Structure and Change in society

-Milton singer and Bernard Cohn

The study of Indian society and the caste system
1.
Early travellers
Travelers were Greeks, Romans, Byzantine Greeks, Jews and Chinese.
After A.D 1000 Arabs, Turks, Afghans accounts of India started flowing.
GREEK ACCOUNTS
Meghasthenes (Greek) was one of those travellers and he describes the Indian
society by dividing it into seven classes
i.
Philosophers- those who perform sacred rites and sacrifices
ii.
Husbandmen- these people make up the bulk of the population
iii.
Shepherds and hunters
iv.
Those who work in wares and vend wares and are employed in
bodily labour
v. Fighting men
vi.
Inspectors
vii.
Counsellors and assessors of the king
Megasthenes noted that these classes were endogamous, meaning they did not have
inter class marriages and there was much rigidity in the classes. One could not
change their occupation or professions
We should also note that there is a high chance this data was collected from urban
political centres, and that he did not make any mention of the Varna system.
ROMAN ACCOUNTS
The Roman accounts were more rich on the geographical information, however it
made little note of the sociological scenario.
ARABIC ACCOUNTS
These accounts follow the classical view of Indian society (into 7 classes). Of the
Arabic travellers, Al Baruni mentions the four varna system, this could be because
he was familiar with Sanskrit sources.
During the 17th century translations of Sanskrit lit to Persian was made by many
scholars. Abul Fazzal talks of the four varna theory and how the four varnas came
from the body of Bhrama .

Ain-a-Akbari was also an important text, as it showcased that Mughals recognized

the level of social hindu system was not just on Varna but also kin based social
categories.
EUROPEAN TRAVELLER ACCOUNTS.
Portuguese were the first observers, on the Malabar Coast which at that time was
cosmopolitan in nature. They were also fascinated with matrilineal and
polyandrous groups.
Duarte Barbosa (1866, 1918, 1921)
He noted
The importance of purity and pollution (and its relation to untouchability)
as a cultural system,
The high position of Brahmins, the relationship of occupation to caste,
The relations between caste and political organizations,
The bars to commensality amongst endogamous groups (that is, how
endogamous groups did not eat together)
The applications of sanctions within the castes to maintain customs.
It is interesting to know that despite there being no mentions of the varna system
by Barbosa, that is how he explains the structure of the society (hierarchy with the
Brahmins at top and untouchables at the bottom)
Most account for the next 250 years did not report anything different. Jean Baptise
Travenier a French merchant (6 voyages to Middle east, India and S.E Asia)
reports
Various routes,
Commercial and historical points of interest in his travels

A history of rule of Aurangzeb and extensive discussion of commercial

activities (based on oral evidence)
Various Hindu belief, rituals, customs.
His reports are based on his conversations with the Brahmins, whom he
considered the most accomplished of their priests
Also, there are believed to be 72 castes but they may be reduced to four principal
ones from which others derive their origin from.
Abraham Roger- first chaplin at the Dutch factory in pulicat studied
Hinduism from a dutch speaking Brahmin, Padmanubha, his account was
published in 1670 (20 years after his death)

THREE MAJOR APPROACHES TO INDIAN SOCIETY

(The Orientalist, Administrative, and Missionary)
Orientalist View
The orientalist were convinced that the texts were an accurate guides to the culture
and society of Hindus.
(The major chunk of knowledge that came to help the British to comprehend the
depth of Hindu society came after the last battle of Plassey)
Alexander Dow- an officer in the East India Company.
According to him:
Four Varnas which he sees as four tribes each of which made up of a variety of
castes, the tribes are endogamous (do not intermarry), practice commensality (do
not eat, drink)or in any manner associate with each other

Brahminical theory of varna system. Other vices of the society were derived
from the caste system like child marriage, sati.
N. B. Halhead compiled the Hindoo Dharmasashtra under the name A Code of
Gentoo Law
Consequences of the orientalist view
I.
Acceptance of the varna system, which was not the case as showcased by
evidence of the political structures in the late nineteenth century.
II.
View that Indian society is static, timeless, and spaceless (Statements from
texts of 3rd BC were applied to 19th century)
Administrative View
This aim of this view was to understand the society for administrative purposes,
meaning to help them maintain law and order better and to help generate income to
support their functions.
Many studies were done with this sole purpose, be it studies about languages, or
the customs. A prime example of this is Buchanans work, which was carried out on
the orders of East India Company.

H T Colebrooke gave report:

The Varna system and caste issues existing in the Indian society.
Existence of Hereditary occupation system
In practice the Brahmins were doing the menial work done by the shudras, there
was flexibility. Meaning, anyone could do any work
The administrators acquiring this knowledge in a much unstructured manner,
hence their knowledge of the Indian Society was not a complete one.
Munro in Madras, Malcom Mysore, Elphinstone in Maharashtra, Tod in Rajasthanall of them used a census type survey to understand the society.
Missionary View

Missionaries felt that for the improvement of the Hindu society Hinduism
should be eliminated.

For this they opined that conversion of Hindus to Christians was detrimental,
therefore their view was one of proselytsation.

Effort was to condemn Hindu Society and to hold up religion to ridicule with
translation from the Sanskrit texts.
This view was not a coincidence, it was purposeful to nudging the masses to
convert, which it did to some extent.
Charles grant
Grant felt that the caste system, the legal system, government and above all the
controlling roles of the Brahmans who the society were the cause of the the state of
Hindus his observations were published as State among the Asiatic Subjects of
Great Britain. Stephen Hislop, a missionary gave useful description of tribes of
central India
DEVELOPMENT OF OFFICIAL VIEW OF CASTE
Caste was defined as a thing, as an entity that existed and could be measured
(meaning it has definable characteristics- endogamy, commensality, rules fixed
occupation, ritual practices)
The pigeonholing of most of the castes was done because it was convenient for the
administrator, it meant that he did not have to differentiate between them. Also, it

allowed them to record this as a fact (which was again conveniently different in
different places)
Therefore India was looked at as a state of different castes, which prompted the
admins to have the classifications of caste. The most prominent one was of HH
Risleys (2000 odd castes), after classification the questioned that itched their
minds was where did they come from?
Nesfield said caste has its origin in division of labour.
H.H Risely argued for a racial origin of caste.
Ibbestson saw formation of caste in tribal origin.
J H Hutton tried to discussed factors like economic dependence,
stability of of society, varna theory such other factors as responsible for the
origin of caste system.
In urban environment caste was gradually experiencing massive
changes like: formation of caste based sabha, inter-caste marriages, caste
hostels etc. so their understanding of caste as a rigid group was in problem.
The following part is from my class notes, because it is getting really hard
understand what she deemed important)
India was a land of village republic, self-sufficient corporately organized village
Community.
Luis Dumont traced the development of concept of Village community in three
different phases
1. For Britishers Village community is a political society.
2. As a body of co-owner of the soil - Ryotwari system.
3. Centre of economic and political agenda for patriotism.