbyusingOperators.maxonthefunction
result.
min:'Tlist'T
Returnsthelowestofallelementsofthelist,
comparedbyusingOperators.min.
minBy: T U'Tlist'T
Returnsthelowestofallelementsofthelist,
comparedbyusingOperators.minonthefunction
result
nth:'Tlistint'T
Indexesintothelist.Thefirstelementhasindex0.
ofArray:'T[]'Tlist
Createsalistfromthegivenarray.
ofSeq:seq<'T>'Tlist
Createsanewlistfromthegivenenumerable
object.
partition: T bool'Tlist*'Tlist
Splitsthecollectionintotwocollections,containing
theelementsforwhichthegivenpredicatereturns
trueandfalserespectively.
permute:int int'Tlist'Tlist
Returnsalistwithallelementspermutedaccording
tothespecifiedpermutation.
pick: T Uoption'Tlist'U
Appliesthegivenfunctiontosuccessiveelements,
returningthefirstresultwherefunctionreturns
Someforsomevalue.
reduce: T T T'Tlist'T
computation.Thisfunctionappliesthespecified
functiontothefirsttwoelementsofthelist.Itthen
passesthisresultintothefunctionalongwiththe
thirdelement,andsoon.Finally,itreturnsthe
finalresult.Iftheinputfunctionisfandthe
elementsarei0...iN,thenthisfunctioncomputesf
. . . (fi0i1i2...)iN.
reduceBack: T T T'Tlist'T
i0. . . (fiN 1iN).
replicate:int T Tlist
Createsalistbycallingthegivengeneratoroneach
index.
rev:'Tlist'Tlist
Returnsanewlistwiththeelementsinreverse
order.
scan: State T State'State'Tlist

'Statelist
computation.Thisfunctiontakesthesecond
argument,andappliesthespecifiedfunctiontoit
andthefirstelementofthelist.Then,itpassesthis
resultintothefunctionalongwiththesecond
elementandsoon.Finally,itreturnsthelistof
intermediateresultsandthefinalresult.
scanBack: T State State'Tlist
'State'Statelist
LikefoldBack,butreturnsboththeintermediate
andfinalresults
sort:'Tlist'Tlist
SortsthegivenlistusingOperators.compare.
sortBy: T Key'Tlist'Tlist
Sortsthegivenlistusingkeysgivenbythegiven
projection.Keysarecomparedusing
Operators.compare.
sortWith: T T int'Tlist'Tlist
Sortsthegivenlistusingthegivencomparison
function.
sum:^Tlist^T
Returnsthesumoftheelementsinthelist.
sumBy: T U'TlistÛ
Returnsthesumoftheresultsgeneratedby
applyingthefunctiontoeachelementofthelist.
tail:'Tlist'Tlist
Returnstheinputlistwithoutthefirstelement.
toArray:'Tlist'T[]
Createsanarrayfromthegivenlist.
toSeq:'Tlistseq<'T>
Viewsthegivenlistasasequence.
tryFind: T bool'Tlist'Toption
functionreturnstrue.ReturnNoneifnosuch
elementexists.
tryFindIndex: T bool'Tlistintoption
Returnstheindexofthefirstelementinthelist
thatsatisfiesthegivenpredicate.ReturnNoneif
nosuchelementexists.
tryPick: T Uoption'Tlist'Uoption
returningthefirstresultwherefunctionreturns
Someforsomevalue.Ifnosuchelementexists
thenreturnNone.
unzip: T1 T2list'T1list*'T2list
Splitsalistofpairsintotwolists.
unzip3: T1 T2 T3list'T1list*'T2list
*'T3list
Splitsalistoftriplesintothreelists.
zip:'T1list'T2list T1 T2list
Combinesthetwolistsintoalistofpairs.Thetwo
listsmusthaveequallengths.
zip3:'T1list'T2list'T3list
T1 T2 T3list
Combinesthethreelistsintoalistoftriples.The
listsmusthaveequallengths.
Thefollowingexamplesdemonstratetheusesoftheabovefunctionalities
Example1
Thisprogramshowsreversingalistrecursively
letlist1=[2;4;6;8;10;12;14;16]
printfn"Theoriginallist:%A"list1
letreverselt=
letrecloopacc=function
|[]>acc
|hd::tl>loop(hd::acc)tl
loop[]lt
printfn"Thereversedlist:%A"(reverselist1)
Theoriginallist:[2;4;6;8;10;12;14;16]
Thereversedlist:[16;14;12;10;8;6;4;2]
However,youcanusetherevfunctionofthemoduleforthesamepurpose
letlist1=[2;4;6;8;10;12;14;16]
printfn"Theoriginallist:%A"list1
printfn"Thereversedlist:%A"(List.revlist1)
Theoriginallist:[2;4;6;8;10;12;14;16]
Thereversedlist:[16;14;12;10;8;6;4;2]
Example2
ThisprogramshowsfilteringalistusingtheList.filtermethod
letlist1=[1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9;10]
letlist2=list1|>List.filter(funx>x%2=0);;
printfn"TheFilteredlist:%A"list2
Thelist:[1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9;10]
TheFilteredlist:[2;4;6;8;10]
Example3
TheList.mapmethodmapsalistfromonetypetoanother
letlist1=[1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9;10]
letlist2=list1|>List.map(funx>(x*x).ToString());;
printfn"TheMappedlist:%A"list2
Thelist:[1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9;10]
TheMappedlist:["1";"4";"9";"16";"25";"36";"49";"64";"81";"100"]
Example4
TheList.appendmethodandthe@operatorappendsonelisttoanother
letlist1=[1;2;3;4;5]
letlist2=[6;7;8;9;10]
letlist3=List.appendlist1list2
printfn"Thefirstlist:%A"list1
printfn"Thesecondlist:%A"list2
printfn"Theappenedlist:%A"list3
letlt1=['a';'b';'c']
letlt2=['e';'f';'g']
letlt3=lt1@lt2
printfn"Thefirstlist:%A"lt1
printfn"Thesecondlist:%A"lt2
printfn"Theappenedlist:%A"lt3
Thefirstlist:[1;2;3;4;5]
Thesecondlist:[6;7;8;9;10]
Theappenedlist:[1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9;10]
Thefirstlist:['a';'b';'c']
Thesecondlist:['e';'f';'g']
Theappenedlist:['a';'b';'c';'e';'f';'g']
Example5
TheList.sortmethodsortsalist.TheList.summethodgivesthesumofelementsinthelistandthe
List.averagemethodgivestheaverageofelementsinthelist
letlist1=[9.0;0.0;2.0;4.5;11.2;8.0;10.0]
letlist2=List.sortlist1
printfn"Thesortedlist:%A"list2
lets=List.sumlist1
letavg=List.averagelist1
printfn"Thesum:%f"s
printfn"Theaverage:%f"avg
Thelist:[9.0;0.0;2.0;4.5;11.2;8.0;10.0]
Thesortedlist:[10.0;4.5;0.0;2.0;8.0;9.0;11.2]
Thesum:15.700000
Theaverage:2.242857
A"fold"operationappliesafunctiontoeachelementinalist,aggregatestheresultofthefunctioninan
accumulatorvariable,andreturnstheaccumulatorastheresultofthefoldoperation.
Example6
TheList.foldmethodappliesafunctiontoeachelementfromlefttoright,whileList.foldBack
appliesafunctiontoeachelementfromrighttoleft.
letsumListlist=List.fold(funaccelem>acc+elem)0list
printfn"Sumoftheelementsoflist%Ais%d."[1..10](sumList[1..10])
Sumoftheelementsoflist[1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9;10]is55.
F#SEQUENCES
Sequences,likelistsalsorepresentanorderedcollectionofvalues.However,theelementsinasequence
orsequenceexpressionarecomputedwhenrequired.Theyarenotcomputedatonce,andforthis
reasontheyareusedtorepresentinfinitedatastructures.
DefiningSequences
Sequencesaredefinedusingthefollowingsyntax
seq{expr}
Forexample,
letseq1=seq{1..10}
CreatingSequencesandSequencesExpressions
Similartolists,youcancreatesequencesusingrangesandcomprehensions.
Sequenceexpressionsaretheexpressionsyoucanwriteforcreatingsequences.Thesecanbedone
Byspecifyingtherange.
Byspecifyingtherangewithincrementordecrement.
Byusingtheyieldkeywordtoproducevaluesthatbecomepartofthesequence.
Byusingtheoperator.
Thefollowingexamplesdemonstratetheconcept
Example1
(*Sequences*)
letseq1=seq{1..10}
(*ascendingorderandincrement*)
printfn"TheSequence:%A"seq1
letseq2=seq{1..5..50}
(*descendingorderanddecrement*)
letseq3=seq{50..5..0}
(*usingyield*)
letseq4=seq{forain1..10doyielda,a*a,a*a*a}
TheSequence:seq[1;2;3;4;...]
TheSequence:seq[(1,1,1);(2,4,8);(3,9,27);(4,16,64);...]
Example2
Thefollowingprogramprintstheprimenumbersfrom1to50
(*Recursiveisprimefunction.*)
letisprimen=
letrecchecki=
i>n/2||(n%i<>0&&check(i+1))
check2
letprimeIn50=seq{fornin1..50doifisprimenthenyieldn}
forxinprimeIn50do
printfn"%d"x
1
2
3
5
7
11
13
17
19
23
29
31
37
41
43
47
BasicOperationsonSequence
Thefollowingtableshowsthebasicoperationsonsequencedatatype
Value
Description
append:seq<'T>seq<'T>seq<'T>
Wrapsthetwogivenenumerationsasasingle
concatenatedenumeration.
average:seq<^T>^T
Returnstheaverageoftheelementsinthe
sequence.
averageBy: T Useq<'T>Û
Returnstheaverageoftheresultsgeneratedby
applyingthefunctiontoeachelementofthe
sequence.
cache:seq<'T>seq<'T>
Returnsasequencethatcorrespondstoacached
versionoftheinputsequence.
cast:IEnumerableseq<'T>
WrapsalooselytypedSystem.Collections
sequenceasatypedsequence.
choose: T Uoptionseq<'T>seq<'U>
list.Returnthelistcomprisedoftheresultsfor
eachelementwherethefunctionreturnsSome.
collect: T Collectionseq<'T>
seq<'U>
sequenceandconcatenatesalltheresults.
compareWith: T T intseq<'T>
seq<'T>int
Comparestwosequencesusingthegiven
comparisonfunction,elementbyelement.
concat:seq<'Collection>seq<'T>
Combinesthegivenenumerationofenumerations
asasingleconcatenatedenumeration.
countBy: T Keyseq<'T>seq<'Key*
int>
Appliesakeygeneratingfunctiontoeachelement
ofasequenceandreturnasequenceyielding
uniquekeysandtheirnumberofoccurrencesinthe
originalsequence.
delay:unit seq < T > seq<'T>
Returnsasequencethatisbuiltfromthegiven
delayedspecificationofasequence.
distinct:seq<'T>seq<'T>
Returnsasequencethatcontainsnoduplicate
entriesaccordingtogenerichashandequality
comparisonsontheentries.Ifanelementoccurs
multipletimesinthesequencethenthelater
occurrencesarediscarded.
distinctBy: T Keyseq<'T>seq<'T>
Returnsasequencethatcontainsnoduplicate
entriesaccordingtothegenerichashandequality
comparisonsonthekeysreturnedbythegivenkey
generatingfunction.Ifanelementoccursmultiple
timesinthesequencethenthelateroccurrences
arediscarded.
empty:seq<'T>
Createsanemptysequence.
exactlyOne:seq<'T>'T
Returnstheonlyelementofthesequence.
exists: T boolseq<'T>bool
Testsifanyelementofthesequencesatisfiesthe
givenpredicate.
exists2: T1 T2 boolseq<'T1>
seq<'T2>bool
Testsifanypairofcorrespondingelementsofthe
inputsequencessatisfiesthegivenpredicate.
filter: T boolseq<'T>seq<'T>
find: T boolseq<'T>'T
functionreturnstrue.
findIndex: T boolseq<'T>int
Returnstheindexofthefirstelementforwhichthe
givenfunctionreturnstrue.
fold: State T State'Stateseq<'T>

'State
. . . (fsi0...)iN.
forall: T boolseq<'T>bool
Testsifallelementsofthesequencesatisfythe
givenpredicate.
forall2: T1 T2 boolseq<'T1>
seq<'T2>bool
Teststheallpairsofelementsdrawnfromthetwo
sequencessatisfythegivenpredicate.Ifone
sequenceisshorterthantheotherthenthe
remainingelementsofthelongersequenceare
ignored.
groupBy: T Keyseq<'T>seq<'Key*
seq<'T>>
ofasequenceandyieldsasequenceofuniquekeys.
Eachuniquekeyhasalsocontainsasequenceofall
elementsthatmatchtothiskey.
head:seq<'T>'T
Returnsthefirstelementofthesequence.
init:intint Tseq<'T>
Generatesanewsequencewhich,wheniterated,
returnssuccessiveelementsbycallingthegiven
function,uptothegivencount.Theresultsof
callingthefunctionarenotsaved,thatis,the
functionisreappliedasnecessarytoregeneratethe
elements.Thefunctionispassedtheindexofthe
itembeinggenerated.
initInfinite:int Tseq<'T>
Generatesanewsequencewhich,wheniterated,
willreturnsuccessiveelementsbycallingthegiven
function.Theresultsofcallingthefunctionarenot
saved,thatis,thefunctionwillbereappliedas
necessarytoregeneratetheelements.Thefunction
ispassedtheindexoftheitembeinggenerated.
isEmpty:seq<'T>bool
Testswhetherasequencehasanyelements.
iter: T unitseq<'T>unit
collection.
iter2: T1 T2 unitseq<'T1>
seq<'T2>unit
simultaneously.Ifonesequenceisshorterthanthe
otherthentheremainingelementsofthelonger
sequenceareignored.
iteri:int T unitseq<'T>unit
collection.Theintegerpassedtothefunction
indicatestheindexofelement.
last:seq<'T>'T
Returnsthelastelementofthesequence.
length:seq<'T>int
Returnsthelengthofthesequence.
map: T Useq<'T>seq<'U>
elementsofthecollection.Thegivenfunctionwill
beappliedaselementsaredemandedusingthe
MoveNextmethodonenumeratorsretrievedfrom
theobject.
map2: T1 T2 Useq<'T1>
seq<'T2>seq<'U>
correspondingpairsofelementsfromthetwo
sequences.Ifoneinputsequenceisshorterthan
theotherthentheremainingelementsofthe
longersequenceareignored.
mapi:int T Useq<'T>seq<'U>
elementsofthecollection.Theintegerindex
passedtothefunctionindicatestheindexfrom0of
max:seq<'T>'T
Returnsthegreatestofallelementsofthe
sequence,comparedbyusingOperators.max.
maxBy: T Useq<'T>'T
Returnsthegreatestofallelementsofthe
sequence,comparedbyusingOperators.maxon
thefunctionresult.
min:seq<'T>'T
Returnsthelowestofallelementsofthesequence,
comparedbyusingOperators.min.
minBy: T Useq<'T>'T
Returnsthelowestofallelementsofthesequence,
comparedbyusingOperators.minonthefunction
result.
nth:intseq<'T>'T
Computesthenthelementinthecollection.
ofArray:'Tarrayseq<'T>
Viewsthegivenarrayasasequence.
ofList:'Tlistseq<'T>
Viewsthegivenlistasasequence.
pairwise:seq<'T>seq<'T*'T>
Returnsasequenceofeachelementintheinput
sequenceanditspredecessor,withtheexceptionof
thefirstelementwhichisonlyreturnedasthe
predecessorofthesecondelement.
pick: T Uoptionseq<'T>'U
returningthefirstvaluewherethefunctionreturns
aSomevalue.
readonly:seq<'T>seq<'T>
Createsanewsequenceobjectthatdelegatestothe
givensequenceobject.Thisensurestheoriginal
sequencecannotberediscoveredandmutatedbya
typecast.Forexample,ifgivenanarraythe
returnedsequencewillreturntheelementsofthe
array,butyoucannotcastthereturnedsequence
objecttoanarray.
reduce: T T Tseq<'T>'T
Appliesafunctiontoeachelementofthesequence,
computation.Beginbyapplyingthefunctiontothe
firsttwoelements.Thenfeedthisresultintothe
functionalongwiththethirdelementandsoon.
Returnthefinalresult.
scan: State T State'Stateseq<'T>

