(Lecture Notes in Mathematics) Leonard D. Baumert-Cyclic Difference Sets - Springer (1971)

Lecture Notes in
Mathematics
A collection of informal reports and seminars
Edited by A. Dold, Heidelberg and B. Eckmann, Z(Jrich
182
Leonard D. Baumert
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, CA / USA
Cyclic Difference Sets
Springer-Verlag
Berlin. Heidelberg- New York 1971
I S B N 3-540-05368-9 S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g B e r l i n H e i d e l b e r g N e w Y o r k
I S B N 0-387-05368-9 S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g N e w Y o r k H e i d e l b e r g B e r l i n
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CYCLIC DIFFERENCE SETS
A fairly comprehensive survey of the general theory of cyclic difference sets

is given below
The aim of ~his survey is to provide a cohesive presentation of
the known facts as well as an introduction to some of the outstanding problems.

The more general topics of block designs and difference sets in finite groups are
introduced but only those aspects of these subjects which shed some light on
problems arising for cyclic difference sets are developed.
It is not expected that many will wish to read this survey sequentially from
the beginning.
For this reason the chapters and to a lesser degree the sections
within them are largely independent of each other, having been written that way in
order to encourage the reader to skip around and follow his own interests.
However
a certain familiarity with the contents of Chapter I is presupposed elsewhere.

Beyond this, interconnections between the various sections and chapters are indicated when they seem relevant.
This structure~
coupled with the aim of making the
later material understandable to as many as possible, has led to the anomaly that,
in some cases, quite elementary concepts are defined in the later chapters, whereas
these
same
concepts,
and a great deal more, were presupposed in earlier sections.
In addition to the specific references inserted in the text, the books of

Marshall Hall, Jr., "Combinatorial Theory", Blaisdell Publishing Company, 1967, of
H. B. Mann, "Addition Theorems", Interscience Publishers,
"Combinatorial Mathematics",
1965, and of Ho J. Ryser,
Carus Mathematical Monograph No. 14, 1963, may be used
as general references for a large part of this material

This survey was compiled in connection with research carried out at the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory,
California Institute of Technology, under Contract No.
NAS 7-100, sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
CONTENTS
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
INTRODUCTION
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.
Difference
B.
Shifts~
C.
Block Designs,
D.
The Characteristic
E.
Multipliers
F.
The Hall-polynomial,
G.
Group Difference
EXISTENCE
Sets
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equivalence
Complements
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Incidence Matrices.
Function
The Incidence
Equation . . . . .
and its Autocorrelation
Function
....
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
QUESTIONS
w-multipliers
4
6
7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii
A.
The Main Existence
B.
The Bruck-Ryser-Chowla
Co
Integral
D.
The Theorem of Hall and Ryser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
E.
Results of Mann,
. . . . . . . . . . .
26
. . . . . . . . . . . .
54
MULTIPLIERS
Problems
Solutions
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theorem
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
to the Incidence
Rankin,
Equation
Turyn and Yamamoto
A N D CONSTRUCTIVE
ii
EXISTENCE
TESTS
12
. . . . . . . . . .
18
A.
Multiplier
Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
Bo
Difference
Sets Fixed by a Multiplier
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
C.
Multipliers
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
D.
Polynomial
DIFFERENCE
and Diophantine
Congruences
Planar Difference
B.
Hadamard Difference
C.
Barker Sequences.
Ao
Sets
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N th Power Residue
77
77
Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
SETS
Hadamard Matrices . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Singer Sets and Their Generalizations.

.
65
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circulant
OF DIFFERENCE
and Welch .
B.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SETS OF SPECIAL TYPE
Ao
FAMILIES
Equations
Difference
The Results
of Gordon,
99
Mills
. . . . . . . . . . .
Sets and Cyclotomy
96
. . . . . . . . .
99
119
V.
VI.
FAMILIES OF DIFFERENCE
C.
More Cyelotomic
D.
Generalized
MI SCELLANY
SETS
(continued)
Difference
Sets
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cyclotomy and Difference
Sets
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.
Multiple
Inequivalent
B.
Searches
C.
Some Examples
D.
A Table of Difference
Difference
Sets
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sets
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
127
131
1 43
143
14h
146
148
159
I.
INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of this chapter is to provide the basic definitions and
vocabulary of the study of difference sets so that subsequent chapters need not be
interrupted at inopportune times b y the introduction of such material.
Thus none
of the concepts are pursued in detail - such development being deferred to the
appropriate part of a later chapter.
A.
Difference Sets
A
v, k, ~ - difference set
modulo
v,
D = {dl, o.., ~ }
such that for an~ residue
J # 0
d i - dj ~ ~
has exactly
solution pairs
(di,dj)
changeable below;
(mod v)
residues
the congruence
(mod v)
with
difference set, cyclic difference set and
is a collection of
di
(ioi)
and
dj
in
Do
[The terms
v, k, h - difference set are inter-
the later two being used when there is some reason to stress
either the contrast with general group difference sets or the particular parameters
v, k, k
involved.]
As an Lv~ediate consequence of this definition one has that the relation
(1.2)
k(k- 1): ~(v- i)
necessarily holds among the parameters

Given any positive integer
modulo
v.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
v, k, ~.
there are certain obvious difference sets
These are:
the null set
D =
all singletons
O = [O,1 ..... v -
D = [i},
0 < i < v - 1
l}
D = [0,i ..... i - I, i + i, .... v - i]
0<i<v-1.
These difference
sets are called trivial and are quite often either ignored or
treated only as limiting cases.

are
v, k~ ~ = v, 0, 0;
If one introduces
v, l, 0;
v, v~ v
the additional parameter
that these trivial difference

assumption
Note that the parameters
n ~2,
and
v, v - l, v - 2
n = k - ~,
equation
sets arise if and only if
which is often made implicitly,
trivial difference
for these difference
n = 0
sets
respectively.
(1.2) above shows

or
lo
Hence the
serves to exclude all the
sets.
Some non-trivial
difference
sets are:
D I = [i, 2, 4]
rood 7,
D 2 = [0, 3, 5, 6]
mod 7,
D 3 = [0, i, 3, 9)
mod 13,
mod 19 o
D 4 = ~i, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, Ii, 16, 17]
v, k, ~
Here the parameters
are
7, 3, 13
7, 4, 2;
13, 4, i
and
19, 9, 4
respectively.
B.
Shifts, Equivalence,
Complements
Given the difference

set
set
D = [dl,.O., ~ ]
[d I + s,...,d k + s} --- D + s
taken modulo
mod v,
v
is also a difference
called a shift (or cyclic shift) of the original set

t,
prime to
v,
the set
[tdl,.o.,td k] --- tD
set with the same parameters

having the same parameters
with
prime to
v,
For any particular

be no difference
equivalent
then
v, k, h.
and if
D.
l
and
D.
j
set of parameters
and
(rood v)
v, k, h
satisfying
pairwise
(This result is discussed
~ > 0,
sets
for any integers
t, s
equation
difference
sets.
(1o2) there may

or several in-
In fact, Gordon, Mills and
difference
in V. A. below)
it is
are two difference
there exist values of
inequivalent
set~
the
is also a difference
set (up to equivalence)
sets having these parameters.
that there are at least
Dj
Again, given any integer
are said to be equivalent
sets, a single difference
difference
Di
D.
taken modulo
D. = tD. + s
l
j
Welch (1962) have shown that given any
meters.
If
then for any integer
v, k, h
such
sets with these para-
Among the examples given in I. A. above note that
D1
and
D2
are related~
that is
D I + D 2 = {O,l,o..,v - I} o
For this reason

D
D1
is a difference
and
set.
v*, k*~
v
and
For m o s t purposes
m e n t a r y difference
than
v/2.
are said to be complementary difference
set w i t h parameters
set w i t h parameters
one sees that both
D2
h*=
n
D*
is a difference
Recalling that
n = k - h
it is sufficient to consider only one of a pair of comple-
sets.
This is frequently done by insisting that
of the four - v, k, h, n.
Using
k = v/2
be less
does not occur)
the parameters
v, n
are the most fundamental
For this reason it is sometimes u s e f u l to express

