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Title: Solar thermal water heating system modeling and performance
assessment for building applications
Article Type: Full length article
Keywords: Buildings; Flat solar collector; Energy; Exergy; Improvement
potential rate; Sustainability.
Corresponding Author: Mr. Muhammad abid, Master
Corresponding Author's Institution: University of Dammam
First Author: Muhammad abid, Master
Order of Authors: Muhammad abid, Master; Arif Hepbasli, PhD; Bashria
Yousef, PhD; Khalid Saeed
Abstract: In this study solar thermal water heating system was analyzed
from the first and second law perspectives of thermodynamics. The system
consists of three basic components (i.e a solar flat collector, a heat
exchanger, and a pump), two circuits (solar collector and secondary), and
the storage tank. The energy and exergy efficiency curves for the solar
flat collector were presented. The energetic and exergetic values for
the system were calculated based on the experimental values for the
overall system, the heat exchanger and the pumps using the approach of
exergetic product/fuel basis. The system performance was also analyzed
through some thermodynamic parameters such as relative irriversibility,
sustainability assessment, and improvement potential rate. The greatest
and lowest relative irriversibilities occurred at the solar collector
and the heat exchanger with values of 85.73% and 2.45%, respectively,
and the system overall exergy efficiency was determined to be 20.28%. The
energy and exergy efficiencies of the solar collector were analyzed at
three different cases depending on the mass flow rates in the solar
collector and the secondary circuit of the system. Three different mass
flow rates(0.048 kg/s, 0.062kg/s and 0.1 kg/s) were applied to the inlet
of the secondary circuit to observe the efficiency effect on the solar
collector circuit. Furthermore, the system energy efficiency was analyzed
at six different mass flow rates (0.055kg/s, 0.011kg/s, 0.016 kg/s,
0.022kg/s, 0.025 kg/s and 0.033kg/s) in the solar collector circuit for
the corresponding mass flow rates in the secondary circuit.
Suggested Reviewers: Ibrahim Dincer
Department of Automotive, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Faculty of En, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Canada
ibrahim.dincer@uoit.ca
Anand Joshi
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario
Institute of Technology, Canada
anand.joshi@uoit.ca

Abdulmajeed Mohamad
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Universityof Calgary
mohamad@ucalgary.ca
Marc Rosen
Department of Automotive, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Faculty of En, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Canada
marc.rosen@uoit.ca

Cover Letter

May 15, 2016

Dear Editor-in-Chief:

You will find attached copies of our paper entitled Solar thermal water heating system
modeling and performance assessment for building applications , which I co-authored
with Prof. Dr. Arif Hepbasli, Associate Professor Dr. Bashria, and Mr. Khalid Saeed, for
review and possible publication in energy conversion and management.
Submission of this article also implies that the work described has not been published
previously, that it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere, that its publication is
approved by all authors and tacitly or explicitly by the responsible authorities where the work
was carried out.
I would like to thank you very much for your kind efforts and also for your valuable
comments on the paper in advance.

Sincerely,

M. Abid
The Corresponding Author

*Manuscript
Click here to view linked References

Solar thermal water heating system modeling and performance assessment

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for building applications

M. Abid*a, A. Hepbaslib, A. Bashriaa, Khalid Saeedc
a

Basic Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Dammam, Dammam,

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
b

Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Yasar University,

Bornova,35100 Izmir, Turkey

Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University

,Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
abid.528633@gmail.com, arif.hepbasli@yasar.edu.tr, baabdallah@uod.edu.sa,
khalid.uetp@gmail.com

Abstract
In this study solar thermal water heating system was analyzed from the first and second law
perspectives of thermodynamics. The system consists of three basic components (i.e a solar
flat collector, a heat exchanger, and a pump), two circuits (solar collector and secondary), and
the storage tank. The energy and exergy efficiency curves for the solar flat collector were
presented. The energetic and exergetic values for the system were calculated based on the
experimental values for the overall system, the heat exchanger and the pumps using the
approach of exergetic product/fuel basis. The system performance was also analyzed through
some thermodynamic parameters such as relative irriversibility, sustainability assessment,
*

Correspondence to: M. Abid., Basic Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Dammam,
Dammam, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
E-mail: abid.528633@gmail.com; maakhan@uod.edu.sa;
Tel: +966 138584331; Fax:00966138584331

and improvement potential rate. The greatest and lowest relative irriversibilities occurred at
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the solar collector and the heat exchanger with values of 85.73% and 2.45%, respectively,
and the system overall exergy efficiency was determined to be 20.28%. The energy and
exergy efficiencies of the solar collector were analyzed at three different cases depending on
the mass flow rates in the solar collector and the secondary circuit of the system. Three
different mass flow rates(0.048 kg/s, 0.062kg/s and 0.1 kg/s) were applied to the inlet of the
secondary circuit to observe the efficiency effect on the solar collector circuit. Furthermore,
the system energy efficiency was analyzed at six different mass flow rates (0.055kg/s,
0.011kg/s, 0.016 kg/s, 0.022kg/s, 0.025 kg/s and 0.033kg/s) in the solar collector circuit for
the corresponding mass flow rates in the secondary circuit.