seq<'State>
LikeSeq.fold,butcomputesondemandand
returnsthesequenceofintermediaryandfinal
results.
singleton:'Tseq<'T>
Returnsasequencethatyieldsoneitemonly.
skip:intseq<'T>seq<'T>
Returnsasequencethatskipsaspecifiednumber
ofelementsoftheunderlyingsequenceandthen
yieldstheremainingelementsofthesequence.
skipWhile: T boolseq<'T>seq<'T>
Returnsasequencethat,wheniterated,skips
elementsoftheunderlyingsequencewhilethe
givenpredicatereturnstrue,andthenyieldsthe
remainingelementsofthesequence.
sort:seq<'T>seq<'T>
Yieldsasequenceorderedbykeys.
sortBy: T Keyseq<'T>seq<'T>
ofasequenceandyieldasequenceorderedbykeys.
Thekeysarecomparedusinggenericcomparison
asimplementedbyOperators.compare.
sum:seq<^T>^T
Returnsthesumoftheelementsinthesequence.
sumBy
applyingthefunctiontoeachelementofthe
sequence.
take:intseq<'T>seq<'T>
Returnsthefirstelementsofthesequenceuptoa
specifiedcount.
takeWhile: T boolseq<'T>seq<'T>
Returnsasequencethat,wheniterated,yields
elementsoftheunderlyingsequencewhilethe
givenpredicatereturnstrue,andthenreturnsno
furtherelements.
toArray:seq<'T>'T[]
Createsanarrayfromthegivencollection.
toList:seq<'T>'Tlist
Createsalistfromthegivencollection.
truncate:intseq<'T>seq<'T>
Returnsasequencethatwhenenumeratedreturns
nomorethanaspecifiednumberofelements.
tryFind: T boolseq<'T>'Toption
functionreturnstrue,orNoneifnosuchelement
exists.
tryFindIndex: T boolseq<'T>int
option
Returnstheindexofthefirstelementinthe
sequencethatsatisfiesthegivenpredicate,or
Noneifnosuchelementexists.
tryPick: T Uoptionseq<'T>'Uoption
returningthefirstvaluewherethefunctionreturns
aSomevalue.
unfold: State T Stateoption'State

seq<'T>
Returnsasequencethatcontainstheelements
generatedbythegivencomputation.
where: T boolseq<'T>seq<'T>
predicatereturnstrue.AsynonymforSeq.filter.
windowed:intseq<'T>seq<'T[]>
Returnsasequencethatyieldsslidingwindowsof
containingelementsdrawnfromtheinput
sequence.Eachwindowisreturnedasafresharray.
zip:seq<'T1>seq<'T2>seq<'T1*'T2>
Combinesthetwosequencesintoalistofpairs.
Thetwosequencesneednothaveequallengths
whenonesequenceisexhaustedanyremaining
elementsintheothersequenceareignored.
zip3:seq<'T1>seq<'T2>seq<'T3>
seq<'T1*'T2*'T3>
Combinesthethreesequencesintoalistoftriples.
Thesequencesneednothaveequallengthswhen
onesequenceisexhaustedanyremainingelements
intheothersequencesareignored.
Thefollowingexamplesdemonstratetheusesofsomeoftheabovefunctionalities
Example1
Thisprogramcreatesanemptysequenceandfillsituplater
(*Creatingsequences*)
letemptySeq=Seq.empty
letseq1=Seq.singleton20
printfn"Thesingletonsequence:"
printfn"%A"seq1
printfn"Theinitsequence:"
letseq2=Seq.init5(funn>n*3)
Seq.iter(funi>printf"%d"i)seq2
printfn""
(*convertinganarraytosequencebyusingcast*)
printfn"Thearraysequence1:"
letseq3=[|1..10|]:>seq<int>
printfn""
(*convertinganarraytosequencebyusingSeq.ofArray*)
printfn"Thearraysequence2:"
letseq4=[|2..2..20|]|>Seq.ofArray
printfn""
Thesingletonsequence:
seq[20]
Theinitsequence:
036912
Thearraysequence1:
12345678910
Thearraysequence2:
2468101214161820
Pleasenotethat
TheSeq.emptymethodcreatesanemptysequence.
TheSeq.singletonmethodcreatesasequenceofjustonespecifiedelement.
TheSeq.initmethodcreatesasequenceforwhichtheelementsarecreatedbyusingagiven
function.
TheSeq.ofArrayandSeq.ofList<'T>methodscreatesequencesfromarraysandlists.
TheSeq.itermethodallowsiteratingthroughasequence.
Example2
TheSeq.unfoldmethodgeneratesasequencefromacomputationfunctionthattakesastateand
transformsittoproduceeachsubsequentelementinthesequence.
Thefollowingfunctionproducesthefirst20naturalnumbers
letseq1=Seq.unfold(funstate>if(state>20)thenNoneelseSome(state,state+
1))0
printfn"Thesequenceseq1containsnumbersfrom0to20."
forxinseq1doprintf"%d"x
printfn""
Thesequenceseq1containsnumbersfrom0to20.
01234567891011121314151617181920
Example3
TheSeq.truncatemethodcreatesasequencefromanothersequence,butlimitsthesequencetoa
specifiednumberofelements.
TheSeq.takemethodcreatesanewsequencethatcontainsaspecifiednumberofelementsfromthestart
ofasequence.
letmySeq=seq{foriin1..10>3*i}
lettruncatedSeq=Seq.truncate5mySeq
lettakeSeq=Seq.take5mySeq
printfn"Theoriginalsequence"
Seq.iter(funi>printf"%d"i)mySeq
printfn""
printfn"Thetruncatedsequence"
Seq.iter(funi>printf"%d"i)truncatedSeq
printfn""
printfn"Thetakesequence"
Seq.iter(funi>printf"%d"i)takeSeq
printfn""
Theoriginalsequence
36912151821242730
Thetruncatedsequence
3691215
Thetakesequence
3691215
F#SETS
AsetinF#isadatastructurethatactsasacollectionofitemswithoutpreservingtheorderinwhich
itemsareinserted.Setsdonotallowduplicateentriestobeinsertedintothecollection.
CreatingSets
Setscanbecreatedinthefollowingways
BycreatinganemptysetusingSet.emptyandaddingitemsusingtheaddfunction.
Convertingsequencesandliststosets.
Thefollowingprogramdemonstratesthetechniques
(*creatingsets*)
letset1=Set.empty.Add(3).Add(5).Add(7).Add(9)
printfn"Thenewset:%A"set1
letweekdays=Set.ofList["mon";"tues";"wed";"thurs";"fri"]
printfn"Thelistset:%A"weekdays
letset2=Set.ofSeq[1..2..10]
printfn"Thesequenceset:%A"set2
Thenewset:set[3;5;7;9]
Thelistset:set["fri";"mon";"thurs";"tues";"wed"]
Thesequenceset:set[1;3;5;7;9]
BasicOperationsonSets
Thefollowingtableshowsthebasicoperationsonsets
Value
Description
add:'TSet<'T>Set<'T>
Returnsanewsetwithanelementaddedtotheset.
Noexceptionisraisedifthesetalreadycontains
thegivenelement.
contains:'TSet<'T>bool
Evaluatestotrueifthegivenelementisinthe
givenset.
count:Set<'T>int
Returnsthenumberofelementsintheset.
difference:Set<'T>Set<'T>Set<'T>
Returnsanewsetwiththeelementsofthesecond
setremovedfromthefirst.
empty:Set<'T>
Theemptysetforthespecifiedtype.
exists: T boolSet<'T>bool
Testsifanyelementofthecollectionsatisfiesthe
givenpredicate.Iftheinputfunctionispredicate
andtheelementsarei0...iN,thenthisfunction
computespredicatei0or...orpredicateiN.
filter: T boolSet<'T>Set<'T>
fold: State T State'StateSet<'T>

'State
Appliesthegivenaccumulatingfunctiontoallthe
elementsoftheset.
foldBack: T State StateSet<'T>