(1.2) and
n = k - h
k " k* = k(v - k) = n(v - i)
h + h* = v - 2n
its complement
If
are invariant under complementation of the difference
As w i l l become abundantly clear,
Since
v, v - k, v - 2k + h.
(Equation (1.2) shows that
in terms of them.
v, k,
sets.
and
k > 1
and
k, h
it follows that
h. h* = h(v - 2n - h) = n(n - i) .
for non-trivial difference
sets~
it follows
that
_>
n(n-
> v-
2n- i
and so
The two extreme cases
+n
v : 4n - i
+ i >v>4n-
and
v = n2 + n + i
sets of the Hadamard type and to the difference

projective planes
io
(so-called planar difference
cussed more fully in Chapter IV - Difference
correspond to difference
sets associated with certain finite

sets).
Both these types are dis-
Sets of Special Type.
C.
Block Designs, Incidence Matrices,

An arrangement of
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
The Incidence Equation
objects into
sets (called blocks) such that:
each block contains exactly
different objects
each object occurs in exactly
different blocks
any pair of objects occurs in exactly
is called a balanced incomplete block design.
different blocks
Evidently the relations
b k = vr
(1.3)
r(k - i) = h(v - i)
are satisfied b y the parameters
b, v, r, k, h.
pairs involving any one fixed object.)

number of objects
equation
(1.4)
(The last follows by counting the
If the number of blocks
the design is said to be s~mmetric.
(1.3) shows that
k = r.
equals the
In a symmetric design
Thus for symmetric designs equation
(1o4) takes
the same form as equation (1.2).

Every difference set gives rise to a symmetric block design whose objects are
0,1,...,v - 1
and whose blocks are
D,D + 1,...,D + (v - 1).
Note that any cyclic
relabeling of the objects of such a design permutes the blocks cyclically in a cycle
of length
v.
Such a block design is called cyclic.
Thus every difference set
corresponds to a cyclic sy~netrie balanced incomplete block design.

the difference set
D1
of
For example,
I.A. above corresponds to the block design:
BI = DI
- [i, 2, 4]
B 2 = D I + i =- [2, 3, 5]
B3 = D I + 2 - [3, 4, 6]
B4 = D I + 3
- I0, 4, 5]
B 5 = D I + 4 - [i, 5, 6]
B 6 = D I + 5 -= [0, 2, 6]
B 7 = D I + 6 -= [0, l, 3]
(rood 7)
Associated with any balanced incomplete block design is a

zeros and ones called the incidence matrix of the design.
putting
wise.
aij = 1
b v
For the example above [recalling that the ith block is

j - l]
A =
of
It is constructed by
if the jth object appears in the ith block and
that the jth object is
matrix
aij = 0
D + (i - l)
otherand
the incidence matrix is
0
0
0
i
0
i
l
1
0
0
0
1
0
l
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
From the block design definition above it is clear that the associated incidence
matrix satisfies the so-called incidence equation
ATA:
where
is the identity of order
same order.
(r-
and
(1.5)
:):+
is the matrix of all ones of that
From this it follows that the determinant of
ATA
is given by
:ATAI = [r + (V - l)~] (r - :):-i
(l.6)
If the block design is symmetric, this becomes (using equation (1.4))
IATAI = k2(k - ~)v-i
from which it follows that the incidence matrix

balanced incomplete block design is non-singular.
(1.7)
of a non-trivial symmetric
Using this fact it can be shown
(Ryser, 1950) that the incidence matrix of a syn~netric block design is normal.
is, that
That
(1o8)
ATA = AA T = (k - ~,)I + ~7
for symmetric designs.

Since
IATAI = IAI 2
one can conclude from equation (1.8) or (1.7) that a
symmetric block design (or a difference set) can only exist for even
n = k - ~
is a square.
if
The study of equation (1.8) has led to other significant
existence criterions for symmetric block designs and hence for difference sets.
Since Chapter II is devoted to difference set existence questions these results
are deferred until then.
D.
The Characteristic Function and its Autoeorrelation Function

Corresponding to the difference set
(i = 0 , . . . , v wise.
l)
given by
a. = 1
1
if
D
i
is the binary sequence

is a member of
and
{a i]
a. = 0
1
other-
This is called the characteristic function or incidence vector of the
difference set
D.
[Of course it appeared in I. C. as the first row of the
incidence matrix associated with the difference set. ]
Considered as a binary
sequence, it is quite natural to inquire about its autocorrelation function

v-1
Ra(J) =
a i ai+ j
(i + j
taken modulo
v)
i=O
and normalized autocorrelation function
Pa(j)~ !v Ra(J)'
Since
{a i]
is the characteristic function of a difference set, the autocorrelation
ftunction is particularly simple, i.eo
Ra(J) = I k
if
h
j -= 0
otherwise
modulo
Frequently the binary sequence
fb
" i }v-1
0
where
b i = 2a i - 1
is considered
instead of the characteristic function (note the transformation merely replaces

the zeros of
[a i}
with minus ones).
This sequence
{b i]
has autocorrelation
function
if
j ~ 0
V - 4(k - ~)
modulo
otherwise
Autocorrelation functions like these are said to be two-level and binary sequences
which possess them have found extensive application in digital communications.
[See Golomb et al, 1964 for some of these].
Of course, it follows immediately from
the definitions that the only binary sequences which have two-level autocorrelation
functions are those associated with cyclic differences sets.
E.
Multipliers
If
is prime to
difference set
D,
then
and if
t
tD
is some shift
is called a multiplier of
D + s
D.
of the original
In terms of the
associated block design of the difference set (see I.Co above) the mapping
(mod v)
is an automorphism.
That is~ if
is the incidence matrix of the associ-
ated block design, there exists permutation matrices

order
x~tx
P, Q
determined by
of
such that
PAQ = A .
All known
multipliers
(19)
v, k, h - difference sets have non-trivial multipliers
t ~ 1
modulo v).
(i.e.,
The question as to whether this must be so is open.
The collection of multipliers of a given difference set forms a group called the
multiplier group of that difference set.
One of the most useful results in the
theory of difference sets is the so-called "multiplier" theorem.
This theorem
guarantees the existence of multipliers under certain circumstances.
Theorem i.io
is prime to
(Hall and Ryser~ 1951 ).
and if
with these parameters
p > h,
then
If
is a prime dividing
n,
is a multiplier of all difference sets
v, k, h.
Chapter III discusses this result and its generalizations.
For the present,
merely note that for all known non-trivial difference sets the condition
superfluous.
p > h
is
Again since (another open question) all known non-trivial cyclic
difference sets have
(n,v) = 1
difference sets every divisor
F.
if
one has that for all known non-trivial cyclic

t
of
is a multiplier.
The Hall-polvvnomial, w-multipliers

Instead of the difference set itself, it is often convenient to deal with the
polynomial
e(~):x
dl
+...
+x
(l.lO)
This pol~nqomial has been called the Hall-pol~nomial of the difference set, the
generating polynomial of the difference set or the difference set pol~omial.
In terms of this polynomial the difference set property is
e(x)e(x-1)
k
~.
=
d. -d.
I j
h(1 + x
xV_l )
+
o"
(mod x v - i) o
(l.ll)
i,j
If
~v ~ 1
is any vth root of unity this congruence yields
(1,z2)
e({v) 8({v I) = n.
This shows that a non-trivial difference set is intimately connected with the
factorization of
If
in the field of vth roots of unity.
is a multiplier of the difference set
then
e(x t) ~ xSe(x)
More generally,
prime to
w,
if
divides
v,
(mod x v- l) .
define a w-multiplier to be any integer
for which there exists an integer
e(x t) ~ xSe(x)
Clearly
(mod
wI
w-multiplier for every divisor
of
of
w.
t,
satisfying
xw - l ) .
may be assumed to be non-negative.
wl-multiplier for all divisors
(1.13)
(1.14)
Further, a w-multiplier is a
Thus, an ordinarymultiplier
is a
v.
On occasion it is possible to demonstrate that a hypothetical difference set

must have a w-multiplier even when it is not possible to show the existence of a
multiplier.
This often leads to non-existence proofs which can not be deduced
from the strict multiplier theory.
G.
Group Difference Sets