Keywords: Buildings, Flat solar collector, Energy, Exergy, Improvement potential rate,
Sustainability.
Nomenclature
E

energy rate (kW)

E x

exergy rate (kW)

exergetic product rate (kW)

exergetic fuel rate (kW)

specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)

specific entropy (kJ/kg)

mass flow rate (kg/s)

heat transfer rate (kW)

T
W

RI

Temperature (K)
Work rate or power (kW)
Relative irreversibility (-)

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SI

Sustainability index (-)

IP

Improvement potential rate (kW)

useful

uncertainty

calculated result

Pressure
Greek letters

specific exergy (kJ/kg)

exergy efficiency (%)

energy efficiency(%)

Indices
0

reference state

inlet state point

outlet state point

working fluid(water)

en

energy loss

ex

exergy loss

successive number

total

comp.

component

mech, elect

mechanical and electrical

H.E

heat exchanger

1. Introduction
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Green energy is considered renewable and sustainable. It is renewable because it does not
deplete easily and is obviously replenished. Two basic technologies are used to receive
energy from the sun: one is solar Photovoltaics, and another is solar thermal collectors.
Recently, solar power generation percentage has grown even more rapidly, but from a very
smaller base. Renewable forms of energy accounted for 2.1% of the global energy
consumption, which was only 0.7% in 2001. European Union has set a target to achieve a 20
% share by 2020 of renewable energy sources in final energy consumption. To achieve these
goals, the solar thermal sector could provide an important contribution, since the demand for
heating and domestic hot water production accounts for 37% of the total energy demand in
Europe (Aste, Del Pero, Adhikari, & Marenzi, 2015). The main problem associated with the
use of this energy is its low grade and high initial cost. The efficiency of the systems operated
on the solar energy is very low compared to the conventional systems available in the market.
The performance of a solar collector depends on the solar radiation absorption, and it is then
transferred in the form of absorbed energy to the working fluid inside the pipes of the solar
collector. Flat plate solar collectors are very common and have been

mainly used for

domestic heating water systems (Zambrana-Vasquez, Aranda-Uson, Zabalza-Bribian, Janez,

Llera-Sastresa, Hernandez, & Arrizabalaga, 2015). Exergy analysis has been performed in the
literature for different types of solar collectors. Most work has been done in the field of flatplate solar collectors, combined photovoltaic (PV) and thermal (PV/T) collectors. Despite
this types of collectors have been well analyzed for a long time, there is still much interest in
the general aspects of its second law analysis. The second law analysis identifies the causes,
locations and magnitude of the system inefficiencies and provides the true measure of how a
system approaches to the ideal (Koroneos & Tsarouhis, 2012) Energy and exergy analyses of
flat plate collectors have been carried out by Jafarkazemi & Ahmadifard (2013); Ge, Wang,

Wang, Zhang, & Guan (2014). Jafarkazemi & Ahmadifard (2013), performed the energy
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and exergy efficiency analysis of a collector while based on the analysis and comparison of
results, the optimal working condition of the system was determined. They concluded that,
designing the system with an inlet water temperature of approximately 40o C higher than the
ambient temperature as well as lower flow rates would enhance the overall performance of
the system. In the study of Ge, Wang, Wang, Zhang, & Guan (2014), they presented an
exergy analysis model of flat plate collectors, considering non-uniformity in temperature
distribution along the absorber plate. The effects of ambient temperature, solar irradiance,
fluid inlet temperature, and fluid mass flow rate on useful heat rate, useful exergy rate, and
exergy loss rate were investigated. It was concluded that there was an optimal fluid inlet
temperature for obtaining the maximum useful exergy rate. The calculated optimal fluid inlet
temperature was 69C while the maximum useful exergy rate obtained was 101.6 W. Exergy
rate distribution was analyzed when ambient temperature, solar irradiance, fluid mass flow
rate, and fluid inlet temperature were set to 20 C, 800 W/m2, 0.05 kg/s, and 50 C,
respectively. The exergy efficiency was 5.96%. Similarly, the exergetic efficiency of finned
solar collectors was evaluated by Fudholi, Sopian, Othman, Ruslan, & Bakhtyar, (2013).
Optimum tilt angle determination of solar collectors have been investigated by Moghadam &
Deymeh, (2015). In their study the determination of optimum location and optimum tilt
angle of solar collectors on the roof, with respect to the shadow of adjacent buildings was the
main objective.
Dutta Gupta & Saha (1990) performed an exergy analysis and calculated the optimal inlet
temperature for a number of cases, assuming a constant overall heat loss coefficient and fluid
inlet temperature. Luminosu & Fara (2005) conducted a research in order to demonstrate the
dependence of exergy on fluid flow rate as well as collector area and the effect of these two
parameters on the overall performance of the collector. Gunerhan & Hepbasli (2007)