'State'State
Appliesthegivenaccumulatingfunctiontoallthe
elementsoftheset.
forall: T boolSet<'T>bool
Testsifallelementsofthecollectionsatisfythe
givenpredicate.Iftheinputfunctionispandthe
elementsarei0...iN,thenthisfunctioncomputesp
i0&&...&&piN.
intersect:Set<'T>Set<'T>Set<'T>
Computestheintersectionofthetwosets.
intersectMany:seq<Set<'T>>Set<'T>
Computestheintersectionofasequenceofsets.
Thesequencemustbenonempty.
isEmpty:Set<'T>bool
Returnstrueifthesetisempty.
isProperSubset:Set<'T>Set<'T>bool
Evaluatestotrueifallelementsofthefirstsetare
inthesecond,andatleastoneelementofthe
secondisnotinthefirst.
isProperSuperset:Set<'T>Set<'T>bool
Evaluatestotrueifallelementsofthesecondset
areinthefirst,andatleastoneelementofthefirst
isnotinthesecond.
isSubset:Set<'T>Set<'T>bool
Evaluatestotrueifallelementsofthefirstsetare
inthesecond.
isSuperset:Set<'T>Set<'T>bool
Evaluatestotrueifallelementsofthesecondset
areinthefirst.
iter: T unitSet<'T>unit
set,inorderaccordingtothecomparisonfunction.
map: T USet<'T>Set<'U>
Returnsanewcollectioncontainingtheresultsof
applyingthegivenfunctiontoeachelementofthe
inputset.
maxElement:Set<'T>'T
Returnsthehighestelementinthesetaccordingto
theorderingbeingusedfortheset.
minElement:Set<'T>'T
Returnsthelowestelementinthesetaccordingto
theorderingbeingusedfortheset.
ofArray:'TarraySet<'T>
Createsasetthatcontainsthesameelementsasthe
givenarray.
ofList:'TlistSet<'T>
Createsasetthatcontainsthesameelementsasthe
givenlist.
ofSeq:seq<'T>Set<'T>
Createsanewcollectionfromthegiven
enumerableobject.
partition: T boolSet<'T>Set<'T>*
Set<'T>
Splitsthesetintotwosetscontainingtheelements
forwhichthegivenpredicatereturnstrueandfalse
respectively.
remove:'TSet<'T>Set<'T>
Returnsanewsetwiththegivenelementremoved.
Noexceptionisraisedifthesetdoesn'tcontainthe
givenelement.
singleton:'TSet<'T>
Thesetcontainingthegivenelement.
toArray:Set<'T>'Tarray
Createsanarraythatcontainstheelementsofthe
setinorder.
toList:Set<'T>'Tlist
Createsalistthatcontainstheelementsoftheset
inorder.
toSeq:Set<'T>seq<'T>
Returnsanorderedviewofthecollectionasan
enumerableobject.
union:Set<'T>Set<'T>Set<'T>
Computestheunionofthetwosets.
unionMany:seq<Set<'T>>Set<'T>
Computestheunionofasequenceofsets.
Thefollowingexampledemonstratestheusesofsomeoftheabovefunctionalities
Example
leta=Set.ofSeq[1..2..20]
letb=Set.ofSeq[1..3..20]
letc=Set.intersectab
letd=Set.unionab
lete=Set.differenceab
printfn"Seta:"
Set.iter(funx>printf"%O"x)a
printfn""
printfn"Setb:"
Set.iter(funx>printf"%O"x)b
printfn""
printfn"Setc=setintersectofaandb:"
Set.iter(funx>printf"%O"x)c
printfn""
printfn"Setd=setunionofaandb:"
Set.iter(funx>printf"%O"x)d
printfn""
printfn"Sete=setdifferenceofaandb:"
Set.iter(funx>printf"%O"x)e
printfn""
Seta:
135791113151719
Setb:
14710131619
Setc=setintersectofaandb:
171319
Setd=setunionofaandb:
13457910111315161719
Sete=setdifferenceofaandb:
359111517
F#MAPS
InF#,amapisaspecialkindofsetthatassociatesthevalueswithkey.Amapiscreatedinasimilarway
assetsarecreated.
CreatingMaps
MapsarecreatedbycreatinganemptymapusingMap.emptyandaddingitemsusingtheAddfunction.
Thefollowingexampledemonstratesthis
Example
(*CreateanemptyMap*)
letstudents=
Map.empty.(*CreatinganemptyMap*)
Add("ZaraAli","1501").
Add("RishitaGupta","1502").
Add("RobinSahoo","1503").
Add("GillianMegan","1504");;
printfn"Mapstudents:%A"students
(*ConvertalisttoMap*)
letcapitals=
["Argentina","BuenosAires";
"France","Paris";
"Chili","Santiago";
"Malaysia","KualaLumpur";
"Switzerland","Bern"]
|>Map.ofList;;
printfn"Mapcapitals:%A"capitals
Mapstudents:map
[("GillianMegan","1504");("RishitaGupta","1502");("RobinSahoo","1503
");
("ZaraAli","1501")]
Mapcapitals:map
[("Argentina","BuenosAires");("Chili","Santiago");("France","Paris");
("Malaysia","KualaLumpur");("Switzerland","Bern")]
Youcanaccessindividualelementsinthemapusingthekey.
Example
letstudents=
Add("GillianMegan","1504");;
(*Accessinganelementusingkey*)
printfn"%A"students.["ZaraAli"]
Mapstudents:map
[("GillianMegan","1504");("RishitaGupta","1502");("RobinSahoo","1503
");
("ZaraAli","1501")]
"1501"
BasicOperationsonMaps
Addmodulename
Thefollowingtableshowsthebasicoperationsonmaps
Member
Description
Add
Returnsanewmapwiththebindingaddedtothegivenmap.
ContainsKey
Testsifanelementisinthedomainofthemap.
Count
Thenumberofbindingsinthemap.
IsEmpty
Returnstrueiftherearenobindingsinthemap.
Item
Lookupanelementinthemap.RaisesKeyNotFoundExceptionifnobindingexistsin
themap.
Remove
Removesanelementfromthedomainofthemap.Noexceptionisraisedifthe
elementisnotpresent.
TryFind
Lookupanelementinthemap,returningaSomevalueiftheelementisinthe
domainofthemapandNoneifnot.
Thefollowingexampledemonstratestheusesofsomeoftheabovefunctionalities
Example
letstudents=
Add("GillianMegan","1504").
Add("ShraddhaDubey","1505").
Add("NovonilSarker","1506").
Add("JoanPaul","1507");;
printfn"Mapnumberofstudents:%d"students.Count
(*findingtheregistrationnumberofastudent*)
letfound=students.TryFind"RishitaGupta"
matchfoundwith
|Somex>printfn"Found%s."x
|None>printfn"Didnotfindthespecifiedvalue."
Mapstudents:map
[("GillianMegan","1504");("JoanPaul","1507");("NovonilSarker","1506"
);
("RishitaGupta","1502");("RobinSahoo","1503");
("ShraddhaDubey","1505");("ZaraAli","1501")]
Mapnumberofstudents:7
Found1502.
F#DISCRIMINATEDUNIONS
Unions,ordiscriminatedunionsallowsyoutobuildupcomplexdatastructuresrepresentingwell
definedsetofchoices.Forexample,youneedtobuildanimplementationofachoicevariable,whichhas
twovaluesyesandno.UsingtheUnionstool,youcandesignthis.
Syntax
Discriminatedunionsaredefinedusingthefollowingsyntax
typetypename=
|caseidentifier1[of[fieldname1:]type1[*[fieldname2:]
type2...]
|caseidentifier2[of[fieldname3:]type3[*[fieldname4:]type4...]
...
Oursimpleimplementationof,choice,willlooklikethefollowing
typechoice=
|Yes
|No
Thefollowingexampleusesthetypechoice
typechoice=
|Yes
|No
letx=Yes(*createsaninstanceofchoice*)
lety=No(*createsanotherinstanceofchoice*)
letmain()=
printfn"x:%A"x
printfn"y:%A"y
main()
x:Yes
y:No
Example1
Thefollowingexampleshowstheimplementationofthevoltagestatesthatsetsabitonhighorlow
typeVoltageState=
|High
|Low
lettoggleSwitch=function(*patternmatchinginput*)
|High>Low
|Low>High
letmain()=
leton=High
letoff=Low
letchange=toggleSwitchoff
printfn"Switchonstate:%A"on
printfn"Switchoffstate:%A"off
printfn"Toggleoff:%A"change
printfn"ToggletheChangedstate:%A"(toggleSwitchchange)
main()
Switchonstate:High
Switchoffstate:Low
Toggleoff:High
ToggletheChangedstate:Low
Example2
typeShape=
//herewestoretheradiusofacircle
|Circleoffloat
//herewestorethesidelength.
|Squareoffloat
//herewestoretheheightandwidth.
|Rectangleoffloat*float
letpi=3.141592654
letareamyShape=
matchmyShapewith
|Circleradius>pi*radius*radius
|Squares>s*s
|Rectangle(h,w)>h*w
letradius=12.0
letmyCircle=Circle(radius)
printfn"Areaofcirclewithradius%g:%g"radius(areamyCircle)
letside=15.0
letmySquare=Square(side)
printfn"Areaofsquarethathasside%g:%g"side(areamySquare)
letheight,width=5.0,8.0
letmyRectangle=Rectangle(height,width)
printfn"Areaofrectanglewithheight%gandwidth%gis%g"heightwidth(area
myRectangle)
Areaofcirclewithradius12:452.389
Areaofsquarethathasside15:225
Areaofrectanglewithheight5andwidth8is40
F#MUTABLEDATA
VariablesinF#areimmutable,whichmeansonceavariableisboundtoavalue,itcantbechanged.
Theyareactuallycompiledasstaticreadonlyproperties.
Example
letx=10
lety=20
letz=x+y
printfn"x:%i"x
printfn"y:%i"y
printfn"z:%i"z
letx=15
lety=20
letz=x+y
printfn"x:%i"x
printfn"y:%i"y
printfn"z:%i"z
Duplicatedefinitionofvalue'x'
Duplicatedefinitionofvalue'Y'
Duplicatedefinitionofvalue'Z'
MutableVariables
Attimesyouneedtochangethevaluesstoredinavariable.Tospecifythattherecouldbeachangeinthe
valueofadeclaredandassignedvariableinlaterpartofaprogram,F#providesthemutablekeyword.
Youcandeclareandassignmutablevariablesusingthiskeyword,whosevaluesyouwillchange.
Themutablekeywordallowsyoutodeclareandassignvaluesinamutablevariable.
Youcanassignsomeinitialvaluetoamutablevariableusingtheletkeyword.However,toassignnew
subsequentvaluetoit,youneedtousethe<operator.
Forexample,
letmutablex=10
x<15
Thefollowingexamplewillcleartheconcept
Example
letmutablex=10
lety=20
letmutablez=x+y
printfn"OriginalValues:"
printfn"x:%i"x
printfn"y:%i"y
printfn"z:%i"z
printfn"Letuschangethevalueofx"
printfn"Valueofzwillchangetoo."
x<15
z<x+y
printfn"NewValues:"
printfn"x:%i"x
printfn"y:%i"y
printfn"z:%i"z
OriginalValues:
x:10
y:20
z:30
Letuschangethevalueofx
Valueofzwillchangetoo.
NewValues:
x:15
y:20
z:35
UsesofMutableData
Mutabledataisoftenrequiredandusedindataprocessing,particularlywithrecorddatastructure.The
followingexampledemonstratesthis
openSystem
typestudentData=
{ID:int;
mutableIsRegistered:bool;
mutableRegisteredText:string;}
letgetStudentid=
{ID=id;
IsRegistered=false;
RegisteredText=null;}
letregisterStudents(students:studentDatalist)=
students|>List.iter(funst>
st.IsRegistered<true
st.RegisteredText<sprintf"Registered%s"(DateTime.Now.ToString("hh:mm:ss"))
Threading.Thread.Sleep(1000)(*Puttingthreadtosleepfor1secondtosimulate
processingoverhead.*))
letprintData(students:studentDatalist)=
students|>List.iter(funx>printfn"%A"x)
letmain()=
letstudents=List.init3getStudent
printfn"BeforeProcess:"
printDatastudents
printfn"Afterprocess:"
registerStudentsstudents
printDatastudents
Console.ReadKey(true)|>ignore
main()
BeforeProcess:
{ID=0;
IsRegistered=false;
{ID=1;
IsRegistered=false;
{ID=2;
IsRegistered=false;
Afterprocess:
{ID=0;
IsRegistered=true;
RegisteredText="Registered05:39:15";}
{ID=1;
IsRegistered=true;
{ID=2;
IsRegistered=true;
F#ARRAYS
Arraysarefixedsize,zerobased,mutablecollectionsofconsecutivedataelementsthatareallofthe
sametype.
CreatingArrays
YoucancreatearraysusingvarioussyntaxesandwaysorbyusingthefunctionsfromtheArraymodule.
Inthissection,wewilldiscusscreatingarrayswithoutusingthemodulefunctions.
Therearethreesyntacticalwaysofcreatingarrayswithoutfunctions
Bylistingconsecutivevaluesbetween[|and|]andseparatedbysemicolons.
Byputtingeachelementonaseparateline,inwhichcasethesemicolonseparatorisoptional.
Byusingsequenceexpressions.
Youcanaccessarrayelementsbyusingadotoperator. andbrackets[and].
Thefollowingexampledemonstratescreatingarrays
//usingsemicolonseparator
letarray1=[|1;2;3;4;5;6|]
foriin0..array1.Length1do
printf"%d"array1.[i]
printfn""
//withoutsemicolonseparator
letarray2=
[|
1
2
3
4
5
|]
printfn""
//usingsequence
letarray3=[|foriin1..10>i*i|]
printfn""
123456
12345
149162536496481100
BasicOperationsonArrays
ThelibrarymoduleMicrosoft.FSharp.Collections.Arraysupportsoperationsononedimensionalarrays.
ThefollowingtableshowsthebasicoperationsonArrays
Value
Description
append:'T[]'T[]'T[]
Createsanarraythatcontainstheelementsofone
arrayfollowedbytheelementsofanotherarray.
average:^T[]^T
Returnstheaverageoftheelementsinanarray.
averageBy: T U'T[]Û
Returnstheaverageoftheelementsgeneratedby
applyingafunctiontoeachelementofanarray.
blit:'T[]int'T[]intintunit
Readsarangeofelementsfromonearrayand
writesthemintoanother.
choose: T Uoption'T[]'U[]
Appliesasuppliedfunctiontoeachelementofan
array.Returnsanarraythatcontainstheresultsx
foreachelementforwhichthefunctionreturns
Somex.
collect: T U[]T[]'U[]
Appliesthesuppliedfunctiontoeachelementofan
array,concatenatestheresults,andreturnsthe
combinedarray.
concat:seq<'T[]>'T[]
Createsanarraythatcontainstheelementsofeach
ofthesuppliedsequenceofarrays.
copy:'T'T[]
Createsanarraythatcontainstheelementsofthe
suppliedarray.
create:int'T'T[]
Createsanarraywhoseelementsareallinitiallythe
suppliedvalue.
empty:'T[]
Returnsanemptyarrayofthegiventype.
exists: T bool'T[]bool
Testswhetheranyelementofanarraysatisfiesthe
suppliedpredicate.
exists2: T1 T2 bool'T1[]'T2[]
bool
Testswhetheranypairofcorrespondingelements
oftwoarrayssatisfythesuppliedcondition.
fill:'T[]intint'Tunit
Fillsarangeofelementsofanarraywiththe
suppliedvalue.
filter: T bool'T[]'T[]
Returnsacollectionthatcontainsonlythe
elementsofthesuppliedarrayforwhichthe
suppliedconditionreturnstrue.
find: T bool'T[]'T
Returnsthefirstelementforwhichthesupplied
functionreturnstrue.Raises
KeyNotFoundExceptionifnosuchelementexists.
findIndex: T bool'T[]int
Returnstheindexofthefirstelementinanarray
thatsatisfiesthesuppliedcondition.Raises
KeyNotFoundExceptionifnoneoftheelements
satisfythecondition.
fold: State T State'State'T[]

'State
Appliesafunctiontoeachelementofanarray,
computation.Iftheinputfunctionisfandthearray
elementsarei0...iN,thisfunctioncomputesf
. . . (fsi0...)iN.
fold2: State T1 T2 State'State
Appliesafunctiontopairsofelementsfromtwo
'T1[]'T2[]'State
suppliedarrays,lefttoright,threadingan
accumulatorargumentthroughthecomputation.
Thetwoinputarraysmusthavethesamelengths
otherwise,ArgumentExceptionisraised.
foldBack: T State State'T[]'State

'State
elementsarei0...iN,thisfunctioncomputesfi0
. . . (fiNs).
foldBack2: T1 T2 State State'T1[]

'T2[]'State'State
Appliesafunctiontopairsofelementsfromtwo
suppliedarrays,righttoleft,threadingan
accumulatorargumentthroughthecomputation.
forall: T bool'T[]bool
Testswhetherallelementsofanarraysatisfythe
suppliedcondition.
forall2: T1 T2 bool'T1[]'T2[]
bool
Testswhetherallcorrespondingelementsoftwo
suppliedarrayssatisfyasuppliedcondition.
get:'T[]int'T
Getsanelementfromanarray.
init:intint T'T[]
Usesasuppliedfunctiontocreateanarrayofthe
supplieddimension.
isEmpty:'T[]bool
Testswhetheranarrayhasanyelements.
iter: T unit'T[]unit
array.
iter2: T1 T2 unit'T1[]'T2[]
unit)
Appliesthesuppliedfunctiontoapairofelements
frommatchingindexesintwoarrays.Thetwo
arraysmusthavethesamelengthsotherwise,
ArgumentExceptionisraised.
iteri:int T unit'T[]unit
array.Theintegerpassedtothefunctionindicates
theindexoftheelement.
iteri2:int T1 T2 unit'T1[]'T2[]
unit
Appliesthesuppliedfunctiontoapairofelements
frommatchingindexesintwoarrays,alsopassing
theindexoftheelements.Thetwoarraysmust
havethesamelengthsotherwise,an
length:'T[]int
Returnsthelengthofanarray.TheLength
propertydoesthesamething.
map: T U'T[]'U[]
Createsanarraywhoseelementsaretheresultsof
applyingthesuppliedfunctiontoeachofthe
elementsofasuppliedarray.
map2: T1 T2 U'T1[]'T2[]'U
[]
applyingthesuppliedfunctiontothe
correspondingelementsoftwosuppliedarrays.
mapi:int T U'T[]'U[]
applyingthesuppliedfunctiontoeachofthe
elementsofasuppliedarray.Anintegerindex
passedtothefunctionindicatestheindexofthe
mapi2:int T1 T2 U'T1[]'T2[]
'U[]
applyingthesuppliedfunctiontothe
correspondingelementsofthetwocollections
pairwise,alsopassingtheindexoftheelements.
max:'T[]'T
Returnsthelargestofallelementsofanarray.
Operators.maxisusedtocomparetheelements.
maxBy: T U'T[]'T
Returnsthelargestofallelementsofanarray,
comparedviaOperators.maxonthefunction
result.
min:('T[]'T
Returnsthesmallestofallelementsofanarray.
Operators.minisusedtocomparetheelements.
minBy: T U'T[]'T
Returnsthesmallestofallelementsofanarray.
Operators.minisusedtocomparetheelements.
ofList:'Tlist'T[]
Createsanarrayfromthesuppliedlist.
ofSeq:seq<'T>'T[]
Createsanarrayfromthesuppliedenumerable
object.
partition: T bool'T[]'T[]*'T[]
Splitsanarrayintotwoarrays,onecontainingthe
elementsforwhichthesuppliedconditionreturns
true,andtheothercontainingthoseforwhichit
returnsfalse.
permute:int int'T[]'T[]
Permutestheelementsofanarrayaccordingtothe
specifiedpermutation.
pick: T Uoption'T[]'U
Appliesthesuppliedfunctiontosuccessive
elementsofasuppliedarray,returningthefirst
resultwherethefunctionreturnsSomexforsome
x.IfthefunctionneverreturnsSomex,
KeyNotFoundExceptionisraised.
reduce: T T T'T[]'T
elementsarei0...iN,thisfunctioncomputesf
. . . (fi0i1...)iN.Ifthearrayhassizezero,
reduceBack: T T T'T[]'T
elementsarei0...iN,thisfunctioncomputesfi0
. . . (fiN 1iN).Ifthearrayhassizezero,
rev:'T[]'T[]
Reversestheorderoftheelementsinasupplied
array.
scan: State T State'State'T[]

'State[])
Behaveslikefold,butreturnstheintermediate
resultstogetherwiththefinalresults.
scanBack: T State State'T[]'State