A difference set in a group
distinct elements of
of order
is a set
{gl~..~gk]
of
such that the equation
-1
gigj = g
has exactly
solutions for every
in
G, g ~ 1.
Group difference sets are called non-Abelian, Abelian~ or cyclic according to

whether the group is non-Abelian, Abelian or cyclic.
The difference sets considered
above (I.A., etc.) correspond to group difference sets for cyclic groups (i.e.,
they are cyclic difference sets under this terminology).
sets constitute a generalization
consideration.
Thus group difference
(due to Bruck, 1955) of those previously under
Every group difference set gives rise to a symmetric block design
in much the same manner as demonstrated for cyclic difference sets in I.C. above.
But not every symmetric block design corresponds to a difference set in some group
G.
[For example, the
v, k, h = 31, 10, 3
design (listed in Hall, 1967, p. 293)
l0
could only correspond to a cyclic difference set since the only group of order 31
is cyclic
But this design is obviously not cyclic. ]
occupy a t r ~ y
Thus group difference sets
middle ground between symmetric block designs and the cyclic dif-
ference sets of concern here.

The main reason for introducing general group difference sets into this
discussion at all is that some of the major outstanding problems are only of
concern for cyclic difference sets.
Thus, in subsequent chapters a few facts about
general group difference sets are mentioned in connection with these problems.
The
purpose being to point out that the difficulties arise only because of the cyclic
nature of things and thus cannot be resolved solely by techniques which apply more
generally.
An example of a group difference set, which is not cyclic, is the set
D = {a, b, e, d, ab, ed]
where
= b
= c
d2
in the Abelian group of order i6 generated by

= i.
This set has parameters
a, b, c, d,
v, k, )~ = 16, 6, 2.
II.
EXISTENCE QUESTIONS
The main questions regarding difference sets are:

do you construct them?
When do they exist?
How many (inequivalent ones) are there?
How
Even though there
is considerable overlap between the areas defined by these questions, there seems
to be some value in treating them separately.
Thus, this chapter is primarily
concerned with conditions necessary for the existence of difference sets.

most part only number theoretic results involving the parameters
their divisors are considered.
For the
v, k, ~, n
and
Some existence tests of a more constructive nature
are presented in Chapter I I I - Multipliers and Constructive Existence Tests.
A.
The Main Existence Problems

As the title of this chapter implies, the existence question for difference
sets is unsolved.
That is, given parameters
v, k, ~
it is (in general) impossible
to decide (short of an exhaustive search) whether or not a difference set with

these parameters exists.
Nevertheless,
significant progress has been made.
Perhaps the most important test is the obvious relationship
k(k - i) = ~(v _ i) or
k2
= ~v + n .
(2.1)
A sub-problem of this general existence question is the curious fact that no

difference sets are known which have
(v,n) > 1
though no proof of this has been given.
[or equivalently
Here one must be careful to distinguish
between cyclic difference sets and general group difference sets.

exist group difference sets with
parameters
with
(v,n) > l;
v, k, k, n = 16, 6, 2, 4.
(v,n) > l,
(k,v) > 1],
For~ there do
the example given in I.G. above has
Thus, if there are no cyclic difference sets
the proof must be intrinsically cyclic.
12
Another outstanding existence problem arises when one notes that there exists
an infinite number of difference sets with
pJ + l, pJ + l, 1
struction).
for all primes p
Z = 1.
Specifically
(see Section V.A. for details of their con-
It has been conjectured that for every
finite number of difference sets.
v, k# k = p2j +
Z ~ 2,
there exists only a
This conjecture is wide open; it has not been
either proved or refuted for any single value of
Z.
Of course the same conjecture
can be made for symmetric block designs and again the problem is open.
B.
The Bruck-Ryser-Chowla Theorem

As pointed out in Section I.C. above, the Incidence Equation~
i.e.,
ATA = nI + ~J
holds for all symmetric block designs.

of the design,
order
v).
is the
v v
(Here
(2.2)
is the
matrix of all ones and
v x v
I
incidence matrix
is the identity of
Associate a linear form with each row of the incidence matrix
A~
according to the rule
v
Li(x ) =
aij x.
J
j=m
where
x = (Xl, .... Xv)
takes the form
is a vector of indeterminates
x..
J
Then equation (2.2)
13
L~(X) + ... + L ; ( X ) =
n(~
+ -.. + 4 )
(2.3)
+ h(Xl + "'' + Xv)2
The study of these equations ((2.2) and (2.3)) has produced a number of
existence criterions for symmetric block designs as well as for certain more
specialized configurations.
Let
B = nI + ~J
and write
ATA
as
ATIA.
Then (using the language of
quadratic forms) equation (2.2) shows that if a block design exists, then the
identity matrix I represents
fortunately,
when
with a
0, 1
transformation matrix
the theory of such matrix representations
Un-
is not fully developed even
is allowed to have arbitrary integer coefficients.
permited rational coefficients,
A.
However, if
is
the Hasse-Minkowski theory of rational equivalence
of quadratic forms [see Jones (1950) for an exposition of this theory] provides
necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of such a transformation
A.
Specifically
Theorem 2.1 (Bruck-Ryser-Chowla)

ATA = nI + ~J,
when
k(k - l) = h(v - 1),
(i)
for
even,
(ii)
for
odd, the equation
integers
A v x v
x, y, z
rational matrix
satisfying
exists if and only if
is a square
z
= nx
2 +(-i )(v-l)12y2
has a solution in
not all zero.
Thus Theorem 2.1 provides necessary conditions for the existence of symmetric
block designs and hence for difference sets.
In f a c %
there is no parameter set
v, k, ~
satisfying Theorem 2.1 for which it is known that no symmetric block design
exists.
That is, conceivably the conditions of Theorem 2.1 are sufficient not only
for the existence of a rational matrix
but also a
O, 1
matrix.
If one
restricts attention to cyclic difference sets however, this is no longer the case.
For [as is shown later, section II.E] there is no cyclic difference set with parameters
v, k, k = 16, 6, 2
even though these parameters do satisfy Theorem 2.1,
14
as they clearly must since an example of such a block design can be derived from
the non-cyclic difference set given in section I.G. above.
It should be pointed out that Legendre
[see Nagell (1951) Theorem 113] provided
a simple effective test for the solvability of diophantine equations of the type
appearing in (ii) above (see Note 2 below for a statement of this test).
Thus
criterion (ii) is an effective criterion even when a solution of the diophantine

equation is not obvious.
consider
As an example of a parameter set excluded by this theorem
v, k, k = 43, 7, i;
this leads to the diophantine equation
z 2 = 6x 2 _ y 2
Necessity of the conditions of Theorem 2.1 can be proved without recourse to

the Hasse-Minkowski theory (see below).
h = i
n
Even sufficiency is available for the case
[Hall (1967), p.lll] and also whenever
is a square.
In particular, when
is a square the rational matrix
A= Jni+
gk n j _ _
v
satisfies equation (2.2).
Proof of Theorem 2.1
[necessity only, Chowla and Ryser (1950)].
(2.2) it follows that
(det A) 2 = k2(k - h)v-l;
is a square.
v,
For odd
thus when
is even,
From equation
n = k - h
the number-theoretic result that every positive integer
is representable as a sum of four integral squares
[see, for example, Nagell (1951)]
and Euler's identity
(b
where
2
2
2
2
2
2
~
2
2
2
2
+ b 2 + b 3 + b4)(x I + x 2 + x 3 + x ) = Yl + Y2 + Y3 + Y4
(2.4)
15
Yl = blXl - b2x2 - b3x3 - b4x4