performed an experimental analysis on a closed loop solar water heater system. The system
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performance was evaluated based on the experimental data of the Izmir province, Turkey.
Exergy efficiency values on a product/fuel basis were found to range between from 2.02 to
3.37%, and 3.27 to 4.39% at a dead (reference) state temperature of 32.77 oC, for the solar
collector and entire system, respectively. Based on their results, the maximum exergy loss of
the system occurred at the collector and the exergy efficiency of the solar water heater system
was found approximately 4%.To obtain the maximum efficiency and further improve the
performance of such system, the investigation of this system using exergy analysis was very
crucial.
In the present study, the solar water heating system was analyzed based on a wide range
of the experimental values. The energy and exergy analyses for the whole system were
performed under the controlled laboratory light source and environmental condition to
observe the effect of mass flow rate and irradiance on the system performance. The whole
system performance was assessed on exergetic product/fuel basis definition of the exergy
efficiencies under the controlled laboratory light source. Furthermore, the energy and exergy
efficiencies of the system were analyzed at three different cases depending on the mass flow
rates in the solar collector circuit and the secondary circuit of the system. In the first case,
the storage tank was filled with 0.06 m3 of water to see the time dependency of the outlet
power, inlet and outlet temperatures of the solar flat collector. The second case included the
tank filled with water, which was maintained at a constant temperature of 30oC

and

continuously flushed out to attain the steady state condition. Six different mass flow rates
were applied to find the optimum mass flow rate for the system performance. The system
overall performance, exergetic and energetic rate analysis, and some thermodynamics
parameters were investigated at the optimum mass flow rate. The third case considered was
the effect of varying mass flow rate in the secondary circuit on the system performance. The

above mentioned analysis performed in this study makes it different from the previously
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conducted studies on the solar thermal water heating system.

2. System description
The solar thermal water heating system considered is a closed circuit system, as shown
schematically in Fig. 1. The specification details for the system under investigation are given
in Table 1. As can be seen from Fig.1 that the main components of the system are (i) solar
flat collector, (ii) solar collector circuit, (iii) a secondary circuit with storage tank, (iv)pump
for circulating working fluid, and (v) a heat exchanger.
A laboratory controlled light source is used, as the radiation falls on the flat solar
collector, the absorber plate get heated. The absorber consists of an aluminum sheet with
selective coating, which is located below the glass cover. A meandering copper tube is
mounted to the backside of this sheet, through which the heat transfer fluid can flow. At the
head and foot of the collector the thinner copper tubes lead into thicker collecting pipes,
which are led to the outer side of the collector housing. The cold liquid enters at the bottom
end and the heated liquid exits through the top end. The working fluid is circulated by a
pump located in the position shown in the schematic diagram. The absorber plate in the flat
collector transfers the heat to the heat transfer fluid through convection process. The heated
fluid is pumped from the flat collector through the heat exchanger. In the heat exchanger, the
thermal energy of the working fluid in the solar circuit is transferred to the water in the
secondary circuit, which is directly connected to the inlets and outlets of the storage tank. The
pump in the solar circuit then pumps the cooled heat transfer fluid from the heat exchanger
back to the flat collector, creating a closed solar circuit. To adjust the angle of inclination, the
collector in the unit is mounted on a pivotable frame. Bimetallic thermometer with
mechanical indicator and electrical

resistance thermometer with connection to the data

acquisition system are used to measure the temperatures. The manometer is used to monitor

the pressure in the solar circuit. The expansion vessel in the solar circuit is used to hold the
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increasing volume of heat transfer fluid as the temperature rises. This makes it possible to
keep the pressure almost constant above a given temperature range. A solar cell with a known
sensitivity is provided for the measurement of luminance. The solar cell is mounted on a
holder and is movable, which makes it possible to take luminance measurements at different
locations. The flow rate in the solar circuit is measured using a rotameter. The sight glass of
the rotameter can also be usedto check residual air bubbles in the solar circuitduring the
filling process.
3. Analysis
In the analysis section general relation for the energy and exergy analysis of the solar thermal
water heating system is presented for its performance evaluation. The mass balance equation
can be expressed in the rate form as follows;

in

out
m

(1)

According to the first law of thermodynamics, the different forms of energy may individually
undergo quantitative changes, but the overall amount of energy is conserved. The general
energy balance can be expressed below by equation (2) as the total energy input rates equal
to total energy output rates,

in

E out

(2)

Exergy, which is defined as the work potential of a system, is relative to its reference state.
The general exergy balance can be expressed in the rate form by the following equations,

Ex Ex
in

out

E xdestruction

(3)

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Exheat E xwork E xmass,in Exmass,out Exdestruction

(4)

with

T
E xheat 1 0
Tk

Q ,

(4a)

and
Q UA(Tcell Tamb )

(4b)

with

U 5.7 3.8v
E x work W ,

(4c)
(4d)

in in ,
E xmass,in m

(4d)

out out
E xmass,out m

(4f)

where is Q the heat transfer rate through the boundary at temperature Tk at location k and W
is the work rate.
The specific exergy is given as follows;

(h h0 ) T0 (s s0 )

(5)

The exergy rate at any point can be found by multiplying the specific exergy to the mass flaw
rate as follows;
[( h h0 ) T0 ( s s 0 )]
E x m

(5a)

whereas h is the specific enthalpy, s is the specific entropy, and the subscript zero indicates
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properties at the reference state of Pressure P0and temperature T0.

It is usually more convenient to find S gen first and then to evaluate the exergy
destroyed directly from the following equation, which is also known as Gouy-Stodola
equation:

E xdestruction I T0 S gen

(6)

3.1 Energy and exergy efficiencies

The instantaneous thermal efficiency of the solar collectors is the ratio of the actual
useful energy collected

Q u to the solar energy intercepted by the collector gross area and is

given by the following equation ( Ceylan, 2012; Duffie, & Beckman, 1991).

scol

m f C p , f (T2 T1 )
Q u

Ascol GT
Ascol GT

(7)

Exergy efficiency is defined as the ratio of total exergy output rate to total exergy input rate,
i.e.