'State[]
BehaveslikefoldBack,butreturnstheintermediary
resultstogetherwiththefinalresults.
set:'T[]int'Tunit
Setsanelementofanarray.
sort:'T[]'T[]
Sortstheelementsofanarrayandreturnsanew
array.Operators.compareisusedtocomparethe
elements.
sortBy: T Key'T[]'T[]
Sortstheelementsofanarraybyusingthe
suppliedfunctiontotransformtheelementstothe
typeonwhichthesortoperationisbased,and
returnsanewarray.Operators.compareisusedto
comparetheelements.
sortInPlace:'T[]unit
Sortstheelementsofanarraybychangingthe
arrayinplace,usingthesuppliedcomparison
function.Operators.compareisusedtocompare
theelements.
sortInPlaceBy: T Key'T[]unit
Sortstheelementsofanarraybychangingthe
arrayinplace,usingthesuppliedprojectionforthe
keys.Operators.compareisusedtocomparethe
elements.
sortInPlaceWith: T T int'T[]unit
suppliedcomparisonfunctiontochangethearray
inplace.
sortWith: T T int'T[]'T[]
suppliedcomparisonfunction,andreturnsanew
array.
sub:'T[]intint'T[]
Createsanarraythatcontainsthesupplied
subrange,whichisspecifiedbystartingindexand
length.
sum:'T[]^T
Returnsthesumoftheelementsinthearray.
sumBy: T U'T[]Û
applyingafunctiontoeachelementofanarray.
toList:'T[]'Tlist
Convertsthesuppliedarraytoalist.
toSeq:'T[]seq<'T>
Viewsthesuppliedarrayasasequence.
tryFind: T bool'T[]'Toption
Returnsthefirstelementinthesuppliedarrayfor
whichthesuppliedfunctionreturnstrue.Returns
Noneifnosuchelementexists.
tryFindIndex: T bool'T[]intoption
Returnstheindexofthefirstelementinanarray
thatsatisfiesthesuppliedcondition.
tryPick: T Uoption'T[]'Uoption
Appliesthesuppliedfunctiontosuccessive
elementsofthesuppliedarray,andreturnsthe
firstresultwherethefunctionreturnsSomexfor
somex.IfthefunctionneverreturnsSomex,None
isreturned.
unzip: T1 T2[]'T1[]*'T2[]
Splitsanarrayoftuplepairsintoatupleoftwo
arrays.
unzip3: T1 T2 T3[]'T1[]*'T2[]*'T3
[]
Splitsanarrayoftuplesofthreeelementsintoa
tupleofthreearrays.
zeroCreate:int'T[]
Createsanarraywhoseelementsareinitiallysetto
thedefaultvalueUnchecked.defaultof<'T>.
zip:'T1[]'T2[] T1 T2[]
Combinestwoarraysintoanarrayoftuplesthat
havetwoelements.Thetwoarraysmusthaveequal
lengthsotherwise,ArgumentExceptionisraised.
zip3:'T1[]'T2[]'T3[]
T1 T2 113 T3[]
Combinesthreearraysintoanarrayoftuplesthat
havethreeelements.Thethreearraysmusthave
equallengthsotherwise,ArgumentExceptionis
raised.
Inthefollowingsection,wewillseetheusesofsomeofthesefunctionalities.
CreatingArraysUsingFunctions
TheArraymoduleprovidesseveralfunctionsthatcreateanarrayfromscratch.
TheArray.emptyfunctioncreatesanewemptyarray.
TheArray.createfunctioncreatesanarrayofaspecifiedsizeandsetsalltheelementstogiven
values.
TheArray.initfunctioncreatesanarray,givenadimensionandafunctiontogeneratethe
elements.
TheArray.zeroCreatefunctioncreatesanarrayinwhichalltheelementsareinitializedtothe
zerovalue.
TheArray.copyfunctioncreatesanewarraythatcontainselementsthatarecopiedfroman
existingarray.
TheArray.subfunctiongeneratesanewarrayfromasubrangeofanarray.
TheArray.appendfunctioncreatesanewarraybycombiningtwoexistingarrays.
TheArray.choosefunctionselectselementsofanarraytoincludeinanewarray.
TheArray.collectfunctionrunsaspecifiedfunctiononeacharrayelementofanexistingarray
andthencollectstheelementsgeneratedbythefunctionandcombinesthemintoanewarray.
TheArray.concatfunctiontakesasequenceofarraysandcombinesthemintoasinglearray.
TheArray.filterfunctiontakesaBooleanconditionfunctionandgeneratesanewarraythat
containsonlythoseelementsfromtheinputarrayforwhichtheconditionistrue.
TheArray.revfunctiongeneratesanewarraybyreversingtheorderofanexistingarray.
Thefollowingexamplesdemonstratethesefunctions
Example1
(*usingcreateandset*)
letarray1=Array.create10""
Array.setarray1i(i.ToString())
printf"%s"(Array.getarray1i)
printfn""
(*emptyarray*)
letarray2=Array.empty
printfn"Lengthofemptyarray:%d"array2.Length
letarray3=Array.create107.0
printfn"FloatArray:%A"array3
(*usingtheinitandzeroCreate*)
letarray4=Array.init10(funindex>index*index)
printfn"Arrayofsquares:%A"array4
letarray5:floatarray=Array.zeroCreate10
let(myZeroArray:floatarray)=Array.zeroCreate10
printfn"FloatArray:%A"array5
0123456789
Lengthofemptyarray:0
FloatArray:[|7.0;7.0;7.0;7.0;7.0;7.0;7.0;7.0;7.0;7.0|]
Arrayofsquares:[|0;1;4;9;16;25;36;49;64;81|]
FloatArray:[|0.0;0.0;0.0;0.0;0.0;0.0;0.0;0.0;0.0;0.0|]
Example2
(*creatingsubarrayfromelement5*)
(*containing15elementsthereon*)
letarray1=[|0..50|]
letarray2=Array.subarray1515
printfn"SubArray:"
printfn"%A"array2
(*appendingtwoarrays*)
letarray3=[|1;2;3;4|]
letarray4=[|5..9|]
printfn"AppendedArray:"
letarray5=Array.appendarray3array4
printfn"%A"array5
(*usingtheChoosefunction*)
letarray6=[|1..20|]
letarray7=Array.choose(funelem>ifelem%3=0then
Some(float(elem))
else
None)array6
printfn"ArraywithChosenelements:"
printfn"%A"array7
(*usingtheCollectfunction*)
letarray8=[|2..5|]
letarray9=Array.collect(funelem>[|0..elem1|])array8
printfn"Arraywithcollectedelements:"
printfn"%A"array9
SubArray:
[|5;6;7;8;9;10;11;12;13;14;15;16;17;18;19|]
AppendedArray:
[|1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9|]
ArraywithChosenelements:
[|3.0;6.0;9.0;12.0;15.0;18.0|]
Arraywithcollectedelements:
[|0;1;0;1;2;0;1;2;3;0;1;2;3;4|]
SearchingArrays
TheArray.findfunctiontakesaBooleanfunctionandreturnsthefirstelementforwhichthefunction
returnstrue,elseraisesaKeyNotFoundException.
TheArray.findIndexfunctionworkssimilarlyexceptthatitreturnstheindexoftheelementinsteadof
theelementitself.
Microsoftprovidesthisinterestingprogramexample,whichfindsthefirstelementintherangeofa
givennumberthatisbothaperfectsquareaswellasaperfectcube
letarray1=[|2..100|]
letdelta=1.0e10
letisPerfectSquare(x:int)=
lety=sqrt(floatx)
abs(yroundy)<delta
letisPerfectCube(x:int)=
lety=System.Math.Pow(floatx,1.0/3.0)
abs(yroundy)<delta
letelement=Array.find(funelem>isPerfectSquareelem&&isPerfectCubeelem)array1
letindex=Array.findIndex(funelem>isPerfectSquareelem&&isPerfectCubeelem)
array1
printfn"Thefirstelementthatisbothasquareandacubeis%danditsindexis%d."
elementindex
Thefirstelementthatisbothasquareandacubeis64anditsindexis62.
F#MUTABLELISTS
TheList<'T>classrepresentsastronglytypedlistofobjectsthatcanbeaccessedbyindex.
ItisamutablecounterpartoftheListclass.Itissimilartoarrays,asitcanbeaccessedbyanindex,
however,unlikearrays,listscanberesized.Thereforeyouneednotspecifyasizeduringdeclaration.
CreatingaMutableList
Listsarecreatedusingthenewkeywordandcallingthelist'sconstructor.Thefollowingexample
demonstratesthis
(*CreatingaList*)
openSystem.Collections.Generic
letbooksList=newList<string>()
booksList.Add("GonewiththeWind")
booksList.Add("AtlasShrugged")
booksList.Add("Fountainhead")
booksList.Add("Thornbirds")
booksList.Add("Rebecca")
booksList.Add("Narnia")
booksList|>Seq.iteri(funindexitem>printfn"%i:%s"indexbooksList.[index])
0:GonewiththeWind
1:AtlasShrugged
2:Fountainhead
3:Thornbirds
4:Rebecca
5:Narnia
TheListTClass
TheListTclassrepresentsastronglytypedlistofobjectsthatcanbeaccessedbyindex.Itprovide
methodstosearch,sort,andmanipulatelists.
Thefollowingtablesprovidetheproperties,constructorsandthemethodsoftheListTclass
Properties
Property
Description
Capacity
Getsorsetsthetotalnumberofelementstheinternaldatastructurecanholdwithout
resizing.
Count
GetsthenumberofelementscontainedintheListT.
Item
Getsorsetstheelementatthespecifiedindex.
Constructors
Constructor
Description
ListT
InitializesanewinstanceoftheListTclassthatisemptyandhasthe
defaultinitialcapacity.
ListTIEnumerable(T)
InitializesanewinstanceoftheListTclassthatcontainselements
copiedfromthespecifiedcollectionandhassufficientcapacityto
accommodatethenumberofelementscopied.
ListTInt32
InitializesanewinstanceoftheListTclassthatisemptyandhasthe
specifiedinitialcapacity.
Method
Methods
Description
Add
AddsanobjecttotheendoftheListT.
AddRange
Addstheelementsofthespecifiedcollectiontothe
endoftheListT.
AsReadOnly
ReturnsareadonlyIListTwrapperforthecurrent
collection.
BinarySearchT
SearchestheentiresortedListTforanelementusing
thedefaultcomparerandreturnsthezerobasedindex
oftheelement.
BinarySearchT, IComparer(T)
SearchestheentiresortedListTforanelementusing
thespecifiedcomparerandreturnsthezerobased
indexoftheelement.
BinarySearchInt32, Int32, T, IComparer(T)
SearchesarangeofelementsinthesortedListTforan
elementusingthespecifiedcomparerandreturnsthe
zerobasedindexoftheelement.
Clear
RemovesallelementsfromtheListT.
Contains
DetermineswhetheranelementisintheListT.
ConvertAllTOutput
ConvertstheelementsinthecurrentListTtoanother
type,andreturnsalistcontainingtheconverted
elements.
CopyToT[]
CopiestheentireListTtoacompatibleone
dimensionalarray,startingatthebeginningofthe
targetarray.
CopyToT[], Int32
CopiestheentireListTtoacompatibleone
dimensionalarray,startingatthespecifiedindexof
thetargetarray.
CopyToInt32, T[], Int32, Int32
CopiesarangeofelementsfromtheListTtoa
compatibleonedimensionalarray,startingatthe
specifiedindexofthetargetarray.
EqualsObject
Determineswhetherthespecifiedobjectisequalto
thecurrentobject.InheritedfromObject.
Exists
DetermineswhethertheListTcontainselementsthat
matchtheconditionsdefinedbythespecified
predicate.
Finalize
Allowsanobjecttotrytofreeresourcesandperform
othercleanupoperationsbeforeitisreclaimedby
garbagecollectionInheritedfromObject.
Find
Searchesforanelementthatmatchestheconditions
definedbythespecifiedpredicate,andreturnsthe
firstoccurrencewithintheentireListT.
FindAll
Retrievesalltheelementsthatmatchtheconditions
definedbythespecifiedpredicate.
FindIndexPredicate(T)
zerobasedindexofthefirstoccurrencewithinthe
entireListT.
FindIndexInt32, Predicate(T)
rangeofelementsintheListTthatextendsfromthe
specifiedindextothelastelement.
FindIndexInt32, Int32, Predicate(T)
rangeofelementsintheListTthatstartsatthe
specifiedindexandcontainsthespecifiednumberof
elements.
FindLast
definedbythespecifiedpredicate,andreturnsthelast
occurrencewithintheentireListT.
FindLastIndexPredicate(T)
zerobasedindexofthelastoccurrencewithinthe
entireListT.
FindLastIndexInt32, Predicate(T)
rangeofelementsintheListTthatextendsfromthe
firstelementtothespecifiedindex.
FindLastIndexInt32, Int32, Predicate(T)
rangeofelementsintheListTthatcontainsthe
specifiednumberofelementsandendsatthespecified
index.
ForEach
Performsthespecifiedactiononeachelementofthe
ListT.
GetEnumerator
ReturnsanenumeratorthatiteratesthroughtheListT
.
GetHashCode
Servesasthedefaulthashfunction.
InheritedfromObject.
GetRange
Createsashallowcopyofarangeofelementsinthe
sourceListT.
GetType
GetstheTypeofthecurrentinstance.
IndexOfT
Searchesforthespecifiedobjectandreturnsthezero
basedindexofthefirstoccurrencewithintheentire
ListT.
IndexOfT, Int32
basedindexofthefirstoccurrencewithintherangeof
elementsintheListTthatextendsfromthespecified
indextothelastelement.
IndexOfT, Int32, Int32
basedindexofthefirstoccurrencewithintherangeof
elementsintheListTthatstartsatthespecifiedindex
andcontainsthespecifiednumberofelements.
Insert
InsertsanelementintotheListTatthespecifiedindex.
InsertRange
InsertstheelementsofacollectionintotheListTat
thespecifiedindex.
LastIndexOfT
basedindexofthelastoccurrencewithintheentire
ListT.
LastIndexOfT, Int32
basedindexofthelastoccurrencewithintherangeof
elementsintheListTthatextendsfromthefirst
elementtothespecifiedindex.
LastIndexOfT, Int32, Int32
basedindexofthelastoccurrencewithintherangeof
elementsintheListTthatcontainsthespecified
numberofelementsandendsatthespecifiedindex.
MemberwiseClone
CreatesashallowcopyofthecurrentObject.
Remove
Removesthefirstoccurrenceofaspecificobjectfrom
theListT.
RemoveAll
Removesalltheelementsthatmatchtheconditions
definedbythespecifiedpredicate.
RemoveAt
RemovestheelementatthespecifiedindexoftheList
T.
RemoveRange
RemovesarangeofelementsfromtheListT.
Reverse
ReversestheorderoftheelementsintheentireListT.
ReverseInt32, Int32
Reversestheorderoftheelementsinthespecified
range.
Sort
SortstheelementsintheentireListTusingthedefault
comparer.
SortComparison(T)
SortstheelementsintheentireListTusingthe
specifiedSystem.ComparisonT.
SortIComparer(T)
SortstheelementsintheentireListTusingthe
specifiedcomparer.
SortInt32, Int32, IComparer(T)
SortstheelementsinarangeofelementsinListT
usingthespecifiedcomparer.
ToArray
CopiestheelementsoftheListTtoanewarray.
ToString
Returnsastringthatrepresentsthecurrentobject.
TrimExcess
Setsthecapacitytotheactualnumberofelementsin
theListT,ifthatnumberislessthanathresholdvalue.
TrueForAll
DetermineswhethereveryelementintheListT
matchestheconditionsdefinedbythespecified
predicate.
Example
(*CreatingaList*)
letbooksList=newList<string>()
booksList.Add("GonewiththeWind")
booksList.Add("AtlasShrugged")
booksList.Add("Fountainhead")
booksList.Add("Thornbirds")
booksList.Add("Rebecca")
booksList.Add("Narnia")
printfn"Total%dbooks"booksList.Count
booksList.Insert(2,"Roots")
printfn("afterinsertingatindex2")
booksList.RemoveAt(3)
printfn("afterremovingfromindex3")
Total6books
0:GonewiththeWind
1:AtlasShrugged
2:Fountainhead
3:Thornbirds
4:Rebecca
5:Narnia
afterinsertingatindex2
Total7books
0:GonewiththeWind
1:AtlasShrugged
2:Roots
3:Fountainhead
4:Thornbirds
5:Rebecca
6:Narnia
afterremovingfromindex3
Total6books
0:GonewiththeWind
1:AtlasShrugged
2:Roots
3:Thornbirds
4:Rebecca
5:Narnia
F#MUTABLEDICTIONARY
TheDictionary<'TKey,'TValue>classisthemutableanalogoftheF#mapdatastructureand
containsmanyofthesamefunctions.
RecapitulatingfromtheMapchapterinF#,amapisaspecialkindofsetthatassociatesthevalueswith
key.
CreatingofaMutableDictionary
Mutabledictionariesarecreatedusingthenewkeywordandcallingthelist'sconstructor.Thefollowing
exampledemonstratesthis
letdict=newDictionary<string,string>()
dict.Add("1501","ZaraAli")
dict.Add("1502","RishitaGupta")
dict.Add("1503","RobinSahoo")
dict.Add("1504","GillianMegan")
printfn"Dictionarystudents:%A"dict
Dictionarystudents:seq
[[1501,ZaraAli];[1502,RishitaGupta];[1503,RobinSahoo];
[1504,GillianMegan]]
TheDictionaryTKey, TValueClass
TheDictionaryTKey, TValueClassrepresentsacollectionofkeysandvalues.
Thefollowingtablesprovidetheproperties,constructorsandthemethodsoftheListTclass
Properties
Property
Description
Comparer
GetstheIEqualityComparerTthatisusedtodetermineequalityofkeysforthe
dictionary.
Count
Getsthenumberofkey/valuepairscontainedintheDictionaryTKey, TValue.
Item
Getsorsetsthevalueassociatedwiththespecifiedkey.
Keys
GetsacollectioncontainingthekeysintheDictionaryTKey, TValue.
Values
GetsacollectioncontainingthevaluesintheDictionaryTKey, TValue.
Constructors
Constructors
Description
DictionaryTKey, TValue
InitializesanewinstanceoftheDictionaryTKey, TValueclass
thatisempty,hasthedefaultinitialcapacity,andusesthedefault
equalitycomparerforthekeytype.
IDictionary(TKey, TValue)
thatcontainselementscopiedfromthespecifiedIDictionary
TKey, TValueandusesthedefaultequalitycomparerforthekey
type.
IEqualityComparer(TKey)
thatisempty,hasthedefaultinitialcapacity,andusesthe
specifiedIEqualityComparerT.
DictionaryTKey, TValueInt32
thatisempty,hasthespecifiedinitialcapacity,andusesthe
defaultequalitycomparerforthekeytype.
IDictionary(TKey, TValue,
IEqualityComparerTKey)
thatcontainselementscopiedfromthespecifiedIDictionary
TKey, TValueandusesthespecifiedIEqualityComparerT.
Int32, IEqualityComparer(TKey)
thatisempty,hasthespecifiedinitialcapacity,andusesthe
specifiedIEqualityComparerT.
SerializationInfo, StreamingContext
InitializesanewinstanceoftheictionaryTKey, TValueclasswith
serializeddata.
Methods
Method
Description
Add
Addsthespecifiedkeyandvaluetothedictionary.
Clear
RemovesallkeysandvaluesfromtheDictionaryTKey, TValue.
ContainsKey
DetermineswhethertheDictionaryTKey, TValuecontainsthespecifiedkey.
ContainsValue
DetermineswhethertheDictionaryTKey, TValuecontainsaspecificvalue.
EqualsObject
Determineswhetherthespecifiedobjectisequaltothecurrentobject.
Finalize
Allowsanobjecttotrytofreeresourcesandperformothercleanupoperations
beforeitisreclaimedbygarbagecollection.InheritedfromObject.
GetEnumerator
ReturnsanenumeratorthatiteratesthroughtheDictionaryTKey, TValue.
GetHashCode
Servesasthedefaulthashfunction.InheritedfromObject.
GetObjectData
ImplementstheSystem.Runtime.Serialization.ISerializableinterfaceand
returnsthedataneededtoserializetheDictionaryTKey, TValueinstance.
GetType
GetstheTypeofthecurrentinstance.InheritedfromObject.
MemberwiseClone
CreatesashallowcopyofthecurrentObject.InheritedfromObject.
OnDeserialization
ImplementstheSystem.Runtime.Serialization.ISerializableinterfaceandraises
thedeserializationeventwhenthedeserializationiscomplete.
Remove
RemovesthevaluewiththespecifiedkeyfromtheDictionaryTKey, TValue.
ToString
Returnsastringthatrepresentsthecurrentobject.InheritedfromObject.
TryGetValue
Getsthevalueassociatedwiththespecifiedkey.
Example
letdict=newDictionary<string,string>()
dict.Add("1501","ZaraAli")
dict.Add("1502","RishitaGupta")
dict.Add("1503","RobinSahoo")
dict.Add("1504","GillianMegan")
printfn"Dictionarystudents:%A"dict
printfn"TotalNumberofStudents:%d"dict.Count