Y2 = b2xi + blX2 - b$x3 + b3x4
(2.5)
Y3 = b3Xl + b4x2 + blX3 - b2x4
Y4 = b4Xl - b3x2 + b2x 3 + blX4
are required.
system of equations
solved for the
efficients,
When
Xv = YV
n = b 2I + b 22 + b 32 + b 24
With
(2.5) is
x.'sl
n 2.
Thus Cramer's
as linear combinations
the denominators
v ~ i (mod 4),
integers) the determinant
(b i
of which are
the relation
rule shows that the system may be
of the
Yi'S
with rational co-
n .
2
2
2
n = bI + b2 + b3 + b
together with
and
2
2
2
2
2
+ 2
2
n(x2 + Xi+l + xi+2 + xi+3) = Yi + Yi+l
Yi+2 + Yi+3
for
i = 1,5,...,v- 4
the independent
can be used to transform equation
indeterminants
yl,...,y v
Ll(Y),...,Lv(Y )
yl,...,y v.
YI'
and
given by
w = x I + x 2 + .-o + x v
Since (2.7) is an identity in the
Yi'S
(2"7)
are rational linear forms in

it is valid for all values of
in particular for the value
cev2
+ ..o + C J v
for
i-
cI
cI ~ 1
(2.8)
Yl =
e2Y 2 + .. + C J v
for
-i-
where
(2.6)
(2.3) into an identity in
2
2
2
7,~w2
L (y) + ... + L (y) = Yl + "'" + Yv-I + nYv +
where
of the
cI
cI = 1
16
LI(Y) =
cjyj .
J=l
For this value of
Yl
however,
identity in the variables
L~(y) = y~;
Y2, o.o,yv.
thus equation (2.7) reduces to an
Proceeding in this manner with
y2,...,yv. 1
in turn, yields the identity
L2v(y) = ny2v + %~w2
where
Lv(Y )
integer
x,
and
are rational multiples of
Yv"
Now let
Yv
be a non-zero
which is a multiple of the denominators appearing in
then in integers
Lv
and
w,
x, y, z (x ~ 0) the equation
z2 = n x 2 + by2
(2.9)
has a solution.
When
Xv+ I
v ~ 3 (mod 4),
add
is a new indeterminate.
nx
2
v+l
to both sides of equation (2.3) where
Proceeding as before yields the identity
!
2
2
= 2
2
L (y) + ".. + Lv(Y ) + nXv+ I
Yl + "" + Yv+l + hw2
where
Ll(Y),o..,Lv(Y), Xv+ I
Again choosing
yl,...,y v
and
are rational linear forms in
yl,...,yv+ 1.
judiciously implies the identity
2
= 2
nXv+l
Yv+l + hw2
where
Xv+ I
and
are rational multiples of
non-zero integer
which is a multiple of the denominators of
yields a solution in integers
Yv+l"
x, y, z (z ~ O)
Taking
of the equation
Yv+l
Xv+ 1
to be a
and
17
Combining this equation with that of (2.9) completes the proof of the necessity of
the conditions of Theorem 2.1.
Condition (i) of Theorem 2.1 was derived independently by Sch[tzenberger
and by Chowla and Ryser (1950).
Condition (ii) was first established,
only, by Bruck and Ryser (1949) and then generalized to arbitrary
for
(1949)
h = 1
independently
by Chowla and Ryser (1950) and Shrikhande (1950).

As pointed out in section I.C. the incidence matrix
of a symmetric block
design not only satisfies equation (2.2) above but also must be normal (Ryser,
1950)o
That is, it must satisfy
(2.io)
AA T : ATA = (k - h)l + ZJ.
Thus, when Theorem 2.1 was first established,
there was some reason to hope that
adding the normality condition would further restrict the possible parameter sets
v, k, h.
This was shown not to be true by Albert (1953) for
and Ryser (1954) for general
h.
k = i
That is, the conditions of Theorem 2.1 are
sufficient to guarantee the existence of a normal rational matrix

equation (2.2).
Moreover,
and by Hall
this solution
satisfying
also satisfies the condition
AJ = kJ
which is trivially necessary for block designs

Hall and Ryser also showed that any set of initial
0, i
rows, consistent
with equation (2.10) above, can be completed to a normal rational matrix

satisfying that equation.
more general result.]
[See Hall (1967) p. 275 for the proof of a somewhat
Clearly, specifying an initial set of
to equation (2.10) yields the same result.

this to the case where
rows and
of equation (2.10) and those imposed by

for symmetric block designs.
rational matrix
Note i.
%1
columns subject
Eo C. Johnsen (1965) has generalized
columns are given, subject to the provisions

AJ = JA = kJ,
which are clearly necessary
He showed that even here there always exists a normal
satisfying equation (2.10) as well as
AJ = JA = kJ.
The definition of the incidence matrix of a block design varies with
different authors and even with different works of the same author.
the matrix designated by
AT
Some say that
above is the incidence matrix instead of
A.
Since
18
symmetric block designs yield normal incidence matrices

for the designs themselves.
proofs.
But it is sometimes
Note 2.
a factor in the mechanics
If
has a solution
a, b, c
are squarefree
in integers,
quadratic
residues
quadratic
residue of
ax
of
integers which are relatively prime in
+ cz
= 0,
without
be divided out.
i,
divide
that
ez ~
g
there
but since
m a y be divided out.
manner yielding
Co
Integral
above.
significant
z.
represents
is said to be a
such that
Given a ~
are
2_
= g
diophantine
equation whose
modulo
equation
coefficients
Then,
any factor common to

with greatest
a, b, c
con~non divisor
if the equation has a solution
are squarefree
and
(a,c) > i
or
(a~ b, c) = 1
ax
+ by
(b,c) > i
can
must
this implies
22
+ cg z I = O.
can be handled
Thus
in the same
an equation of the desired type.
Solutions
to the Incidence
are discussed
section II.D.
-ac, -ab
(g,m) = l,
are squarefree
Thus the equation becomes

Clearly
-bc,
diophantine
Similarly
a~ b, c
a, b
ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 = 0
Clearly any square factor m a y be dropped from
change.
Since no further existence

figurations
[If
other~ise. ]
is an associated
(a~b) = g > 1.
divides
if and only if
respectively.
nonresidue
Thus assume
and assume
equation
if there exists an integer
satisfy the restrictions

a, b, c
not all zero,
a, b, c
and called a quadratic

+ by
of the
a reference.
pairs and not all of the same sign~ the diophantine
in no errors
Thus one should be careful to check the incidence m a t r i x definition being
used when consulting
this results
Equation
tests for difference
in this section,
The material
sets or more general
the reader m a y wish to skip to
cited here not only is of independent
a survey of the present
con-
status of the integral
interest but also
solution problem;
one
would hope that a complete
solution of this problem would provide new existence
criteria for block designs
and difference
As noted previously
and symmetric matrices
sets.
there is a natural correspondence
which links each form
between
quadratic
forms
19
ci$.x.x.
I ~
f(x) =
c.lj = c..
Sm
(2.11)
i,j=l
with the matrix of its coefficients
C = (cij).
are restricted to the real numbers.
Given two n-variable forms
their matrices
C, D, f(x)
transformation taking
In this discussion the coefficients
is said to represent
f(x)
into
g(y).
g(y)
f(x), g(y)
and
if there exists a linear
That is, if there exists a substitution
n
xi : ~
sijY j
i = l,.o.,n
j=l
transforming
f(x)
into
g(y).
If
S = (sij),
this means that
s~cs : D
in which case
efficients then
f(x)
D.
(2.12)
If
g(y)
is restricted to rational corationally
(C
represents
rationally) with analogous statements for other coefficient restrictions.

f(x)
represents
integer
m~
g(y)
Further,
rationally without essential denominator if, for every
there is a matrix
of rank
rational elements with denominators prime to
such that
m.
sTcs = D~
If two forms
where
f(x), g(y)
has
repre-
sent each other rationally without essential denominator they are called semiequivalent and said to belong to the same genus.
If
f(x)
determinant
represents
I,
g(y)
integrally and the transformation matrix
has
then clearly
g(y)
represents
formation matrix of determinant
i.
Two such forms are called equivalent and
said to belong to the same class.
f(x)
integrally with trans-
Thus equivalent forms are clearly semi-equivalent;
in fact a genus will in general contain several classes of forms.