E x

E x

output 1 destruction
Exinput
Exinput

(8)

whereas output in equation (8) stands for net output, and input stands fuel. Two
different approaches are generally used for the definition of exergy efficiency, one is called
product/fuel, while the other is called functional (DiPippo, 2004). A product/fuel
exergy efficiency for any system or component is defined as the ratio of the sum of all output
exergy terms to the sum of all input exergy terms. A functional exergy efficiency for any
system can be defined as the ratio of the exergy associated with the desired energy output to

the exergy associated with the energy expended to achieve the desired output.
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The exergy efficiency on the exergetic product/exergetic fuel basis for the whole system and
individual components can be expressed as follows;

system
F

(8a)

3.2. Solar collector

The instantaneous exergy efficiency of the solar collector can be defined as the ratio
of the increased water exergy to the exergy of the solar radiation (Ozturk, 2004). In other
words, it is a ratio of the useful exergy to the exergy absorbed by the solar collector.

scol

E xu
E x sol

(9)

where as

f ,out [(h2 h1 ) T0 (s2 s1 )]

Exu m
or

(9a)
(9b)

T
E xu m f C f (T2 T1 ) T0 ( Ln 2 )
T1

T
T
E xu Q u 1
( Ln 2 )
T1
T2 T1

(9c)

f c p, f (T2 T1 )
Q u m

(9d)

The exergy of solar radiation E x sol can be expressed in terms of total solar irradiance (Gt),

E x sol AGt srad

(10)

whereas exergy of solar thermal emission srad at temperature T is as follows,

srad

4 T 1 T 4
1 0 0
3 Tsun 3 Tsun

(10a)

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Where Tsun was taken equal to 6000 K, by Petela (2005).

Finally the exergy of solar radiation can be expressed by as follows;

4 T 1 T 4

Ex solar AGT 1 0 0
3 Tsun 3 Tsun

(11)

3.3Exergy analysis of pump and heat exchanger

By neglecting the heat transfer versus the environment, exergy destructions in the pump
(Kotas, 1985):
(12)

f ( out,act in,act )
Exdest, pump W pump,elect m
The exergy efficiency of the circulating pump is calculated as follows ;

pump

E x act ,out E xin,act m f ( act ,out act ,in )

W pump,elect
W pump,elect

(13)

The exergy destruction rate for the heat exchanger is given by the following relationship;

f (( 3 4 ) ( 6 7 ))
Exdest, H .E m

(14)

with exergy efficiency as given below;

H .E

E x6 E x7 m cold ( 6 7 )

m hot ( 3 4 )
E x3 E x 4

(15)

3.4 Relative irreversibility

The relative irreversibility for each component and the system as a whole can be calculated
using the following relationship;
Re lative

irreversibility ( RI )

E xdest ,i
E xdest ,total

(16)

3.5 Sustainability assessment

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Sustainability assessment requires the resources to be used effectively, and it is

performed with sustainability index (SI) method, which is related to exergy efficiency.
Exergy methods are essential in improving efficiency that allows society to maximize the
benefits it derives from its resources while minimizing the negative impacts, such as
environmental damage as reported by Rosen, Dincer, & Kanoglu (2008). Therefore, the SI
method based on exergy efficiency is a useful tool to obtain sustainability assessment given
by the following equation;

SI

1
1

(17)

3.6 Exergetic improvement potential

The maximum improvement in the exergy efficiency for a process or system is obviously
achieved when the exergy loss or irreversibilities rate ( E xin E xout ) is reduced. As suggested
by Van Gool (1997), it is therefore useful to employ the concept of an exergetic
improvement potential rate while analyzing different processes.. This improvement potential
rate, denoted by IP is given by the following relationship:
IP (1 ) * ( E xin E xout )

(18)

3.7 Uncertainty analysis

In these experimental results, there may be some inaccuracies in measuring the
primary data. It needs a description of such inaccuracies. It is well known that errors and
uncertainties in any experiments can arise from instrument selection, instrument condition,
instrument calibration, environmental conditions, observation and reading and test planning.
Uncertainty analysis is required to prove the accuracy of the experiments. In the present
study, the temperatures, pressure, velocity, flow rates and electrical powers are measured

with appropriate instruments. The total uncertainty of any measured parameter may be
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calculated as given by Holman (2001), as follows:

U t U 2 sensor U 2 Dac U 2 calibration

(19)

where U T is the total uncertainty in any measured parameter, U sensor is the uncertainty in the
sensor reading, U Dac is the uncertainty associated with the data acquisition system and
U calibration is the uncertainty in the calibration procedure. The uncertainty arising in calculating

any result (R) due to several independent variables uncertainties

( x1 , x2 , x3 ,..........xm ) is

given by Coleman & Steele (1999), and can be expressed as follows:

1

2
2
2
R
R
2
R

U R
U x1
U x2 ............................
U xm
X 1
X 2

X m

(20)

In our study, the primary measured parameters are temperatures, pressure, Solar
radiation, flow rate and electrical power, which are used for further calculation of the energy
andexergy analysis of the system.