printfn"Thekeys:%A"dict.Keys
printf"TheValues:%A"dict.Values
Dictionarystudents:seq
[[1501,ZaraAli];[1502,RishitaGupta];[1503,RobinSahoo];
[1504,GillianMegan]]
TotalNumberofStudents:4
Thekeys:seq["1501";"1502";"1503";"1504"]
TheValues:seq["ZaraAli";"RishitaGupta";"RobinSahoo";"GillianMegan"]
F#BASICIO
BasicInputOutputincludes
Readingfromandwritingintoconsole.
Readingfromandwritingintofile.
Core.PrintfModule
Wehaveusedtheprintfandtheprintfnfunctionsforwritingintotheconsole.Inthissection,wewill
lookintothedetailsofthePrintfmoduleofF#.
Apartfromtheabovefunctions,theCore.PrintfmoduleofF#hasvariousothermethodsforprinting
andformattingusing%markersasplaceholders.Thefollowingtableshowsthemethodswithbrief
description
Value
Description
bprintf:StringBuilderBuilderFormat<'T>
'T
PrintstoaStringBuilder.
eprintf:TextWriterFormat<'T>'T
Printsformattedoutputtostderr.
eprintfn:TextWriterFormat<'T>'T
Printsformattedoutputtostderr,addinga
newline.
failwithf:StringFormat<'T,'Result>'T
Printstoastringbufferandraisesanexception
withthegivenresult.
fprintf:TextWriterTextWriterFormat<'T>
'T
Printstoatextwriter.
fprintfn:TextWriterTextWriterFormat<'T>
'T
Printstoatextwriter,addinganewline.
kbprintf:unit ResultStringBuilder
BuilderFormat<'T,'Result>'T
Likebprintf,butcallsthespecifiedfunctionto
generatetheresult.
kfprintf:unit ResultTextWriter
TextWriterFormat<'T,'Result>'T
Likefprintf,butcallsthespecifiedfunctionto
generatetheresult.
kprintf:string Result
StringFormat<'T,'Result>'T
Likeprintf,butcallsthespecifiedfunctionto
generatetheresult.Forexample,theseletthe
printingforceaflushafteralloutputhasbeen
enteredontothechannel,butnotbefore.
ksprintf:string Result
StringFormat<'T,'Result>'T
Likesprintf,butcallsthespecifiedfunctionto
generatetheresult.
printf:TextWriterFormat<'T>'T
Printsformattedoutputtostdout.
printfn:TextWriterFormat<'T>'T
Printsformattedoutputtostdout,addinga
newline.
sprintf:StringFormat<'T>'T
Printstoastringbyusinganinternalstring
bufferandreturnstheresultasastring.
FormatSpecifications
Formatspecificationsareusedforformattingtheinputoroutput,accordingtotheprogrammersneed.
Thesearestringswith%markersindicatingformatplaceholders.
ThesyntaxofaFormatplaceholdersis
%[flags][width][.precision][type]
Thetypeisinterpretedas
Type
Description
%b
Formatsabool,formattedastrueorfalse.
%c
Formatsacharacter.
%s
Formatsastring,formattedasitscontents,withoutinterpretingany
escapecharacters.
%d,%i
Formatsanybasicintegertypeformattedasadecimalinteger,signedif
thebasicintegertypeissigned.
%u
Formatsanybasicintegertypeformattedasanunsigneddecimal
integer.
%x
Formatsanybasicintegertypeformattedasanunsignedhexadecimal
integer,usinglowercaselettersathroughf.
%X
Formatsanybasicintegertypeformattedasanunsignedhexadecimal
integer,usinguppercaselettersAthroughF.
%o
Formatsanybasicintegertypeformattedasanunsignedoctalinteger.
%e,%E,%f,%F,%g,%G
Formatsanybasicfloatingpointtypefloat, float32formattedusingaC
stylefloatingpointformatspecifications.
%e,%E
Formatsasignedvaluehavingtheform[]d.dddde[sign]dddwheredisa
singledecimaldigit,ddddisoneormoredecimaldigits,dddisexactly
threedecimaldigits,andsignis+or.
%f
Formatsasignedvaluehavingtheform[]dddd.dddd,whereddddis
oneormoredecimaldigits.Thenumberofdigitsbeforethedecimal
pointdependsonthemagnitudeofthenumber,andthenumberof
digitsafterthedecimalpointdependsontherequestedprecision.
%g,%G
Formatsasignedvalueprintedinforeformat,whicheverismore
compactforthegivenvalueandprecision.
%M
FormatsaDecimalvalue.
%O
Formatsanyvalue,printedbyboxingtheobjectandusingitsToString
method.
%A,%+A
Formatsanyvalue,printedwiththedefaultlayoutsettings.Use%+Ato
printthestructureofdiscriminatedunionswithinternalandprivate
representations.
%a
Ageneralformatspecifier,requirestwoarguments.Thefirstargument
isafunctionwhichacceptstwoarguments:first,acontextparameterof
theappropriatetypeforthegivenformattingfunction
forexample, aTextWriter,andsecond,avaluetoprintandwhicheither
outputsorreturnsappropriatetext.
Thesecondargumentistheparticularvaluetoprint.
%t
Ageneralformatspecifier,requiresoneargument:afunctionwhich
acceptsacontextparameteroftheappropriatetypeforthegiven
formattingfunctionaTextWriterandwhicheitheroutputsorreturns
appropriatetext.Basicintegertypesarebyte,sbyte,int16,uint16,
int32,uint32,int64,uint64,nativeint,andunativeint.Basic
floatingpointtypesarefloatandfloat32.
Thewidthisanoptionalparameter.Itisanintegerthatindicatestheminimalwidthoftheresult.For
example,%5dprintsanintegerwithatleastspacesof5characters.
Validflagsaredescribedinthefollowingtable
Value
Description
Specifiestoaddzerosinsteadofspacestomakeuptherequiredwidth.
Specifiestoleftjustifytheresultwithinthewidthspecified.
Specifiestoadda+characterifthenumberispositivetomatcha signfornegativenumbers.
''space
Specifiestoaddanextraspaceifthenumberispositivetomatcha signfornegativenumbers.
Invalid.
Example
printf"Hello"
printf"World"
printfn""
printfn"Hello"
printfn"World"
printf"Hi,I'm%sandI'ma%s""Rohit""MedicalStudent"
printfn"d:%f"212.098f
printfn"e:%f"504.768f
printfn"x:%g"212.098f
printfn"y:%g"504.768f
printfn"x:%e"212.098f
printfn"y:%e"504.768f
printfn"True:%b"true
HelloWorld
Hello
World
Hi,I'mRohitandI'maMedicalStudentd:212.098000
e:504.768000
x:212.098
y:504.768
x:2.120980e+002
y:5.047680e+002
True:true
TheConsoleClass
Thisclassisapartofthe.NETframework.Itrepresentsthestandardinput,output,anderrorstreams
forconsoleapplications.
Itprovidesvariousmethodsforreadingfromandwritingintotheconsole.Thefollowingtableshowsthe
methods
Method
Description
Beep
Playsthe
soundofa
beepthrough
theconsole
speaker.
BeepInt32, Int32
Playsthe
soundofa
beepofa
specified
frequencyand
duration
throughthe
console
speaker.
Clear
Clearsthe
consolebuffer
and
corresponding
console
windowof
display
information.
MoveBufferAreaInt32, Int32, Int32, Int32, Int32, Int32
Copiesa
specified
sourceareaof
thescreen
buffertoa
specified
destination
area.
MoveBufferAreaInt32, Int32, Int32, Int32, Int32, Int32, Char, ConsoleColor, ConsoleColor
Copiesa
specified
sourceareaof
thescreen
buffertoa
specified
destination
area.
OpenStandardError
Acquiresthe
standarderror
stream.
OpenStandardErrorInt32
Acquiresthe
standarderror
stream,which
issettoa
specified
buffersize.
OpenStandardInput
Acquiresthe
standardinput
stream.
OpenStandardInputInt32
Acquiresthe
standardinput
stream,which
issettoa
specified
buffersize.
OpenStandardOutput
Acquiresthe
standard
outputstream.
OpenStandardOutputInt32
Acquiresthe
standard
outputstream,
whichissetto
aspecified
buffersize.
Read
Readsthenext
characterfrom
thestandard
inputstream.
ReadKey
Obtainsthe
nextcharacter
orfunction
keypressedby
theuser.The
pressedkeyis
displayedin
theconsole
window.
ReadKeyBoolean
Obtainsthe
nextcharacter
orfunction
keypressedby
theuser.The
pressedkeyis
optionally
displayedin
theconsole
window.
ReadLine
Readsthenext
lineof
characters
fromthe
standardinput
stream.
ResetColor
Setsthe
foreground
and
background
consolecolors
totheir
defaults.
SetBufferSize
Setstheheight
andwidthof
thescreen
bufferareato
thespecified
values.
SetCursorPosition
Setsthe
positionofthe
cursor.
SetError
SetstheError
propertyto
thespecified
TextWriter
object.
SetIn
SetstheIn
propertyto
thespecified
TextReader
object.
SetOut
SetstheOut
propertyto
thespecified
TextWriter
object.
SetWindowPosition
Setsthe
positionofthe
console
window
relativetothe
screenbuffer.
SetWindowSize
Setstheheight
andwidthof
theconsole
windowtothe
specified
values.
WriteBoolean
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
Booleanvalue
tothe
standard
outputstream.
WriteChar
Writesthe
specified
Unicode
character
valuetothe
standard
outputstream.
WriteChar[]
Writesthe
specifiedarray
ofUnicode
charactersto
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteDecimal
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
Decimalvalue
tothe
standard
outputstream.
WriteDouble
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
double
precision
floatingpoint
valuetothe
standard
outputstream.
WriteInt32
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified32
bitsigned
integervalue
tothe
standard
outputstream.
WriteInt64
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified64
bitsigned
integervalue
tothe
standard
outputstream.
WriteObject
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
objecttothe
standard
outputstream.
WriteSingle
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
single
precision
floatingpoint
valuetothe
standard
outputstream.
WriteString
Writesthe
specified
stringvalueto
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteUInt32
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified32
bitunsigned
integervalue
tothe
standard
outputstream.
WriteUInt64
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified64
bitunsigned
integervalue
tothe
standard
outputstream.
WriteString, Object
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
objecttothe
standard
outputstream
usingthe
specified
format
information.
WriteString, Object[]
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specifiedarray
ofobjectsto
thestandard
outputstream
usingthe
specified
format
information.
WriteChar[], Int32, Int32
Writesthe
specified
subarrayof
Unicode
charactersto
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteString, Object, Object
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
objectstothe
standard
outputstream
usingthe
specified
format
information.
WriteString, Object, Object, Object
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
objectstothe
standard
outputstream
usingthe
specified
format
information.
WriteString, Object, Object, Object, Object
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
objectsand
variable
length
parameterlist
tothe
standard
outputstream
usingthe
specified
format
information.
WriteLine
Writesthe
currentline
terminatorto
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineBoolean
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
Booleanvalue,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineChar
Writesthe
specified
Unicode
character,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,
valuetothe
standard
outputstream.
WriteLineChar[]
Writesthe
specifiedarray
ofUnicode
characters,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineDecimal
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
Decimalvalue,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineDouble
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
double
precision
floatingpoint
value,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineInt32
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified32
bitsigned
integervalue,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineInt64
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified64
bitsigned
integervalue,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineObject
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
object,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineSingle
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
single
precision
floatingpoint
value,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineString
Writesthe
specified
stringvalue,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineUInt32
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified32
bitunsigned
integervalue,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineUInt64
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified64
bitunsigned
integervalue,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineString, Object
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
object,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream
usingthe
specified
format
information.
WriteLineString, Object[]
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specifiedarray
ofobjects,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream
usingthe
specified
format
information.
WriteLineChar[], Int32, Int32
Writesthe
specified
subarrayof
Unicode
characters,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream.
WriteLineString, Object, Object
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
objects,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream
usingthe
specified
format
information.
WriteLineString, Object, Object, Object
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
objects,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream
usingthe
specified
format
information.
WriteLineString, Object, Object, Object, Object
Writesthetext
representation
ofthe
specified
objectsand
variable
length
parameterlist,
followedby
thecurrent
line
terminator,to
thestandard
outputstream
usingthe
specified
format
information.
Thefollowingexampledemonstratesreadingfromconsoleandwritingintoit
Example
openSystem
letmain()=
Console.Write("What'syourname?")
letname=Console.ReadLine()
Console.Write("Hello,{0}\n",name)
Console.WriteLine(System.String.Format("BigGreetingsfrom{0}and{1}",
"TutorialsPoint","AbsoulteClasses"))
Console.WriteLine(System.String.Format("|{0:yyyyMMMdd}|",System.DateTime.Now))
main()
What'syourname?Kabir
Hello,Kabir
BigGreetingsfromTutorialsPointandAbsoulteClasses
|2015Jan05|
TheSystem.IONamespace
TheSystem.IOnamespacecontainsavarietyofusefulclassesforperformingbasicI/O.
Itcontainstypesorclassesthatallowreadingandwritingtofilesanddatastreamsandtypesthatprovide
basicfileanddirectorysupport.
Classesusefulforworkingwiththefilesystem
TheSystem.IO.Fileclassisusedforcreating,appending,anddeletingfiles.
System.IO.Directoryclassisusedforcreating,moving,anddeletingdirectories.
System.IO.Pathclassperformsoperationsonstrings,whichrepresentfilepaths.
System.IO.FileSystemWatcherclassallowsuserstolistentoadirectoryforchanges.
Classesusefulforworkingwiththestreamssequenceofbytes
System.IO.StreamReaderclassisusedtoreadcharactersfromastream.
System.IO.StreamWriterclassisusedtowritecharacterstoastream.
System.IO.MemoryStreamclasscreatesaninmemorystreamofbytes.
Thefollowingtableshowsalltheclassesprovidedinthenamespacealongwithabriefdescription
Class
Description
BinaryReader
Readsprimitivedatatypesasbinaryvaluesinaspecific
encoding.
BinaryWriter
Writesprimitivetypesinbinarytoastreamandsupports
writingstringsinaspecificencoding.
BufferedStream
Addsabufferinglayertoreadandwriteoperationson
anotherstream.
Directory
Exposesstaticmethodsforcreating,moving,and
enumeratingthroughdirectoriesandsubdirectories.
DirectoryInfo
Exposesinstancemethodsforcreating,moving,and
enumeratingthroughdirectoriesandsubdirectories.
DirectoryNotFoundException
Theexceptionthatisthrownwhenpartofafileordirectory
cannotbefound.
DriveInfo
Providesaccesstoinformationonadrive.
DriveNotFoundException
Theexceptionthatisthrownwhentryingtoaccessadriveor
sharethatisnotavailable.
EndOfStreamException
Theexceptionthatisthrownwhenreadingisattemptedpast
theendofastream.
ErrorEventArgs
ProvidesdatafortheFileSystemWatcher.Errorevent.
File
Providesstaticmethodsforthecreation,copying,deletion,
moving,andopeningofasinglefile,andaidsinthecreation
ofFileStreamobjects.
FileFormatException
Theexceptionthatisthrownwhenaninputfileoradata
streamthatissupposedtoconformtoacertainfileformat
specificationismalformed.
FileInfo
Providespropertiesandinstancemethodsforthecreation,
copying,deletion,moving,andopeningoffiles,andaidsin
thecreationofFileStreamobjects.
FileLoadException
Theexceptionthatisthrownwhenamanagedassemblyis
foundbutcannotbeloaded.
FileNotFoundException
Theexceptionthatisthrownwhenanattempttoaccessafile
thatdoesnotexistondiskfails.
FileStream
ExposesaStreamaroundafile,supportingbothsynchronous
andasynchronousreadandwriteoperations.
FileSystemEventArgs
ProvidesdataforthedirectoryeventsChanged,Created,
Deleted.
FileSystemInfo
ProvidesthebaseclassforbothFileInfoandDirectoryInfo
objects.
FileSystemWatcher
Listenstothefilesystemchangenotificationsandraises
eventswhenadirectory,orfileinadirectory,changes.
InternalBufferOverflowException
Theexceptionthrownwhentheinternalbufferoverflows.
InvalidDataException
Theexceptionthatisthrownwhenadatastreamisinan
invalidformat.
IODescriptionAttribute
Setsthedescriptionvisualdesignerscandisplaywhen
referencinganevent,extender,orproperty.
IOException
TheexceptionthatisthrownwhenanI/Oerroroccurs.
MemoryStream
Createsastreamwhosebackingstoreismemory.
Path
PerformsoperationsonStringinstancesthatcontainfileor
directorypathinformation.Theseoperationsareperformed
inacrossplatformmanner.
PathTooLongException
Theexceptionthatisthrownwhenapathorfilenameis
longerthanthesystemdefinedmaximumlength.
PipeException
Thrownwhenanerroroccurswithinanamedpipe.
RenamedEventArgs
ProvidesdatafortheRenamedevent.
Stream
Providesagenericviewofasequenceofbytes.Thisisan
abstractclass.
StreamReader
ImplementsaTextReaderthatreadscharactersfromabyte
streaminaparticularencoding.
StreamWriter
ImplementsaTextWriterforwritingcharacterstoastream
inaparticularencoding.Tobrowsethe.NETFramework