Turning back to block designs again, consider the incidence equation
20
ATA= (k- ~)Z + ~ = B .
This says no more than that the form

v x v
2
2
f(x) = x I + ... + x v
with a
0, 1
(associated with the
g(y) = (k - h) (y~ + .-- + y~) +
identity matrix I) represents the form
h(Yl + "'" + Yv )2
(2.13)
transformation matrix
A.
The Bruck-Ryser-Chowla Theorem (Theorem 2.1 above) establishes necessary and

sufficient conditions for the existence of a rational matrix
equation (2.13).
satisfying
Unfortunately the theory of integral representations of quadratic
forms is not yet complete, even though a great deal of work has been done on such
problems
[see Jones (1950), Watson (1960) and O'Meara (1963) for this work.]
How-
ever the main concern here is equation (2.13), not all possible integral
representation problems, thus a complete theory is not required for these purposes.
Goldhaber (1960) studied the integral representation problem posed by equation
(2.13) for a restricted set of parameters
Theorem 2.2.
(k,n) = l,
If
v, k, h
v, k, h.
He proved
satisfy the Bruck-Ryser-Chowla theorem and
then there exists a form in the genus of
which represents
integrally.
However,
for
v ~ 8,
the genus of the identity matrix contains more than one
equivalence class of forms (Magnus, 1937), thus no immediate conclusion can be

drawn regarding integral representation from this result.
A
0, 1
matrix
satisfying equation (2.13) with
k(k - l) = h(v - l)
is
the incidence matrix of a symmetric block design~ although this is not immediately
apparent.
(i.e.,
For, with the incidence matrix definition of section I.C. above
a.. = 1
ij
if and only if block
contains object
yields the fact that every object occurs in exactly

objects occurs in exactly
contains precisely
contain
b0~...,bv_ 1
distinct blocks.
equation (2.13)
blocks and that any pair of
So, the fact that every block
objects is yet to be established.

objects respectively.
j),
Let blocks
B0,...,Bv_ 1
Then, from the conclusions already
drawn, it follows that
b 0 + b I + ... + by_ I = kv
21
b0(b 0 - I) + bl(b I - i) + "'" + bv_l(bv. 1 - i) = hv(v - i) = vk(k - i) .
So
v-1
v-i
i=O
i=O
[bi(b i - i) - k ( k -
1)]
from which it follows that
v-i
v-i
[bi(b i - i) - k(k - i) + b.l + 2k2 - k - 2kb.l ] = 0 .
i=O
But
i=O
Z(b i - k) = O = Z(b i - k) 2
block contains precisely

Note that if
one of these can be a
Theorem 2.3.
implies that
objects,
b.I = k
satisfies equation (2.13) then so does

0, i
matrix.
then
or
i.
That is, every
as was to be proved.
-A.
Of course, only
Ryser (1952) has shown:
If a normal integral matrix
k(k - I) = h(v - i),
for all
-A
is a
0, i
satisfies equation (2.13), for

matrix and hence is the incidence
matrix of a syn~netric block design.

As pointed out in section I.C. above, the incidence matrix of a symmetric
block design is normal~ thus it satisfies:
(i)
(ii)
ATA = (k - ~)I + ~
AA T = (k - h)I + ~J
(iii)
AJ
: kJ
(iv)
JA
: kJ
Ryser has shown that a nonsingu!ar

also one of (iii),
matrix,
satisfying one of (i), (ii) and
(iv) satisfies all four of them and also the relation
k(k - i) = h(v - !).

needed;
v x v
[In Chapter V, the fact that (ii), (iii) imply (i), (iv) is
so a proof of this much of Ryser's result is included here.
Since
22
IBI = (k - h)v-l(vh - k + k),

v h - h + k ~ O.
the nonsingularity of
means that
k - h ~ 0,
By assumption
AA T = (k - h)I + k/,
Multiplying this last by
A -1
shows that
AJ
k ~0
j2 = vJ.
kJ
and that
transposing both sides of this same equation yields

Further, note that
A-Ij = k-Ij.
JA T = kJ,
since
Whereas
j = jT
So
A T = A-!(AA T) = (k - ~)A -I + )~-ij = (k - h)A -1 + Ak-ij

kJ = JA T = (k - ~)JA -I + hk-Ij 2 = (k - ~)JA -I + ~k-lvj.
Thus~
which serves to define
k-k
m.
Thus
k -
J = mJA
J =mJ
and
vJ = j2 = (mJA)J = mJ(AJ) = mJ(kJ) = mkvJ
which provides
that
mk = i
JA -I = k-ij.
established.
or
Thus
m = k -i.
J = k'ijA
As shown above
From
or
JA -I = mJ
JA = kJ;
and
m = k "I
it follows
that is (iv) has been
A T = (k - ~)A -I + }~-ij;
multiplying through b y
yields
ATA
by (iv).
promised.]
But this is (i).
(k - ~)I
+ k~-ljA
(k - ~)I
So (ii), (iii) have been shown to imply (i), (iv) as
Using a different part of Ryser's result, note that an integral
solution of equation (2.13) which also satisfies one of
AJ = kJ~ JA = kJ
is
23
normal and by Theorem 2.3 must be the incidence matrix of a symmetric block design.
Let
multiplied
be a matrix
through by
satisfying
-1,
Thus, given such a matrix
XX T = B,
the resultant
A,
then if any column of
matrix
still satisfies
there is no loss of generality
is
XX T = B.
in assuming
that
its column sums are nonnegative.
Theorem 2.4.
(Ryser,
column sums,
satisfying
free and if
k - ~
1952)
If
AA T = B
with
is odd, then
is an integral matrix,
k(k-
l) = Z ( v -
1),
with nonnegative
if
(k,Z)
is square-
is the incidence matrix of a symmetric block
design.
The condition
n = k - h
is even and
Theorem 2.5.
v x v
k - h
Let
odd is necessary,
~ = !.
v = n
matrix w i t h nonnegative
of two types:
even,
(i)
consist of
have sum zero.
In particular
n + 1
column sums satisfying
has a single
entries
There exists
an
+l
of an Hadamard matrix and also for
n = 10.
The orders of Hadamard matrices

are limited to
IV. B. for more information
on this
In addition to the solutions
block designs
n = 2a
v = n
zeros~
n = 1,2
t
and
4t
be an integral
A
is of one
entries
columms
which is the order
of order
for positive
with
integers
t.
subject].
of type
(ii) solutions
+ n + l, k = n + l, h = 1
is
+l, n + 1
and the remaining
(ii) given above,

for the case
E. C. Johnson
(1966A)
n -= 2 (mod 4).
there are known to be both types of solutions;
that type
[see the note at the end of section
always exist as well as Hadamard matrices
b e e n conjectured
A
then
n2 + n
(ii) for every
has found infinitely m a n y type (ii) solutions

when
(1, -1 square matrices
It is not known whether they exist for all
Further,
and let
AA T = B,
zero and
and
of type
+ n n/2)
[see Hall (1967), p. 286].
+ n + l, k = n + l, ~ = 1
determinants
exist when
is the incidence matrix of a block design or (ii)
one of the columns of
columns
for many counter examples
of order
always exist for even
satisfy the Bruck-Ryser-Chowla
for such
n = 2 a.
n
It has
whenever
condition.
D.
The Theorem of Hall and Ryser

d1
If a cyclic difference
set exists,
then its Hall-polynomial
e(~)
-.-
%
+ x
satisfies the congruence
e(x)@(x -I) m n + ~(i + X + .o" + X v-l)
Thus, for any divisor
of
v,
(2.14)
(mo~ x w - i)
(2.i5)
(mo~ x w - i)
(2.16)
one has
w-1
@(x) ---b 0 + blX + .-- + bw_IX
e(x)e(x -I) ~ n +
(mod x v - l)
(1 + X + "'" + X w-l)
~v
W
where
bi
is the number of
[equate coefficients
dj
in
in congruence
satisfying
w-i
b.2
~v
'
i=O
j = l,o..,w - i.
This implies
2.16]
w-1
for
d. -= i mod w.
J
bibi_j
hv
w
i=O
(Here the subscript
i-j
is taken modulo
w.)
So if
is the cyclic matrix defined by
b0
b I ... bw_ I
bI
b 2 ... b 0
bw. I b 0 ... bw_ 2
it follows that
ssT=
(2.17)
25
where
has
n + (hv/w)
on the main diagonal and
kv/w
in all other positions.
Applying the m e t h o d of Chowla and Ryser (see the proof of Theorem 2.1 above), it
follows that in order for there to exist a rational matrix
of odd order
satisfying equation (2o17) it is necessary that the equation
Z2 = ~
have a solution in integers

in this solution
= z + kx
and
y ~ 0.
x, y, z,
(_l)(W-l)/2(~v/w) y2
not all zero.
If
(2.1s)
Thus, for this case, the integers
~ = y(hv/w)
is not a square, then