4. Results and discussion

The energy and exergy relationships for the solar collector, closed tank storage system, with
heat transfers by heat exchanger are obtained and presented in the analysis part. The energy
and exergy rates for the system are shown in Table 2according to their state points for one
representative value, according to Fig. 1.The thermodynamic properties, namely specific
enthalpy an specific entropy of water are found using Cycle pad software package program.
The reference state is taken equal to 25 oC and 101.325 kPa. The following assumptions are
made for the exergy analysis of the solar thermal water heating system considered.

(a) The pressure losses in the pipelines connecting the components of the solar collector
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circuit and primary circuit are ignored, because their lengths are short.
(b) All processes considered are steady state and steady flow.
(c) Potential and kinetic energy effects is neglected and without chemical or nuclear
reactions.
(d) Heat loss from the storage tank is neglected.
Table 2 shows the irriversibility contributed by each component and the overall
system and the exergy efficiency on the exergetic product fuel basis. The table also shows
some thermodynamic parameters, i.e relative irriversibility, sustainability index

and

improvement potential rate for the system and was calculated using Eqs. (16)-(18), presented
in the analysis part. Fig.2 shows the changes in the temperature at the inlet and outlet with
time. The thermal output power behavior and the effect of the inlet outlet temperature can be
seen in the figure. A small fluctuation is noted at the start in the inlet and outlet temperature
and then after some time it get steadily rise. The calculated thermal power first reaches values
above 492.5 W and increases significantly at higher temperatures Essentially one can already
deduce from the results that in terms of the achieved thermal power, it is advantageous to
operate the flat collector at lowest possible temperatures. Figs. 3 and 4 show the case when
the tank is filled and continuously flushed out and the temperature is maintained 30 oC. Six
different mass flow rates in the solar collector circuit were used in the analysis. The mass
flow rate was changed in the primary circuit and the system was allowed to get into steady
state condition. As can be seen from Fig.3 that the inlet temperature has minimum and
maximum values of 57.5 oC and 86.2oC for the flow rates of 0.0055 kg/s and 0.033 kg/s,
respectively, while the outlet temperature has minimum and maximum values of 73 oC and
84 oC

for the flow rates of 0.033 kg/s and 0.0055 kg/s, respectively. The difference in

temperatures at the inlet and outlet decreases with the increase in the mass flow rate. Fig. 4

shows the thermal efficiency and mass flow rate in the solar circuit effect on the temperature
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difference between the inlet and outlet collector temperature difference. The thermal
efficiency has maximum and minimum values of 65.71% and 54.41% at temperature
differences of 8 oC and 26.5 oC, respectively. The maximum efficiency is attained at a flow
rate of 0.022 kg/s and the efficiency is minimum at the lowest flow rate. The thermal
efficiency increases with the increase in the flow rate until it reaches maximum at 0.022 kg/s
and after that point the increase in flow rate have negative impact on the thermal efficiency of
the solar flat collector. As can be seen from the graph that the temperature for the tank water
remains constant.
Fig. 5 shows the case when the tank is empty while the inlet and outlet of the
secondary circuit are connected directly to the fresh water supply and the drain, respectively
and the mass flow rate in the solar collector circuit is kept constant at 0.022 kg/s.As can be
seen from Fig. 5a, the inlet and outlet temperatures of the solar flat collector are strongly
affected by the change in the mass flow rate in the secondary circuit. Initially the outlet
temperature at the collector is 60 oC at a mass flow rate of 0.0083kg/s (the lowest flow rate
in the secondary circuit) and the temperature difference between the collector inlet and outlet
is 8 oC. Then flow rate was increased to 0.031 kg/s, 0.048kg/s, 0.076kg/s, and 0.098 kg/s
and the system was allowed to get into steady state condition. The temperature difference in
the inlet and outlet of the collector increased to 11oC, as we increased the flow rate to 0.031
kg/s and after that the increase in flow rate (0.048 kg/s, 0.048 kg/s, 0.076 kg/s, and 0.098
kg/s) have very small almost negligible effect on the temperature difference between the inlet
and outlet temperature at the collator. The collector outlet temperature reduces to 47 oC at a
mass flow rate of 0.098 kg/s.Fig.5 b shows the thermal efficiency, outlet water temperature in
the secondary circuit (Td) vs. temperature difference at the inlet and outlet of the collector.
The thermal efficiency increases as the mass flow rate increases from 0.0083 kg/s to 0.031