sourcecodeforthistype,seetheReferenceSource.
StringReader
ImplementsaTextReaderthatreadsfromastring.
StringWriter
ImplementsaTextWriterforwritinginformationtoastring.
TheinformationisstoredinanunderlyingStringBuilder.
TextReader
Representsareaderthatcanreadasequentialseriesof
characters.
TextWriter
Representsawriterthatcanwriteasequentialseriesof
characters.Thisclassisabstract.
UnmanagedMemoryAccessor
Providesrandomaccesstounmanagedblocksofmemory
frommanagedcode.
UnmanagedMemoryStream
Providesaccesstounmanagedblocksofmemoryfrom
managedcode.
WindowsRuntimeStorageExtensions
ContainsextensionmethodsfortheIStorageFileand
IStorageFolderinterfacesintheWindowsRuntimewhen
developingWindowsStoreapps.
WindowsRuntimeStreamExtensions
Containsextensionmethodsforconvertingbetweenstreams
intheWindowsRuntimeandmanagedstreamsinthe.NET
forWindowsStoreapps.
Example
Thefollowingexamplecreatesafilecalledtest.txt,writesamessagethere,readsthetextfromthefile
andprintsitontheconsole.
NoteTheamountofcodeneededtodothisissurprisinglyless!
openSystem.IO//Namespacescanbeopenedjustasmodules
File.WriteAllText("test.txt","HelloThere\nWelcometo:\nTutorialsPoint")
letmsg=File.ReadAllText("test.txt")
printfn"%s"msg
HelloThere
Welcometo:
TutorialsPoint
F#GENERICS
Genericsallowyoutodelaythespecificationofthedatatypeofprogrammingelementsinaclassora
method,untilitisactuallyusedintheprogram.Inotherwords,genericsallowyoutowriteaclassor
methodthatcanworkwithanydatatype.
Youwritethespecificationsfortheclassorthemethod,withsubstituteparametersfordatatypes.When
thecompilerencountersaconstructorfortheclassorafunctioncallforthemethod,itgeneratescodeto
handlethespecificdatatype.
InF#,functionvalues,methods,properties,andaggregatetypessuchasclasses,records,and
discriminatedunionscanbegeneric.
Genericconstructscontainatleastonetypeparameter.Genericfunctionsandtypesenableyoutowrite
codethatworkswithavarietyoftypeswithoutrepeatingthecodeforeachtype.
Syntax
Syntaxforwritingagenericconstructisasfollows
//Explicitlygenericfunction.
letfunctionname<typeparameters>parameterlist=
functionbody
//Explicitlygenericmethod.
[static]memberobjectidentifer.methodname<typeparameters>parameterlist[return
type]=
methodbody
//Explicitlygenericclass,record,interface,structure,
//ordiscriminatedunion.
typetypename<typeparameters>typedefinition
Examples
(*GenericFunction*)
letprintFunc<'T>xy=
printfn"%A,%A"xy
printFunc<float>10.020.0
10.0,20.0
Youcanalsomakeafunctiongenericbyusingthesinglequotationmarksyntax
(*GenericFunction*)
letprintFunction(x:'a)(y:'a)=
printfn"%A%A"xy
printFunction10.020.0
10.020.0
Pleasenotethatwhenyouusegenericfunctionsormethods,youmightnothavetospecifythetype
arguments.However,incaseofanambiguity,youcanprovidetypeargumentsinanglebracketsaswe
didinthefirstexample.
Ifyouhavemorethanonetype,thenyouseparatemultipletypeargumentswithcommas.
GenericClass
Likegenericfunctions,youcanalsowritegenericclasses.Thefollowingexampledemonstratesthis
typegenericClass<'a>(x:'a)=
doprintfn"%A"x
letgr=newgenericClass<string>("zara")
letgs=genericClass(seq{foriin1..10>(i,i*i)})
"zara"
seq[(1,1);(2,4);(3,9);(4,16);...]
F#DELEGATES
Adelegateisareferencetypevariablethatholdsthereferencetoamethod.Thereferencecanbe
changedatruntime.F#delegatesaresimilartopointerstofunctions,inCorC++.
DeclaringDelegates
Delegatedeclarationdeterminesthemethodsthatcanbereferencedbythedelegate.Adelegatecan
refertoamethod,whichhavethesamesignatureasthatofthedelegate.
Syntaxfordelegatedeclarationis
typedelegatetypename=delegateoftype1>type2
Forexample,considerthedelegates
//Delegate1workswithtuplearguments.
typeDelegate1=delegateof(int*int)>int
//Delegate2workswithcurriedarguments.
typeDelegate2=delegateofint*int>int
Boththedelegatescanbeusedtoreferenceanymethodthathastwointparametersandreturnsanint
typevariable.
Inthesyntax
type1representstheargumenttypes.
type2representsthereturntype.
Pleasenote
Theargumenttypesareautomaticallycurried.
Delegatescanbeattachedtofunctionvalues,andstaticorinstancemethods.
F#functionvaluescanbepasseddirectlyasargumentstodelegateconstructors.
Forastaticmethodthedelegateiscalledbyusingthenameoftheclassandthemethod.Foran
instancemethod,thenameoftheobjectinstanceandmethodisused.
TheInvokemethodonthedelegatetypecallstheencapsulatedfunction.
Also,delegatescanbepassedasfunctionvaluesbyreferencingtheInvokemethodnamewithout
theparentheses.
Thefollowingexampledemonstratestheconcept
Example
typeMyclass()=
staticmemberadd(a:int,b:int)=
a+b
staticmembersub(a:int)(b:int)=
ab
memberx.Add(a:int,b:int)=
a+b
memberx.Sub(a:int)(b:int)=
ab
//Delegate1workswithtuplearguments.
typeDelegate1=delegateof(int*int)>int
//Delegate2workswithcurriedarguments.
typeDelegate2=delegateofint*int>int
letInvokeDelegate1(dlg:Delegate1)(a:int)(b:int)=
dlg.Invoke(a,b)
letInvokeDelegate2(dlg:Delegate2)(a:int)(b:int)=
dlg.Invoke(a,b)
//Forstaticmethods,usetheclassname,thedotoperator,andthe
//nameofthestaticmethod.
letdel1:Delegate1=newDelegate1(Myclass.add)
letdel2:Delegate2=newDelegate2(Myclass.sub)
letmc=Myclass()
//Forinstancemethods,usetheinstancevaluename,thedotoperator,andtheinstance
methodname.
letdel3:Delegate1=newDelegate1(mc.Add)
letdel4:Delegate2=newDelegate2(mc.Sub)
for(a,b)in[(400,200);(100,45)]do
printfn"%d+%d=%d"ab(InvokeDelegate1del1ab)
printfn"%d%d=%d"ab(InvokeDelegate2del2ab)
printfn"%d+%d=%d"ab(InvokeDelegate1del3ab)
printfn"%d%d=%d"ab(InvokeDelegate2del4ab)
400+200=600
400200=200
400+200=600
400200=200
100+45=145
10045=55
100+45=145
10045=55
F#ENUMERATIONS
Anenumerationisasetofnamedintegerconstants.
InF#,enumerations,alsoknownasenums,areintegraltypeswherelabelsareassignedtoasubsetof
thevalues.Youcanusetheminplaceofliteralstomakecodemorereadableandmaintainable.
DeclaringEnumerations
Thegeneralsyntaxfordeclaringanenumerationis
typeenumname=
|value1=integerliteral1
|value2=integerliteral2
...
Thefollowingexampledemonstratestheuseofenumerations
Example
//Declarationofanenumeration.
typeDays=
|Sun=0
|Mon=1
|Tues=2
|Wed=3
|Thurs=4
|Fri=5
|Sat=6
//Useofanenumeration.
letweekend1:Days=Days.Sat
letweekend2:Days=Days.Sun
letweekDay1:Days=Days.Mon
printfn"Monday:%A"weekDay1
printfn"Saturday:%A"weekend1
printfn"Sunday:%A"weekend2
Monday:Mon
Saturday:Sat
Sunday:Sun
F#PATTERNMATCHING
Patternmatchingallowsyoutocomparedatawithalogicalstructureorstructures,decomposedata
intoconstituentparts,orextractinformationfromdatainvariousways.
Inotherterms,itprovidesamoreflexibleandpowerfulwayoftestingdataagainstaseriesofconditions
andperformingsomecomputationsbasedontheconditionmet.
Conceptually,itislikeaseriesofifthenstatements.
Syntax
Inhighlevelterms,patternmatchingfollowsthissyntaxinF#
matchexprwith
|pat1result1
|pat2>result2
|pat3whenexpr2>result3
|_>defaultResult
Where,
Each|symboldefinesacondition.
The>symbolmeans"iftheconditionistrue,returnthisvalue...".
The_symbolprovidesthedefaultpattern,meaningthatitmatchesallotherthingslikea
wildcard.
Example1
Thefollowingexample,calculatestheFibonaccinumbersusingpatternmatchingsyntax
letrecfibn=
matchnwith
|0>0
|1>1
|_>fib(n1)+fib(n2)
fori=1to10do
printfn"Fibonacci%d:%d"i(fibi)
Fibonacci1:1
Fibonacci2:1
Fibonacci3:2
Fibonacci4:3
Fibonacci5:5
Fibonacci6:8
Fibonacci7:13
Fibonacci8:21
Fibonacci9:34
Fibonacci10:55
Youcanalsochaintogethermultipleconditions,whichreturnthesamevalue.Forexample
Example2
letprintSeasonmonth=
matchmonthwith
|"December"|"January"|"February">printfn"Winter"
|"March"|"April">printfn"Spring"
|"May"|"June">printfn"Summer"
|"July"|"August">printfn"Rainy"
|"September"|"October"|"November">printfn"Autumn"
|_>printfn"Seasondependsonmonth!"
printSeason"February"
printSeason"April"
printSeason"November"
printSeason"July"
Winter
Spring
Autumn
Rainy
PatternMatchingFunctions
F#allowsyoutowritepatternmatchingfunctionsusingthefunctionkeyword
letgetRate=function
|"potato">10.00
|"brinjal">20.50
|"cauliflower">21.00
|"cabbage">8.75
|"carrot">15.00
|_>nan(*nanisaspecialvaluemeaning"notanumber"*)
printfn"%g"(getRate"potato")
printfn"%g"(getRate"brinjal")
printfn"%g"(getRate"cauliflower")
printfn"%g"(getRate"cabbage")
printfn"%g"(getRate"carrot")
10
20.5
21
8.75
15
AddingFiltersorGuardstoPatterns
Youcanaddfilters,orguards,topatternsusingthewhenkeyword.
Example1
letsign=function
|0>0
|xwhenx<0>1
|xwhenx>0>1
printfn"%d"(sign20)
printfn"%d"(sign20)
printfn"%d"(sign0)
1
1
0
Example2
letcompareIntx=
matchxwith
|(var1,var2)whenvar1>var2>printfn"%disgreaterthan%d"var1var2
|(var1,var2)whenvar1<var2>printfn"%dislessthan%d"var1var2
|(var1,var2)>printfn"%dequals%d"var1var2
compareInt(11,25)
compareInt(72,10)
compareInt(0,0)
11islessthan25
72isgreaterthan10
0equals0
PatternMatchingwithTuples
Thefollowingexampledemonstratesthepatternmatchingwithtuples
letgreeting(name,subject)=
match(name,subject)with
|("Zara",_)>"Hello,Zara"
|(name,"English")>"Hello,"+name+"fromthedepartmentofEnglish"
|(name,_)whensubject.StartsWith("Comp")>"Hello,"+name+"fromthe
departmentofComputerSc."
|(_,"AccountsandFinance")>"WelcometothedepartmentofAccountsandFinance!"
|_>"Youarenotregisteredintothesystem"
printfn"%s"(greeting("Zara","English"))
printfn"%s"(greeting("Raman","ComputerScience"))
printfn"%s"(greeting("Ravi","Mathematics"))
Hello,Zara
Hello,RamanfromthedepartmentofComputerSc.
Youarenotregisteredintothesystem
PatternMatchingwithRecords
Thefollowingexampledemonstratespatternmatchingwithrecords
typePoint={x:float;y:float}
letevaluatePoint(point:Point)=
matchpointwith
|{x=0.0;y=0.0}>printfn"Pointisattheorigin."
|{x=xVal;y=0.0}>printfn"Pointisonthexaxis.Valueis%f."xVal
|{x=0.0;y=yVal}>printfn"Pointisontheyaxis.Valueis%f."yVal
|{x=xVal;y=yVal}>printfn"Pointisat(%f,%f)."xValyVal
evaluatePoint{x=0.0;y=0.0}
Pointisattheorigin.
Pointisonthexaxis.Valueis10.000000.
Pointisontheyaxis.Valueis10.000000.
Pointisat(10.000000,10.000000).
F#EXCEPTIONHANDLING
Anexceptionisaproblemthatarisesduringtheexecutionofaprogram.AnF#exceptionisaresponseto
anexceptionalcircumstancethatariseswhileaprogramisrunning,suchasanattempttodividebyzero.
Exceptionsprovideawaytotransfercontrolfromonepartofaprogramtoanother.F#exception
handlingprovidesthefollowingconstructs
Construct
Description
raiseexpr
Raisesthegivenexception.
failwithexpr
RaisestheSystem.Exceptionexception.
tryexprwithrules
Catchesexpressionsmatchingthepatternrules.
tryexprfinallyexpr
Executionthefinallyexpressionbothwhenthecomputationis
successfulandwhenanexceptionisraised.
|:?ArgumentException
Arulematchingthegiven.NETexceptiontype.
|:?ArgumentExceptionase
Arulematchingthegiven.NETexceptiontype,bindingthename
etotheexceptionobjectvalue.
|Failuremsgexpr
ArulematchingthegivendatacarryingF#exception.
|exnexpr
Arulematchinganyexception,bindingthenameexntothe
exceptionobjectvalue.
|exnwhenexprexpr
Arulematchingtheexceptionunderthegivencondition,binding
thenameexntotheexceptionobjectvalue.
LetusstartwiththebasicsyntaxofExceptionHandling.
Syntax
BasicsyntaxforF#exceptionhandlingblockis
exceptionexceptiontypeofargumenttype
Where,
exceptiontypeisthenameofanewF#exceptiontype.
argumenttyperepresentsthetypeofanargumentthatcanbesuppliedwhenyouraisean
exceptionofthistype.
Multipleargumentscanbespecifiedbyusingatupletypeforargumenttype.
Thetry...withexpressionisusedforexceptionhandlingintheF#language.
Syntaxforthetrywithexpressionis
try
expression1
with
|pattern1>expression2
|pattern2>expression3
...
Thetry...finallyexpressionallowsyoutoexecutecleanupcodeevenifablockofcodethrowsan
exception.
Syntaxforthetryfinallyexpressionis
try
expression1
finally
expression2
Theraisefunctionisusedtoindicatethatanerrororexceptionalconditionhasoccurred.Italso
capturestheinformationabouttheerrorinanexceptionobject.
Syntaxfortheraisefunctionis
raise(expression)
ThefailwithfunctiongeneratesanF#exception.
Syntaxforthefailwithfunctionis
failwitherrormessagestring
TheinvalidArgfunctiongeneratesanargumentexception.
invalidArgparameternameerrormessagestring
ExampleofExceptionHandling
Example1
Thefollowingprogramshowsthebasicexceptionhandlingwithasimpletrywithblock
letdivisionprogxy=
try
Some(x/y)
with
|:?System.DivideByZeroException>printfn"Divisionbyzero!";None
letresult1=divisionprog1000
Divisionbyzero!
Example2
F#providesanexceptiontypefordeclaringexceptions.Youcanuseanexceptiontypedirectlyinthe
filtersinatry...withexpression.
exceptionError1ofstring
//Usingatupletypeastheargumenttype.
exceptionError2ofstring*int
letmyfunctionxy=
try
ifx=ythenraise(Error1("EqualNumberError"))
elseraise(Error2("ErrorNotdetected",100))
with
|Error1(str)>printfn"Error1%s"str
|Error2(str,i)>printfn"Error2%s%d"stri
myfunction2010
myfunction55
Error2ErrorNotdetected100
Error1EqualNumberError
Example3
Thefollowingexampledemonstratesnestedexceptionhandling
exceptionInnerErrorofstring
exceptionOuterErrorofstring
letfunc1xy=
try
try
ifx=ythenraise(InnerError("innererror"))
elseraise(OuterError("outererror"))
with
|InnerError(str)>printfn"Error:%s"str
finally
printfn"Fromthefinallyblock."
letfunc2xy=
try
func1xy
with
|OuterError(str)>printfn"Error:%s"str
func2100150
func2100100
func2100120
Fromthefinallyblock.
Error:outererror
Error:innererror
Error:outererror
Example4
Thefollowingfunctiondemonstratesthefailwithfunction
letdivisionFuncxy=
if(y=0)thenfailwith"Divisorcannotbezero."
else
x/y
lettrydivisionFuncxy=
try
divisionFuncxy
with
|Failure(msg)>printfn"%s"msg;0
letresult1=trydivisionFunc1000
letresult2=trydivisionFunc1004
printfn"%A"result1
printfn"%A"result2
Divisorcannotbezero.
0
25
Example5
TheinvalidArgfunctiongeneratesanargumentexception.Thefollowingprogramdemonstratesthis
letdays=[|"Sunday";"Monday";"Tuesday";"Wednesday";"Thursday";"Friday";
"Saturday"|]
letfindDayday=
if(day>7||day<1)
theninvalidArg"day"(sprintf"Youhaveentered%d."day)
days.[day1]
printfn"%s"(findDay1)
Sunday
Thursday
UnhandledException:
System.ArgumentException:Youhaveentered9.
Someotherinformationaboutthefileandvariablecausingerrorinthesystemwillalsobedisplayed,
dependinguponthesystem.
F#CLASSES
Classesaretypesthatrepresentobjectsthatcanhaveproperties,methods,andevents.Theyareusedto
modelactions,processes,andanyconceptualentitiesinapplications.
Syntax
Syntaxfordefiningaclasstypeisasfollows
//Classdefinition:
type[accessmodifier]typename[typeparams][accessmodifier](parameterlist)[as
identifier]=
[class]
[inheritbasetypename(baseconstructorargs)]
[letbindings]
[dobindings]
memberlist
...
[end]
//Mutuallyrecursiveclassdefinitions:
type[accessmodifier]typename1...
and[accessmodifier]typename2...
...
Where,
Thetypenameisanyvalididentifier.Defaultaccessmodifierforthisispublic.
Thetypeparamsdescribesoptionalgenerictypeparameters.
Theparameterlistdescribesconstructorparameters.Defaultaccessmodifierforprimary
constructorispublic.
Theidentifierusedwiththeoptionalaskeywordgivesanametotheinstancevariable,orself
identifier,whichcanbeusedinthetypedefinitiontorefertotheinstanceofthetype.
Theinheritkeywordallowsyoutospecifythebaseclassforaclass.
Theletbindingsallowyoutodeclarefieldsorfunctionvalueslocaltotheclass.
Thedobindingssectionincludescodetobeexecuteduponobjectconstruction.
Thememberlistconsistsofadditionalconstructors,instanceandstaticmethoddeclarations,
interfacedeclarations,abstractbindings,andpropertyandeventdeclarations.
Thekeywordsclassandendthatmarkthestartandendofthedefinitionareoptional.
ConstructorofaClass
Theconstructoriscodethatcreatesaninstanceoftheclasstype.
InF#,constructorsworklittledifferentlythanother.Netlanguages.Intheclassdefinition,the
argumentsoftheprimaryconstructoraredescribedasparameterlist.
Thebodyoftheconstructorconsistsoftheletanddobindings.
Youcanaddadditionalconstructorsbyusingthenewkeywordtoaddamember
new(argumentlist)=constructorbody
Example
Thefollowingprogramcreatesalineclassalongwithaconstructorthatcalculatesthelengthoftheline
whileanobjectoftheclassiscreated
typeLine=class
valX1:float
valY1:float
valX2:float
valY2:float
new(x1,y1,x2,y2)asthis=
{X1=x1;Y1=y1;X2=x2;Y2=y2;}
then
printfn"CreatingLine:{(%g,%g),(%g,%g)}\nLength:%g"
this.X1this.Y1this.X2this.Y2this.Length
memberx.Length=
letsqrx=x*x
sqrt(sqr(x.X1x.X2)+sqr(x.Y1x.Y2))
end
letaLine=newLine(1.0,1.0,4.0,5.0)
CreatingLine:{(1,1),(4,5)}
Length:5
LetBindings
TheletbindingsinaclassdefinitionallowyoutodefineprivatefieldsandprivatefunctionsforF#
classes.
typeGreetings(name)asgr=
letdata=name
do
gr.PrintMessage()
memberthis.PrintMessage()=
printf"Hello%s\n"data
letgtr=newGreetings("Zara")
HelloZara
PleasenotetheuseofselfidentifiergrfortheGreetingsclass.
F#STRUCTURES
AstructureinF#isavaluetypedatatype.Ithelpsyoutomakeasinglevariable,holdrelateddataof
variousdatatypes.Thestructkeywordisusedforcreatingastructure.
Syntax
Syntaxfordefiningastructureisasfollows
[attributes]
type[accessibilitymodifier]typename=
struct
typedefinitionelements
end
//or
[attributes]
[<StructAttribute>]
type[accessibilitymodifier]typename=
typedefinitionelements
Therearetwosyntaxes.Thefirstsyntaxismostlyused,because,ifyouusethestructandend
keywords,youcanomittheStructAttributeattribute.
Thestructuredefinitionelementsprovide