~ = zk + nx,
are not all zero and they satisfy the diophantine
equation
[2 = ~ 2 + ( - n ( w - 1 ) / ~ 2 .
Of course this equation always has a non-trivial solution when
(2.19)
is a square.
Thus
Theorem 2.6
for odd
v,
integers
(Hall and Ryser, 1951)
then, for every divisor
x, y, z,
If a non-trivial difference set exists

of
v, equation (2.19) has a solution in
not all zero.
From the derivation above it is obvious that equation (2.19) has a non-trivial
solution for w
satisfied.
only when
= v
whenever condition (ii) of the Bruck-Ryser-Chowla
Thus Theorem 26 can be stronger than the Bruck-Ryser-Chowla Theorem

v
is odd and composite.
v, k, h = 39, 19, 9and
z 2 = 10x 2 - 39Y 2
respectively.
z
Theorem is
Here with
w = v = 39,
and they have solutions
However, for
= 10x 2 + 13y 2
w = 13,
the two equations are

x, y, z = l, l, 1
these parameters does exist however.

40;
z 2 = 10x 2 - 9 y 2
and
2, l, 1
the equation of Hall and Ryser is
and it has no non-trivial integral solutions.
difference set exists with parameters
matrix of order
An example is furnished by the parameter set
39, 19, 9.
Thus no cyclic
[A symmetric block design with
It is easily derived from any Hadamard
Hall (1967, Chapter 14) discusses construction methods for
26
Hadamard matrices.]
Hughes (1957) used the work of Hall and Ryser to prove a more general theorem
about the structure of certain symmetric block designs.
However, for difference
sets the result of Hughes says no more than Theorem 2.6 above.
Note
Again only the conditions relating to rational solution of equation
(2.10) were developed, whereas it was known that

b. < v/w
1
for
i = 0,1, o.o~W - 1.
was integral, cyclic and that
In particular perhaps some improvement in the
status of the integral representation problem for quadratic forms (see section II.C)
would provide stricter existence tests.
E.
Results of Mann, Rankin z Turyn and Yamamoto

By far the most stringent difference set existence tests yet discovered arise
from algebraic number theoretic consideration of the equation
e(~v) e(~v l) =
which must hold for a ~
v th root of unity
(2,20)
~v # i
if a difference set is to exist.
Most of the results cited below are attributed to Mann (1964)~ Turyn (1965) and
Yamamoto
(1963) even though the work in Mann (1952 , 1965, 1967), Rankin (1964) and
Turyn (1960, 1961) is directly related.
In fact many of the results were discovered
independently by more than one of these authors
A few of the theorems require the
knowledge of a multiplier or w-multlplier for the hypothetical difference set under

question (see sections I.Eo and I.F. for these definitions).
Chapter III discusses
conditions on the parameters under which certain multipliers are known to exist
The results of this section are all stated in terms of the parameters
v, k, h, n
and their divisors;
thus no algebraic number theory is required to
either understand the nature of the results or to apply them.
However,
knowledge of algebraic number theory is required for the proofs.
some
In order to
minimize this requirement some basic facts about cyclotomic fields (i.eo~ algebraic
number fields generated by the roots of unity) are presented at the end of this
27
section (Theorems 2.18, 2.19 and 2.20).

used.
Unless otherwise specified,
of unity and
K(~d)
~d
They will be referred to when they are

will be an arbitrary primitive d th root
will denote the cyclotomic field it generates over the rational
field.
If
then
b
a, b, c
C
are integers
(c ~ O)
is said to strictly divide
and
b.
ac
divides
while
a c+l
does n o t ,
The same terminology is used if
and
are ideals
Theorem 2.7
trivial
for which
modulo
Proof.
Let
strictly divide
w,
be a divisor of
~(~w).
and assume a non-
t > i.
Let
If there exists an integer
f > 0
is strictly divisible by an even power of
be a prime ideal divisor of
in
K(~w)
and let
be a prime
such that
p.
pi
Then by (2.47) of Theorem 2.19 below and equations

pi
(1.14),
also strictly divides
Thus, by equation (2.20),

n
w > i
(p,w) = i0
then
that
Let
v, k, h-difference set exists with w-multiplier
divisor of
tp f m -i
(Mann, 1964)
p2i
strictly divides
is strictly divisible by an even power of
and this implies (Theorem 2.19)

p.
This theorem, which (as shown above) is an almost trivial consequence of the
prime ideal structure of
@(~w)
is an extremely important result.
cyclic difference sets are concerned,
For, as far as
it contains both the Bruck-Ryser-Chowla
theorem (odd v) and the theorem of Hall and Ryser.
In order to establish the
dependence of these results on Theorem 2.7 it is convenient to know the connection

between diophantine equations of the type
= oy
+ Bz 2
5, ~
and the so-called Hilbert norm residue 'symbol
integers
(~,G)p.
(2.21)
The basic fact is that
28
equation (2.21) has a solution in integers
x, y, z,
(G,~)p = +l
G, ~
for all finite primes
fact is written
(~,~)~ = +l].
and
not all zero~ if and only if,
are not both negative
See Jones (1950, p. 26 ff.) for this as well as the
other properties of the Hilbert symbol which are needed.
Corollary 2.8
exists and let
(Yamamoto,
re
has a solution in integers
(~,~)p : (~,~)p
(2.23)
(~,~)p(~,T)p : (~,~)p
(224)
1963)
(p = ~ allowed):
(2.22)
Assume that a
v, k, ~ - difference set
for an odd divisor
strictly divides
These are
(~,~)p : z
q* = (.l)(q-l)/2 q
prime such that
[this last
n,
of
v.
Then if
it follows that the equation
.(q-l)/2
2
2
+ (-1)"
- qy = z
x, y, z,
is a
not all zero.
(2.25)
Or, equivalently,
that the
Hilbert norm residue symbol
(2.26)
(re,q*)p = + 1
for all primes
Proof.
p.
Since
assumed to be a prime.
x,y,z = l,O,r e/2.
(qlq2)* = q{ q~
If
(x,y,z = a,brJ,cr j)
rx
r = q ~ 3(4).
x,y,z = a,b,Co
If
m a y be
is even, equation (2.25) has a solution
Thus attention may be restricted to odd
case (225) has a solution
has a solution
it follows from (2.24) that
r = q ~ 1(4)
+ (-1
Now
e = 2j + i.
In this
whenever the equation
~"(q-1)/2qy 2
x,y,z = i,i,0
then since such a
: z
(2.27)
is a solution of (2.27) when

q
has a representation
(see
Nagell, 1951)
q : s2 + t 2
x,y,z = s,t,q
is a solution of (2.27).
note 2) requires
where
r, q*, -rq*
and
t
For
are integers, it follows that

r ~ q
Legendre's test (section II.B.
to be quadratic residues of
q, r, 1
respectively.
Of these conditions, the last is trivial and the second follows from the first by
quadratic reciprocity (Nagell, 1951).
residue of
(Theorem 2.7)
As for the first, if
then, by Euler's criterion~