kg/s from 66.37% to 91.26%, while further the increase in the mass flow rate (at 0.048 kg/s,
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0.076kg/s, and 0.098 kg/s) has no effect on the efficiency and is constant at 91.26%.
Furthermore it can be seen from the graph that with the increase in the mass flow rate, the
temperature at the outlet of the secondary circuit changes from 49.5oC to 31.5 oC. The
reduction in the temperature is high initially with the increase in the mass flow rate. The
outlet temperatures at 0.0083 kg/s to 0.031 kg/s , 0.048 kg/s, 0.076kg/s, and 0.098 kg/s are
49.5 oC, 36 oC, 35.3 oC, 32.5 oC, 31.5 oC, respectively.
Fig.6 shows the thermal efficiency relationship to the changing mass flow rate in the
solar collector circuit to the fixed mass flow rate in the secondary circuit.Fig.6a shows the
thermal efficiency of the solar collector at a constant mass flow rate of 0.048kg/s in the
secondary circuit while changing the mass flow rate in the primary circuit at six different
valuesi.e(0.0055 kg/s, 0.011kg/s, 0.016 kg/s, 0.022kg/s, 0.025 kg/s and 0.033 kg/s).At 0.048
kg/s flow rate in the secondary circuit, the thermal efficiency has minimum and maximum
values of 67.4% and 91.26% at mass flow rates of 0.0055 kg/s and 0.022 kg/s, respectively.
As can be seen from the figure that the efficiency increases with the increase in the flow rate
to a certain values and then starts decreasing with the mass flow rate. The maximum
efficiency is attained at 0.022 kg/s and then the values fall to 88.36% and 85.04% at 0.016
kg/s and 0.011 kg/s, respectively. The water inlet temperature to the secondary circuit was
27.5 oC and the outlet temperature varies with mass flow rate between 36 oC and 33.5 oC at
0.033 kg/s and 0.0055 kg/s, respectively. Fig. 6b shows the thermal efficiency of the solar
collector at a mass flow rate of 0.062 kg/s in the secondary circuit and changing the mass
flow rates in the primary circuit at six different values(0055kg/s, 0.011kg/s, 0.016 kg/s,
0.022kg/s, 0.025 kg/s, 0.033kg/s).At 0.062 kg/s flow rate in the secondary circuit, the
thermal efficiency has minimum and maximum values of 71.56% and 88.78% at mass flow
rates of 0.0055 kg/s and 0.022 kg/s, respectively. The water inlet temperature to the

secondary circuit is 27.5 oC and the outlet temperature varies between 33.5 oC and 32 oC at
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0.033 kg/s and 0.0055 kg/s, respectively.Fig.6c shows the thermal efficiency of the solar
collector at a constant mass flow rate of 0.1kg/s in the secondary circuit while changing the
mass flow rate in the primary circuit at six different values(0.055kg/s, 0.011kg/s, 0.016 kg/s,
0.022kg/s, 0.025 kg/s and 0.033kg/s).All the readings are taken after the system getsinto
steady state condition. At 0.1 kg/s mass flow rate in the secondary circuit, the thermal
efficiency has minimum and maximum values of 72.18% and 91.26% at mass flow rates of
0.033 kg/s and 0.022 kg/s, respectively. In this case the highest flow rate has the lowest
efficiency. The water inlet temperature to the secondary circuit is 27.5 oC and the outlet
temperature varies between 32 oC and 31.5 oC at 0.033 kg/s and 0.0055kg/s, respectively. The
highest efficiency in all the thee cases(0.048 kg/s, 0.062kg/s and 0.1 kg/s in the secondary
circuit) has been attained at 0.022kg/s in the primary circuit. Regarding the outlet water
temperature in the secondary circuit, the highest is achieved at 0.048 kg/s in the secondary
circuit. The variation at different flow rates in the primary circuit to the water outlet
temperature is equal to 2.5 oC. The lowest water outlet temperature is attained at 0.1 kg/s in
the secondary circuit and the variation at different flow rates for the solar collector circuit is
only 0.5 oC. The difference between the inlet and outlet temperatures in the primary circuit
(T2-T1), is in the range of (6oC-32.5oC), (6.8oC-34.5oC), and (5.8oC-38.1oC) for 0.048kg/s,
0.062kg/s, and 0.1 kg/s in the secondary circuit, respectively.
The total uncertainties of the measurements of temperature, pressure, solar radiation, flow
rate and electrical power are estimated to be 2.56% , 4.12%, 2.31 , 3.12 % , and
1.23%,respectively.The uncertainty in reading values of the tables is assumed to be 0.16%.
The total uncertainty associated with the calculated values are found 5.68% for solar
collectors thermal efficiency, 3.91%, 4.23% and 5.13% for exergy efficiencies of the
collector, the pump and the heat exchanger, respectively.

The energy and exergy efficiency curves are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively. Fig.
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7 shows the variation of thermal efficiency in %, which was also correlated with a coefficient
of determination (R2) of 0.758 as follows:

scol 0.906 x 101.2

(21)

Whereas x can be calculated as follows;

T T1

x 2
T0
2

(22)

where T1 and T2 are the inlet and outlet temperatures of the fluid, while T0 is the ambient
temperature. The trend of the exergy efficiencies of the solar collector under consideration is
shown in Fig.8, with the help of the exergy efficiency curve for the solar collector. In this
context, the exergy efficiency was correlated with a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.90,
as given as follows:

scol 0.139 x 2.483

(23)

which can predict the values of exergy efficiencies of the solar collector under various
operation conditions with x given by Eq. (22). This curve was proposed by Gunerhan &
Hepbasli (2007), using the similar approach applied to the energy efficiency curve for solar
collectors.
5. Conclusions
In this study we have assessed the solar water heating system performance through energy
and exergy analysis methods. Exergy analysis , which is based on the second law of
thermodynamics, represents the quality of energy and involves the irreversibility while
analyzing the system efficiency. The following concluding remarks can be made;
Exergy analysis identifies the root causes, locations and magnitude of the system
inefficiencies and provides a true measure of how a system approaches to the ideal
operation.