Memberdeclarationsanddefinitions.
Constructorsandmutableandimmutablefields.
Membersandinterfaceimplementations.
Unlikeclasses,structurescannotbeinheritedandcannotcontainletordobindings.Since,structuresdo
nothaveletbindingsyoumustdeclarefieldsinstructuresbyusingthevalkeyword.
Whenyoudefineafieldanditstypeusingvalkeyword,youcannotinitializethefieldvalue,insteadthey
areinitializedtozeroornull.Soforastructurehavinganimplicitconstructor,thevaldeclarationsbe
annotatedwiththeDefaultValueattribute.
Example
Thefollowingprogramcreatesalinestructurealongwithaconstructor.Theprogramcalculatesthe
lengthofalineusingthestructure
typeLine=struct
valX1:float
valY1:float
valX2:float
valY2:float
new(x1,y1,x2,y2)=
{X1=x1;Y1=y1;X2=x2;Y2=y2;}
end
letcalcLength(a:Line)=
letsqra=a*a
sqrt(sqr(a.X1a.X2)+sqr(a.Y1a.Y2))
letaLine=newLine(1.0,1.0,4.0,5.0)
letlength=calcLengthaLine
printfn"LengthoftheLine:%g"length
LengthoftheLine:5
F#OPERATOROVERLOADING
YoucanredefineoroverloadmostofthebuiltinoperatorsavailableinF#.Thusaprogrammercanuse
operatorswithuserdefinedtypesaswell.
Operatorsarefunctionswithspecialnames,enclosedinbrackets.Theymustbedefinedasstaticclass
members.Likeanyotherfunction,anoverloadedoperatorhasareturntypeandaparameterlist.
Thefollowingexample,showsa+operatoroncomplexnumbers
//overloading+operator
staticmember(+)(a:Complex,b:Complex)=
Complex(a.x+b.x,a.y+b.y)
Theabovefunctionimplementstheadditionoperator + forauserdefinedclassComplex.Itaddsthe
attributesoftwoobjectsandreturnstheresultantComplexobject.
ImplementationofOperatorOverloading
Thefollowingprogramshowsthecompleteimplementation
//implementingacomplexclasswith+,andoperators
//overloaded
typeComplex(x:float,y:float)=
memberthis.x=x
memberthis.y=y
//overloading+operator
staticmember(+)(a:Complex,b:Complex)=
Complex(a.x+b.x,a.y+b.y)
//overloadingoperator
staticmember()(a:Complex,b:Complex)=
Complex(a.xb.x,a.yb.y)
//overridingtheToStringmethod
overridethis.ToString()=
this.x.ToString()+""+this.y.ToString()
//Creatingtwocomplexnumbers
letc1=Complex(7.0,5.0)
letc2=Complex(4.2,3.1)
//additionandsubtractionusingthe
//overloadedoperators
letc3=c1+c2
letc4=c1c2
//printingthecomplexnumbers
printfn"%s"(c1.ToString())
75
4.23.1
11.28.1
2.81.9
F#INHERITANCE
Oneofthemostimportantconceptsinobjectorientedprogrammingisthatofinheritance.Inheritance
allowsustodefineaclassintermsofanotherclass,whichmakesiteasiertocreateandmaintainan
application.Thisalsoprovidesanopportunitytoreusethecodefunctionalityandfastimplementation
time.
Whencreatingaclass,insteadofwritingcompletelynewdatamembersandmemberfunctions,the
programmercandesignatethatthenewclassshouldinheritthemembersofanexistingclass.This
existingclassiscalledthebaseclass,andthenewclassisreferredtoasthederivedclass.
TheideaofinheritanceimplementstheISArelationship.Forexample,mammalISAanimal,dogISA
mammalhencedogISAanimalaswellandsoon.
BaseClassandSubClass
Asubclassisderivedfromabaseclass,whichisalreadydefined.Asubclassinheritsthemembersofthe
baseclass,aswellashasitsownmembers.
Asubclassisdefinedusingtheinheritkeywordasshownbelow
typeMyDerived(...)=
inheritMyBase(...)
InF#,aclasscanhaveatmostonedirectbaseclass.Ifyoudonotspecifyabaseclassbyusingthe
inheritkeyword,theclassimplicitlyinheritsfromObject.
Pleasenote
Themethodsandmembersofthebaseclassareavailabletousersofthederivedclasslikethe
directmembersofthederivedclass.
Letbindingsandconstructorparametersareprivatetoaclassand,therefore,cannotbeaccessed
fromderivedclasses.
Thekeywordbasereferstothebaseclassinstance.Itisusedliketheselfidentifier.
Example
typePerson(name)=
memberx.Name=name
memberx.Greet()=printfn"Hi,I'm%s"x.Name
typeStudent(name,studentID:int)=
inheritPerson(name)
letmutable_GPA=0.0
memberx.StudentID=studentID
memberx.GPA
withget()=_GPA
andsetvalue=_GPA<value
typeTeacher(name,expertise:string)=
inheritPerson(name)
letmutable_salary=0.0
memberx.Salary
withget()=_salary
andsetvalue=_salary<value
memberx.Expertise=expertise
//usingthesubclasses
letp=newPerson("Mohan")
letst=newStudent("Zara",1234)
lettr=newTeacher("Mariam","Java")
p.Greet()
st.Greet()
tr.Greet()
Hi,I'mMohan
Hi,I'mZara
Hi,I'mMariam
OverridingMethods
Youcanoverrideadefaultbehaviorofabaseclassmethodandimplementitdifferentlyinthesubclass
orthederivedclass.
MethodsinF#arenotoverridablebydefault.
Tooverridemethodsinaderivedclass,youhavetodeclareyourmethodasoverridableusingthe
abstractanddefaultkeywordsasfollows
typePerson(name)=
memberx.Name=name
abstractGreet:unit>unit
defaultx.Greet()=printfn"Hi,I'm%s"x.Name
Now,theGreetmethodofthePersonclasscanbeoverriddeninderivedclasses.Thefollowingexample
demonstratesthis
Example
typePerson(name)=
memberx.Name=name
defaultx.Greet()=printfn"Hi,I'm%s"x.Name
inheritPerson(name)
letmutable_GPA=0.0
memberx.GPA
withget()=_GPA
overridex.Greet()=printfn"Student%s"x.Name
inheritPerson(name)
memberx.Salary
withget()=_salary
overridex.Greet()=printfn"Teacher%s."x.Name
//usingthesubclasses
letp=newPerson("Mohan")
//defaultGreet
p.Greet()
//OverridenGreet
st.Greet()
tr.Greet()
Hi,I'mMohan
StudentZara
TeacherMariam.
AbstractClass
Attimesyouneedtoprovideanincompleteimplementationofanobject,whichshouldnotbe
implementedinreality.Later,someotherprogrammershouldcreatesubclassesoftheabstractclasstoa
completeimplementation.
Forexample,thePersonclasswillnotbeneededinaSchoolManagementSystem.However,theStudent
ortheTeacherclasswillbeneeded.Insuchcases,youcandeclarethePersonclassasanabstractclass.
TheAbstractClassattributetellsthecompilerthattheclasshassomeabstractmembers.
Youcannotcreateaninstanceofanabstractclassbecausetheclassisnotfullyimplemented.
Example
[<AbstractClass>]
typePerson(name)=
memberx.Name=name
inheritPerson(name)
letmutable_GPA=0.0
memberx.GPA
withget()=_GPA
overridex.Greet()=printfn"Student%s"x.Name
inheritPerson(name)
memberx.Salary
withget()=_salary
overridex.Greet()=printfn"Teacher%s."x.Name
//OverridenGreet
st.Greet()
tr.Greet()
StudentZara
TeacherMariam.
F#INTERFACES
Interfacesprovideanabstractwayofwritinguptheimplementationdetailsofaclass.Itisatemplate
thatdeclaresthemethodstheclassmustimplementandexposepublicly.
Syntax
Aninterfacespecifiesthesetsofrelatedmembersthatotherclassesimplement.Ithasthefollowing
syntax
//Interfacedeclaration:
[attributes]
typeinterfacename=
[interface]
[inheritbaseinterfacename...]
abstractmember1:[argumenttypes1>]returntype1
abstractmember2:[argumenttypes2>]returntype2
...
[end]
//Implementing,insideaclasstypedefinition:
interfaceinterfacenamewith
memberselfidentifier.member1argumentlist=methodbody1
//Implementing,byusinganobjectexpression:
[attributes]
letclassname(argumentlist)=
{newinterfacenamewith
[baseinterfacedefinitions]
}
memberlist
Pleasenote
Inaninterfacedeclarationthemembersarenotimplemented.
Themembersareabstract,declaredbytheabstractkeyword.Howeveryoumayprovidea
defaultimplementationusingthedefaultkeyword.
Youcanimplementinterfaceseitherbyusingobjectexpressionsorbyusingclasstypes.
Inclassorobjectimplementation,youneedtoprovidemethodbodiesforabstractmethodsofthe
interface.
Thekeywordsinterfaceandend,whichmarkthestartandendofthedefinition,areoptional.
Forexample,
typeIPerson=
abstractName:string
abstractEnter:unit>unit
abstractLeave:unit>unit
CallingInterfaceMethods
Interfacemethodsarecalledthroughtheinterface,notthroughtheinstanceoftheclassortype
implementinginterface.Tocallaninterfacemethod,youupcasttotheinterfacetypebyusingthe:>
operatorupcastoperator.
Forexample,
(s:>IPerson).Enter()
(s:>IPerson).Leave()
Example
typeIPerson=
abstractName:string
abstractEnter:unit>unit
abstractLeave:unit>unit
typeStudent(name:string,id:int)=
memberthis.ID=id
interfaceIPersonwith
memberthis.Name=name
memberthis.Enter()=printfn"Studententeringpremises!"
memberthis.Leave()=printfn"Studentleavingpremises!"
typeStuffMember(name:string,id:int,salary:float)=
letmutable_salary=salary
memberthis.Salary
withget()=_salary
andset(value)=_salary<value
interfaceIPersonwith
memberthis.Name=name
memberthis.Enter()=printfn"Stuffmemberenteringpremises!"
memberthis.Leave()=printfn"Stuffmemberleavingpremises!"
lets=newStudent("Zara",1234)
letst=newStuffMember("Rohit",34,50000.0)
(s:>IPerson).Enter()
(s:>IPerson).Leave()
(st:>IPerson).Enter()
(st:>IPerson).Leave()
Studententeringpremises!
Studentleavingpremises!
Stuffmemberenteringpremises!
Stuffmemberleavingpremises!
InterfaceInheritance
Interfacescaninheritfromoneormorebaseinterfaces.
Thefollowingexampleshowstheconcept
typeInterface1=
abstractmemberdoubleIt:int>int
typeInterface2=
abstractmembertripleIt:int>int
typeInterface3=
inheritInterface1
inheritInterface2
abstractmemberprintIt:int>string
typemultiplierClass()=
interfaceInterface3with
memberthis.doubleIt(a)=2*a
memberthis.tripleIt(a)=3*a
memberthis.printIt(a)=a.ToString()
letml=multiplierClass()
printfn"%d"((ml:>Interface3).doubleIt(5))
printfn"%d"((ml:>Interface3).tripleIt(5))
printfn"%s"((ml:>Interface3).printIt(5))
10
15
5
F#EVENTS
Eventsallowclassestosendandreceivemessagesbetweenoneanother.
InGUI,eventsareuseractionslikekeypress,clicks,mousemovements,etc.,orsomeoccurrencelike
systemgeneratednotifications.Applicationsneedtorespondtoeventswhentheyoccur.Forexample,
interrupts.Eventsareusedforinterprocesscommunication.
Objectscommunicatewithoneanotherthroughsynchronousmessagepassing.
Eventsareattachedtootherfunctionsobjectsregistercallbackfunctionstoanevent,andthese
callbacksareexecutedwhenandiftheeventistriggeredbysomeobject.
TheEventClassandEventModule
TheControl.Event<'T>Classhelpsincreatinganobservableobjectorevent.
Ithasthefollowinginstancememberstoworkwiththeevents
Member
Description
Publish
Publishesanobservationasafirstclassvalue.
Trigger
Triggersanobservationusingthegivenparameters.
TheControl.EventModuleprovidesfunctionsformanagingeventstreams
Value
Description
add: T unitEvent<'Del,'T>unit
Runsthegivenfunctioneachtimethegiveneventis
triggered.
choose: T UoptionIEvent<'Del,'T>
IEvent<'U>
Returnsaneweventwhichfiresonaselectionof
messagesfromtheoriginalevent.Theselection
functiontakesanoriginalmessagetoanoptional
newmessage.
filter: T boolIEvent<'Del,'T>
IEvent<'T>
Returnsaneweventthatlistenstotheoriginal
eventandtriggerstheresultingeventonlywhen
theargumenttotheeventpassesthegiven
function.
map: T UIEvent<'Del,'T>
IEvent<'U>
Returnsaneweventthatpassesvalues
transformedbythegivenfunction.
merge:IEvent<'Del1,'T>IEvent<'Del2,'T>
IEvent<'T>
Firestheoutputeventwheneitheroftheinput
eventsfire.
pairwise:IEvent<'Del,'T>IEvent<'T*'T>
Returnsaneweventthattriggersonthesecond
andsubsequenttriggeringoftheinputevent.The
Nthtriggeringoftheinputeventpassesthe
argumentsfromtheN1thandNthtriggeringasa
pair.TheargumentpassedtotheN1thtriggering
isheldinhiddeninternalstateuntiltheNth
triggeringoccurs.
partition: T boolIEvent<'Del,'T>
IEvent<'T>*IEvent<'T>
eventandtriggersthefirstresultingeventifthe
applicationofthepredicatetotheeventarguments
returnedtrue,andthesecondeventifitreturned
false.
scan: U T U'UIEvent<'Del,'T>
IEvent<'U>
Returnsaneweventconsistingoftheresultsof
applyingthegivenaccumulatingfunctionto
successivevaluestriggeredontheinputevent.An
itemofinternalstaterecordsthecurrentvalueof
thestateparameter.Theinternalstateisnotlocked
duringtheexecutionoftheaccumulationfunction,
socareshouldbetakenthattheinputIEventnot
triggeredbymultiplethreadssimultaneously.
split: T Choice < U1, U2 >
IEvent<'Del,'T>IEvent<'U1>*
IEvent<'U2>
eventandtriggersthefirstresultingeventifthe
applicationofthefunctiontotheeventarguments
returnedaChoice1Of2,andthesecondeventifit
returnsaChoice2Of2.
CreatingEvents
EventsarecreatedandusedthroughtheEventclass.TheEventconstructorisusedforcreatingan
event.
Example
typeWorker(name:string,shift:string)=
letmutable_name=name;
letmutable_shift=shift;
letnameChanged=newEvent<unit>()(*createsevent*)
letshiftChanged=newEvent<unit>()(*createsevent*)
memberthis.Name
withget()=_name
andset(value)=_name<value
memberthis.Shift
withget()=_shift
andset(value)=_shift<value
AfterthisyouneedtoexposethenameChangedfieldasapublicmember,sothatthelistenerscanhook
ontotheeventforwhich,youusethePublishpropertyoftheevent
memberthis.NameChanged=nameChanged.Publish(*exposedeventhandler*)
memberthis.ShiftChanged=shiftChanged.Publish(*exposedeventhandler*)
memberthis.Name
withget()=_name
andset(value)=_name<value
nameChanged.Trigger()(*invokeseventhandler*)
memberthis.Shift
withget()=_shift
andset(value)=_shift<value
shiftChanged.Trigger()(*invokeseventhandler*)
Next,youaddcallbackstoeventhandlers.EacheventhandlerhasthetypeIEvent<'T>,whichprovides
severalmethods
Method
Description
valAdd:event: T unitunit
Connectsalistenerfunctiontotheevent.Thelistenerwill
beinvokedwhentheeventisfired.
valAddHandler:'delunit
Connectsahandlerdelegateobjecttotheevent.Ahandler
canbelaterremovedusingRemoveHandler.Thelistener
willbeinvokedwhentheeventisfired.
valRemoveHandler:'delunit
Removesalistenerdelegatefromaneventlistenerstore.
Thefollowingsectionprovidesacompleteexample.
Example
Thefollowingexampledemonstratestheconceptandtechniquesdiscussedabove
memberthis.NameChanged=nameChanged.Publish(*exposedeventhandler*)
memberthis.ShiftChanged=shiftChanged.Publish(*exposedeventhandler*)
memberthis.Name
withget()=_name
andset(value)=
_name<value
nameChanged.Trigger()(*invokeseventhandler*)
memberthis.Shift
withget()=_shift
andset(value)=
_shift<value
shiftChanged.Trigger()(*invokeseventhandler*)
letwk=newWorker("Wilson","Evening")
wk.NameChanged.Add(fun()>printfn"Workerchangedname!Newname:%s"wk.Name)
wk.Name<"William"
wk.NameChanged.Add(fun()>printfn"AnotherhandlerattachedtoNameChanged!")
wk.Name<"Bill"
wk.ShiftChanged.Add(fun()>printfn"Workerchangedshift!Newshift:%s"wk.Shift)
wk.Shift<"Morning"
wk.ShiftChanged.Add(fun()>printfn"AnotherhandlerattachedtoShiftChanged!")
wk.Shift<"Night"
Workerchangedname!Newname:William
Workerchangedname!Newname:Bill
AnotherhandlerattachedtoNameChanged!
Workerchangedshift!Newshift:Morning
Workerchangedshift!Newshift:Night
AnotherhandlerattachedtoShiftChanged!
F#MODULES
AsperMSDNlibrary,anF#moduleisagroupingofF#codeconstructs,suchastypes,values,function
values,andcodeindobindings.ItisimplementedasacommonlanguageruntimeCLRclassthathasonly
staticmembers.
Dependinguponthesituationwhetherthewholefileisincludedinthemodule,therearetwotypesof
moduledeclarations
Toplevelmoduledeclaration
Localmoduledeclaration
Inatoplevelmoduledeclarationthewholefileisincludedinthemodule.Inthiscase,thefirst
declarationinthefileisthemoduledeclaration.Youdonothavetoindentdeclarationsinatoplevel
module.
Inalocalmoduledeclaration,onlythedeclarationsthatareindentedunderthatmoduledeclarationare
partofthemodule.
Syntax
Syntaxformoduledeclarationisasfollows
//Toplevelmoduledeclaration.
module[accessibilitymodifier][qualifiednamespace.]modulename
declarations
//Localmoduledeclaration.
module[accessibilitymodifier]modulename=
declarations
Pleasenotethattheaccessibilitymodifiercanbeoneofthefollowingpublic,private,internal.The
defaultispublic.
Thefollowingexampleswilldemonstratetheconcepts
Example1
ThemodulefileArithmetic.fs
moduleArithmetic
letaddxy=
x+y
letsubxy=
xy
letmultxy=
x*y
letdivxy=
x/y
Theprogramfilemain.fs
//Fullyqualifythefunctionname.
letaddRes=Arithmetic.add259
letsubRes=Arithmetic.sub259
letmultRes=Arithmetic.mult259
letdivRes=Arithmetic.div259
printfn"%d"addRes
printfn"%d"subRes
printfn"%d"multRes
printfn"%d"divRes
//Openingthemodule.
openArithmetic
letaddRes2=Arithmetic.add10010
letsubRes2=Arithmetic.sub10010
letmultRes2=Arithmetic.mult10010
letdivRes2=Arithmetic.div10010
printfn"%d"addRes2
printfn"%d"subRes2
printfn"%d"multRes2
printfn"%d"divRes2
34
16
225
2
110
90
1000
10
Example2
//Module1
modulemodule1=
//Indentallprogramelementswithinmodulesthataredeclaredwithanequalsign.
letvalue1=100
letmodule1Functionx=
x+value1
//Module2
modulemodule2=
letvalue2=200
//Useaqualifiednametoaccessthefunction.
//frommodule1.
letmodule2Functionx=
x+(module1.module1Functionvalue2)
letresult=module1.module1Function25
printfn"%d"result
letresult2=module2.module2Function25
printfn"%d"result2
125
325
F#NAMESPACES
Anamespaceisdesignedforprovidingawaytokeeponesetofnamesseparatefromanother.Theclass
namesdeclaredinonenamespacewillnotconflictwiththesameclassnamesdeclaredinanother.
AspertheMSDNlibrary,anamespaceletsyouorganizecodeintoareasofrelatedfunctionalityby
enablingyoutoattachanametoagroupingofprogramelements.
DeclaringaNamespace
Toorganizeyourcodeinanamespace,youmustdeclarethenamespaceasthefirstdeclarationinthe
file.Thecontentsoftheentirefilethenbecomepartofthenamespace.
namespace[parentnamespaces.]identifier
Example
namespacetesting
moduletestmodule1=
lettestFunctionxy=
printfn"ValuesfromModule1:%A%A"xy
moduletestmodule2=
lettestFunctionxy=
printfn"ValuesfromModule2:%A%A"xy
moduleusermodule=
do
testmodule1.testFunction("one","two","three")150
testmodule2.testFunction(seq{foriin1..10doyieldi*i})200
ValuesfromModule1:("one","two","three")150
ValuesfromModule2:seq[1;4;9;16;...]200