e
would be even.
were not a quadratic
r (q-l)/2 e -1 (mod q)
and hence
This contradiction establishes the existence of
a non-trivial solution for equation (2.27) and hence for equation (2.25), i.eo, the
corollary has been established.
In terms of the Hilbert symbol, the theorem of Hall and Ryser becomes
(n,W*)p = +l
for all odd divisors
of equations (2.23), (2.24), (2~26).
of
and this is an immediate consequence
Using this for
w = v, v
odd, yields
+l = (n,V*)p = (n,V)p (n,(-l)(V-l)/2)p
while
k 2 = Zv + n
provides
+l = (n, hV)p = (n,h)p(n,V)p .
Together these equations show that
(n,h)p = (n,V)p = (n,(-l)(V-1)/2)p.
Hence
(n,Z)p (n,(-l)(V-l)/2)p = (n,(-l)(V-1)/2k)p = +l.
Ioeo, the Bruck-Ryser-Chowla condition for odd
has been established as a direct
consequence of Theorem 2. 7,
In particular, if
v,k~ Z = 241, 16, 1
the Bruck-Ryser-Chowla equation
30
= 15 x
Hall-Ryser
However
+ y
has a solution
condition
360 m -1
z = y = i, x = O.
is only stronger
modulo
241;
As 241
for composite
v,
is prime and the
it must also be satisfied.
thus Theorem 2. 7 shows that no difference
set
exists.
Another
result of Mann (1964)
Theorem 2. 9 .
Let
is a square
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(~)
qv
be a w-multiplier
w > 1
set for some divisor

Then
of
v.
23
n = noq
or
modulo
Let
t f E -1
for some prime
ql / q
Since
some integer
residue
tI
so is
divisor
and
also divides
2
n = nln 2
2
= n1
and
Let
n2 = q
k 2 = hv
+ n,
n 2 > 1.
n
tl I / -1
modulo
ql
fl"
thus
8(~w l) = ~
O(~w)
for
So
k - ~
for
it follows
2
n = nln 2
th
roots of
where every prime
so from now on assume
that
v
of
were
and
from
and hence
n2
and
2
n = nln 2
n2
are
and apply the same process
w;
dq s
would show
w = qS (s >_ l)
in the field of
or
playing the role of

If
(2.28)
m a y be assumed to be square free.
be a prime divisor
necessarily.
then the same process with

assumption
n2
the theorem is proved,
above with the odd prime

m
of
2
n = nI
By Theorem 2.1 it follows
odd.
tf;
then
= n ~wr
ideal factorization
that
n2
Then
unity (Theorem 2.19) , it follows
necessarily
f.
In this later case
and all integers
is w-multiplier,
From this and the prime
n 2 > i.
for some integer
is another prime divisor of
r.
of
[8((w)]2
with
q.
s > 1
is a quadratic
if
Unless
modulo
v, k, ~ - difference
for all multipliers
of
of a non-trivial
is odd
w = qS
Proof.
is:
this yields
n = m q.
with
and
q = i
n = 4q
n -= v = 0
d > 1
modulo
q
q
Thus
(d,q s) = l,
which contradicts
with
as
prime.
As
that
q2
the
31
divides
n;
thus with
is not assumed that

As before, in
nO = nl/q
the desired form
2 3
n = noq
emerges, where it
(no, q ) = 1.
K(~q)
there is an equation analogous to (228), namely
[e(~q)] 2 = n ~q
for some integer
~ > 0o
By definition
(2.29)
q* = (-l)(q-l)/2q
Gauss (see Nagell, 1951, section 53) that with
and it was shown by
~q = e 2~i/q
= z+ ~q+ ~q4 + ~q9 + . .. + ~( q-l)2
Hence
is an algebraic integer of
automorphism defined by
Further, if
into
whenever
Since
q,
lit is invariant under the field

is a non-zero square modulo
then the mapping
Y = e(~q)/nl~q~q*
is an element of this field.
n--~
i.e., since
~,
is not a square modulo
- ~q*. ]
the fraction
~q~
K(~q).
n(-l) (q!l)/2
satisfies the equation
K(~q)
modulo 4o
~
satisfy
As
x 2q = i;
is a
t
~q
~q~
K(~q)
q.
takes
it follows that
Indeed, since
(2o31)
[ (-l)(q-l)/2
x 4q = i,
an algebraic integer but also a root of unity in

in
(2.30)
it follows that it is not only

K(~q).
But all roots of unity
thus it follows from equation (2.31) that
2q th root of unity, it is
for some
th
q m i
root of unity
Thus
@(~q) = ~ q nl"~'~q*
and as
is a q-multiplier it follows from congruence 1.14 that
Now if
is not a square modulo
q,
(2.32)
s
8(~ ) = ~q
e(~q).
it follows from this equation together with
32
(2.32) that
t
~q -~ ~q
since, as noted above,

contradiction, so
nl~q. = ~(
maps
(2.33)
~ nl~q~. )
W~q* into
- ~q*.
But (2.33) is a
necessarily is a non-zero square modulo
q.
Of the conclusions of Theorem 2.9 only the last one remains to be verified.
If the prime
ql ~ q
were another (necessarily odd) prime divisor of
which there existed a multiplier

modulo
ql'
tI
and integer
fl
such that
then, by the process used above, it would follow that
23
n0q
(since it cannot be both
and
23
m0ql).
nor
fl
tI
n
v~
for
~ -i
was a square
This contradiction completes the proof
of Theorem 2. 9 .
Note that neither
tI = t
Consider the parameters

2
dividing
v,k,h = 813, 29, 1.
nO
is excluded by this theorem.
Theorem 1.1 (section I.E) shows that
is a multiplier, hence also a q-multiplier for
q = 3.
Thus Theorem 2. 9 shows
that no such difference set exists.

Before establishing any further existence tests it is convenient to have some
results concerning congruence relations in cyclotomic fields
Let
be a number
theoretic function (i.e., a function which is zero except on the integers) and
define the difference operator
A(O)
by
a(~) c(i) : c(i + 0) - c(i)
where
is a rational number not necessarily an integer.
exists such that
Theorem 2.10
decomposition of
(n) C(i) = 0
for all
(Yamamoto, 1963)
N.
Let
Let
integers of the cyclotomic field

d
be a divisor of
then call
K(q)
and let
~i """ Ps~s
N = Pl
be relatively prime to
number theoretic function with period
let
i,
N,
whose values
and let
If an integer
periodic of period
be the prime power

let
C(i)
be a periodic
are algebraic
f ( x ) = ~i_-1 C(i)x i.
be an integer of
K(~m).
Further,
n.
33
Then, in order that
f(~)
m 0 (mod G)
for all divisors
of
d,
it is
necessary and sufficient that
tI
ts
-tl-1
-t -I
P! "'" Ps A(NPl
) ... D(Np s s ) C(i) " 0
for all
let
and for all
Proof.
(i)
u = 0.
Now
Let
tl,...,t s
such that
s = i, N = p~, d = pU
~-i i
P ~-
~i
i=O
j=0
tI
ts
Pl ''" Ps
(mod J)
d.
divides
and, proceeding by induction on
U,
~i+jp ~-I
C(i + jp~-l) ~N
f(~N) =
p~-l_l
i
I 1
i=o
j=l
[C(i + JP~-l) - C(i)] ~N+JP~-I
~-l
since
~P
~i+jp ~'l
N
= ~p
for
K(~m) ; thus
is a primitive
pth root of unity.
0 _< i < p~-l, i _< j < p

f(~N) - 0 (mod ~)
for all these values of
and
~(pZ)
integers
form an integral basis for
if and only if
j.
The
C(i + jp~-l) _ C(i)
K(~mN)
over
0 (mod (~)
This condition is equivalent to the desired
one
for all
(2)
i.
Let
t, 0 < t < u.
Thus the theorem is proved for