 The greatest irreversibility rate occurred at the solar collector with a value of 0.990
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kW and the efficiency value was determined to be 13.01% on the exergetic product/
fuel basis.
The exergy efficiency for the solar collector was found to be in the range of 3.17 % 9.26 % on the net rational basis definition.
The mass flow rate in the solar collector circuit and the secondary circuit had a
strong effect on the energy and exergy efficiencies and there was an optimum value at
which the system could be operated. The optimum value for the solar collector circuit
was found to be 0.022 kg/s.
The thermal efficiency increased as the mass flow rate increased from 0.0083 kg/s to
0.031 kg/s from 66.37% to 91.26%, while further increase in mass flow rate (at 0.048
kg/s, 0.076kg/s, and 0.098 kg/s) had no effect on the efficiency and was constant at
91.26%.
The sustainability index values for the solar collector, the heat exchanger, the pump
and the overall system were obtained to be 1.149, 3.317, 1.587, and 1.254,
respectively.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by University of Dammam, Deanship of Scientific Research.
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Highlights

Highlights (Abid, Arif Hepbasli, Bashria, and Khalid 2016, Sustainable

Cities and Society)
Solar thermal water heating system modeling and performance assessment for
building applications was performed,
Both energy and exergy approach were used for the analysis of the system,
The system performance was also conducted through some thermodynamics
parameter like Relative Irreversibilitys, exergetic Improvement potential rate,
Sustainability index,
General relations (i.e., energy, exergy, and exergy balance equations) along
with energy and exergy efficiencies used in the analysis of these systems were
presented.
The effect of the fluid flow rate in the primary and secondary circuit were
investigated for various cases.

Figure

List of Figures:
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram for the solar thermal water heating system.
Fig. 2. Thermal output power, inlet, outlet and tank temperature behavior vs. time.
Fig. 3. Mass flow rate in the solar collector circuit, inlet, outlet and tank temperature vs. time.
Fig. 4. Thermal efficiency and mass flow rate in the solar collector circuit vs. temperature
difference (T2-T1).
Fig. 5.The inlet and outlet of the secondary circuit is connected to the fresh water supply and the
drain respectively a) inlet, outlet temperature and mass flow rate in the secondary circuit vs.
time b)Thermal efficiency ,outlet water temperature and mass flow rate in the secondary circuit
vs. temperature difference(T2-T1)..
Fig. 6.(a) Thermal efficiency and mass flow rate in the collector circuit vs. temperature
difference at mass flow rate of 0.048 kg/s in the secondary circuit,(b) Thermal efficiency and
mass flow rate in the collector circuit vs. temperature difference at mass flow rate of 0.062kg/s
in the secondary circuit, (c) Thermal efficiency and mass flow rate in the collector circuit vs.
temperature difference at mass flow rate of 0.1 kg/s in the secondary circuit.
Fig. 7. Thermal efficiency curve for the solar collector considered.
Fig. 8. Exergy efficiency curve for the solar collector.

2
Sun
Solar Collector

Heat exchanger
3
7
4

Water Storage

1
5
Pump

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram for the solar thermal water heating system.

Inlet Temperature(T1)

Collector outlet temperature (T2)

Tank Temperature(T)

Thermal power output

100

600
500

Temperature ,T (oC)

80
70

400

60
50

300

40
200

30
20

100

10
0

Time

Fig.2. Thermal output power, inlet, outlet and tank temperature behavior vs. time.

Thermal output Power Rate (W)

90

Temperature at Collector outlet T2

T2-T2
Mass flow rate
90

Temperature at Collector inlet T1

Tank Temperature T
0.035

80
Temperature (o C)

70
0.025

60
50

0.02

40

0.015

30

0.01

20

Mass flow rate in kg/s

0.03

0.005

10
0

0
0:30

1:30

2:30

3:30

4:30

5:30

Time

Fig. 3. Mass flow rate in the solar collector circuit, inlet, outlet and tank temperature vs. time.

Tank Temperature T

Mass flow rate

70

0.035

60

0.03

50

0.025

40

0.02

30

0.015

20

0.01

10

0.005

Mass flow rate ( kg/s)

Thermal efficiency ( %)

Thermal efficiency

0
4

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

T2-T1 (o C)

Fig. 4. Thermal efficiency and mass flow rate in the solar collector circuit vs. temperature
difference (T2-T1).

Temperature at the Collector inlet (T1)

Temperature at the Collector outlet (T2)

(T2-T1)
70

Mass flow rate

0.12
0.1

50

0.08

40
0.06
30
0.04

20

0.02

10
0

0
0:30

1:30

2:30
Time t (h:min)

(a)

3:30

4:30

Mass flow rate ( kg/s)

Temperature (oC)

60

100

Thermal efficiency
Outlet water temperature in the Secondary Circuit(Td)
Mass flow rate

0.12

90
Thermal efficiency ( %)

70

0.08

60
50

0.06

40
0.04

30
20

Mass flow rate (kg/s)

0.1

80

0.02

10
0

0
8

T2-T1 (oC) 10

11

(b)
Fig. 5.The inlet and outlet of the secondary circuit is connected to the fresh water supply and the
drain respectively (a) inlet, outlet temperature and mass flow rate in the secondary circuit vs.
time (b)Thermal efficiency ,outlet water temperature and mass flow rate in the secondary circuit
vs. temperature difference.