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F#QUICKGUIDE

20+2 string slength

not A&&B istrue.

prefixoperators+ op, op,

iteri:int char unitstringunit

mapi:int char charstringstring

fold: State T State'State'Tlist

foldBack: T State State'Tlist

foldBack2: T1 T2 State State'T1

scan: State T State'State'Tlist

delay:unit seq < T > seq<'T>

fold: State T State'Stateseq<'T>

scan: State T State'Stateseq<'T>

unfold: State T Stateoption'State

fold: State T State'StateSet<'T>

foldBack: T State StateSet<'T>

fold: State T State'State'T[]

fold2: State T1 T2 State'State

foldBack: T State State'T[]'State

foldBack2: T1 T2 State State'T1[]

scan: State T State'State'T[]

scanBack: T State State'T[]'State

BinarySearchInt32, Int32, T, IComparer(T)

CopyToInt32, T[], Int32, Int32

FindIndexInt32, Int32, Predicate(T)

FindLastIndexInt32, Int32, Predicate(T)

IndexOfT, Int32, Int32

LastIndexOfT, Int32, Int32

SortInt32, Int32, IComparer(T)

MoveBufferAreaInt32, Int32, Int32, Int32, Int32, Int32, Char, ConsoleColor, ConsoleColor

WriteString, Object, Object

WriteString, Object, Object, Object

WriteString, Object, Object, Object, Object

WriteLineChar[], Int32, Int32

WriteLineString, Object, Object

WriteLineString, Object, Object, Object, Object

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