Thermal efficiency 1
Water outlet Temperaturein the Secondary Circuit (Td)
Mass flow rate

100

0.035

90
Thermal efficincy ( %)

70

0.025

60

0.02

50
40

0.015

30

0.01

20

0.005

10
0

0
6

10

12

14

16

18 20 22
T2-T1(oC)

(a)

24

26

28

30

32

Mass flow rate ( kg/s)

0.03

80

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
T2-T1 (oC)

(b)

Mass flow rate (kg/s)

Thermal efficiency ( %)

Thermal efficiency 2
Water outlet Temperature in the Secondary Circuit (Td)
Mass flow rate

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005

Mass flow rate (kg/s)

Thermal efficiency ( %)

Thermal efficiency 3
Water Outlet Temperature in the Secondary Circuit (Td)
Mass flow rate

0
5

9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
T2-T1 (oC)

(c)

Fig. 6.(a) Thermal efficiency and mass flow rate in the collector circuit vs. temperature
difference at mass flow rate of 0.048kg/s in the secondary circuit,(b) Thermal efficiency and
mass flow rate in the collector circuit vs. temperature difference at mass flow rate of 0.062kg/s
in the secondary circuit,(c) Thermal efficiency and mass flow rate in the collector circuit vs.
temperature difference at mass flow rate of 0.1kg/s in the secondary circuit.

100
90
Energy efficiency (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

10

20

X(oC)

30

40

50

Fig. 7.Thermal efficiency curve for the solar collector considered.

10
9
Exergy efficiency (%)

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

10

20

30

40

X(oC)

Fig. 8.Exergy efficiency curve for the solar collector.

50

List of Tables:
Table 1. Solar thermal water heating System specification.
Table 2. Energetic and exergetic data provided for one optimum value of the solar water heating
system studied.
Table 3.ComponentIrreversibilitys rates and some thermodynamic parameters provided for one
representative unit of the solar water heating system analyzed.

Table 1
Solar thermal water heating System specification.

S. No

Solar thermal Water heating system

Specifications/Range

Component/Properties

Length x Width x Height

2.3*0.8*2.2 m

Power consumption

Operating pressure in the solar circuit

Flow rate range for the solar water circuit

Absorbing surface area

Working fluid(water)

Pressure loss at 0.0138kg/second

10 kPa

Pressure relief valve in the solar circuit

500kPa

Temperature measurement range for thermometer

0-160 oC

10

Pump power consumption in the solar circuit

13 W

11

Maximum flow rate for the secondary circuit

0.833 kg/s

12

Storage tank capacity

0.14 m3

13

Rotameter measurement range

130 W
Maximum 600 kPa
0-0.041 kg/s
2.31m2
0.00141 m3

0.0055-0.088 kg/s

Table 2
Energetic and exergetic data provided for one optimum value of the solar water heating system
studied.
State no.

Comp.

Fluid

Temperat
ure
T
(oC)

Pressure
(kPa)

Specific
enthalpy
h(kJ/kg)

Specific
entropy s
(kJ/kg. K)

Mass flow
rate

(kg/s)

Specific
exergy
(kJ/kg)

Exergy

Energy

rate E x
(kW)

rate E
(kW)

Water Referen 101.325

ce state

104.8

0.3669

Solar
collector
inlet

Water 38.12

245.25

159.9

0.546

0.022

1.433

0.0315

3.517

Solar
collector
outlet

Water 50.32

245.25

210.9

0.7

0.022

6.517

0.1433

4.639

Heat
exchanger
inlet

Water 49.15

245.25

206

0.692

0.022

4.004

0.0880

4.532

Heat
exchanger
outlet/pum
p inlet
Pump
outlet/solar
collector
inlet
Pump2
outlet/solar
collector
inlet
Cold water
inlet to heat
exchanger

Water 37.51

245.25

157.3

0.538

0.022

1.218

0.0267

3.460

Water 37.83

245.25

158.6

0.543

0.022

1.028

0.0226

3.489

Water 38.12

245.25

159.9

0.546

0.022

1.433

0.0315

3.517

Water 27.5

101.325

115.3

0.4017

0.048

0.1243

0.0059

5.534

101.325

149.2

0.5131

0.048

0.8105

0.0389

7.161

5s

5act

Hot water Water 35.61

outlet to the
storage
tank

Table 3
Components Irreversibilitys rates and some thermodynamic parameters provided for one
representative unit of the solar water heating system analyzed.
Component Irriversibility Exergetic Exergetic Exergy
Name
rate
product
fuel rate efficiency

(%)
rate P
Ex destruction
F
(kW)
(kW)
(kW)

Relative
sustainability Improvement
irriversibility index ( SI )
potential rate
R (%)
IP (kW)

Solar
collector

0.9902

0.111

0.859

13.01

85.73

1.149

0.8617

Heat
exchanger

0.0283

0.0656

0.0939

69.86

2.45

3.317

0.00852

Pump

0.137

0.037

0.1

37.15%

11.86

1.587

0.0863

Overall
system

1.155

0.2136

1.0529

20.28%

100.00

1.254

0.9207