s = l, u > 0
s = I
and
u = 0.
and assume that the theorem is true for all integers
Let
g(x)=p
~-l
I
i=O
-1
c(i) x~p
3~
and note that
~-i
p -i
f(x p) i=O
Since
i=O
f({N) m O (mod G)
modulo
~l c(i + jp~-l)
C(i)xiP __-
implies [see part (i) above] that
mod(~,x N - I) .
t
f({~ ) m 0 (mod ~)
for all
t
equivalent to
0 < t < u - i.
equivalent to
f(~
) m 0 (mod ~)
and
0 < t < u - i,
for all
such that
0 < t < u.
Now assume
s.
s > i
where
0 < t < u
is
for all
such that
and
pt+l h(p~-t-2) C(i) m 0 (mod 5)
that is, to
pt A(p~-t-l) C(i) m 0 (mod ~)
Thus, the theorem has been proved for
s = i.
and assume the validity of the theorem for smaller
~i
~2
~s
N = NIN', N I : Pl ' N' = P2 "'" Ps ' d = dld',
Put
d I =(Nl, d), d' = (N',d).
exist integers
g({~ ) ~ O (mod 5)
pt A(p~-t-l) C(i) ~ 0 (mod G)
such that
values of
such that
By the induction hypothesis these last two congruences are
(3)
for all
and
C(i) ~ C(i + jp~-l)
it follows that
Thus the condition
N1
(mod x N - i) o
j=O
f(x p) ~ g(x)
r = rlr'
x ip
rI
Any divisor
divides
j, k
dI
such that
determined modulo
NI-I
f(x) -
N' -i
Z
and
r
r'
of
can be uniquely written as
divides
d'.
i ~ N'j + Nlk (mod N)

N'.
For any integer

with
there
determined modulo
Hence
C(N'j + Nlk ) x
N'j+NIk
(mod x N - i)
j:o k=o
NI-I
r
f(~N ) =
Z
j=O
N'-I
~
k=O
NI-I
Nlr
~N'jr < i k r =
C(N'J + Nlk) ~N
c*(~ N
j=O
~N'rj
,j)
~N
35
NW_l
where
C*(y,j) =
C(N'j + Nlk)Y k.
k=0
N'
Now
IN
= ~
is a primitive
NI th root of unity and
NI
IN = ~
root of unity. Further, the condition
f(~)
the same congruence for all primitive
N th roots of unity.
for some
IN
~ 0 (mod ~)
is a primitive
for some
Thus
IN
f(~)
N 'th
implies
~ 0 (mod ~)
implies that
NI-I
Z
C*(~r' ,j)
~rlJ
(mod ~)
j=O
th
for all primitive
NI
qo
C*(q
Note that the
(mN',N1) = lo
roots of unity
r'
,j)
and for all primitive
are algebraic integers of
Thus applying the theorem for
s = 1
N'
K(~N,)
roots of unity
and that
to this case, i.e., to the
polynomial
NI-I
~,
c*(n
rW
,j) x j
j=0
yields the result that
f ( ~ ) ~ 0 (mod ~)
for all divisors
of
if and only
if
tl
-tl-i
r'
Pl aj(NlPl
) C*(~ ,j) ~ 0
for all
~j(p)
tI
such that
tI
Pl
divides
dI
(mod Q)
and for all divisors
(2.34)
r'
of
indicates that the difference operator applies to the argument

Congruence 2.34 may be rewritten as
d'o
j.
Here
36
N t- I
tI
Pl
-tl-1
j(NlP 1
) C(N'j + Nlk)n r'k -=0
(2.35)
(rood G)
k=0
for all
tI
and
r'
such that
t1
Pl
divides
dI
and
r'
divides
d'.
Apply the
induction hypothesis to the polynomial
N'-I
tl
Pl
-tl-1
aj(NlP 1
) C(N'j + Nlk ) x k
k=0
which can be done since
N'
has
s - 1
distinct prime divisors, since the co-
efficients of this polynomial are algebraic integers of

(m,N') = 1.
K(q)
and since
Thus congruence 2.35 holds if and only if
t I t2
ts
-tl-i
-t2-1
-t -i
Pl P2 "'" Ps ~j(NlPl
) ~(N'P2
) ... ~ ( N , P s s ) C(N'~ + ~ k )
ti
= Pl
for all
-tl-!
ts
"" Ps ~(NPl
and for all
-t s -i
) ... &(NPs
ti,...,t s
such that
) C(i) - 0
tI
t
Pl ... ps s
(mod ~)
divides
d.
That is,
the theorem has been established.

Folliwng Mann (1967) note that:
Corollar~ 2.11.
Let
~ > 0
be an integer and let
periodic, number theoretic function of period

0 < C(i) < M
N,
be an integer valued,
whose values
C(i)
satisfy
and
N-1
o /
c(i){~ ~ o
(~od ~).
i=0
Then, if
is the product of exactly
distinct prime powers, it follows that
37
< 2 s'l M .
Proof.
Apply Theorem 2.10 with
m = d = l;
this yields
A(Np[1) .,. a(~p~l) C(i) ~ 0
which must hold for all integers

(2.36) must be non-zero.
congruence
Z C(i)~
C(j)
For some
[For otherwise
for any arbitrary value of
~ 0.]
with
magnitude
i.
Consider
0 ~ C(j) ~ M;
(2.36) at
i 0.
(mod ~)
i,
say
i0,
(2.36)
the left side of
Theorem 2.10 could be applied to this

and this would contradict the condition
The left side contains
exactly half of which have negative
of the left side of (236) is bounded by
2s'~,
2s
terms
signs.
ioe.,
Thus the
~ ~ 2s-~
as
was to be shown.
Corollary 2.11 will be put to good use in the proof of the next existence
test.
But first a lemma and a definition are needed.
Len~na 2.12o
K({s) ,
and let
w-i
Z a.x i, where the a. are algebraic
i=0 1
l
(s~w) = (m~w) = 1 for some integer m. If
Let
A(x) =
A(~)
for
0 < j < w - i,
then
a. -= 0
l
integers and (2.37) holds only for
Proof.
--- 0
modulo
modulo
for all
1 < j _< w - l,
i.
(2.37)
If the
a.
then
a 0 -= a I ~ -.. =- aw_ I
modulo
Assume that (2.37) holds for
0 < j < w - I,
integers of
m.
i.e., that
are rational
38
ao l
. . . 1
#,
al
<
-bO l t
i
I
a2
bl
b2
(2.38)
1 <_l
where
b. m 0
1
modulo
for all
io
The determinant of the system of equations
(2.38) is van der Monde and not zero, for it is know.to be
i>j
Since
F(x)
(for
x = i)
x w-I
. .+
i>j
+.x +. 1
(x
~)(x
~)
o. . (x - <w-1 )
it follows
that
w . (i .
.~)
q,)(1
.
This shows that only primes dividing

by Cramer's rule, it follows that
. . o
(1
~w - 1 ).
may occur in the determinant above.
a. m 0
modulo
for all
So,
i.
Suppose the
modulo
that
m.
I _
for
0
are rational integers and suppose that
Consider the polynomial
~ + ~w ~ 0
modulo
a.
ai
modulo m
[certainly possible since
0 < j < w - 1
modulo
B(x) : A(x) + ~F(x),
for all
where
(m,w) = 1].
is chosen so
Then
and hence (by the first part of this lemma)

i,
that is
a 0 - a I -= ~o. = aw. 1
as was to be proved
A(1) = ~ ~ 0
modulo
B(4 ) ~0
39
Let
w = p wI
p
be a prime and let
with
~ -i
(P,Wl) = i.
modulo
Wl,
then p
are self-conjugate modulo
w.
divides
follow from
n~
divides
self-conjugate modulo
exists.
Let
and
O(~w l) = n
Theorem 2.13
that
w,
divide
for some divisor
w.
then
If all the
m
is said
m
in the
is self-conjugate
in this field is fixed under
w >l
is self-conjugate modulo
e(~)
~ 0
modulo
m.]
w~
it would
Note that if
it is also self-conjugate modulo any divisor of
(Turyn, 1965)
m2
such that
Thus, if a difference set is under consideration for which
e(~)
i.e., let
[From the prime ideal factorization of
then every prime ideal divisor of
complex conjugation.
m
f > 0
roots of unity (see Theorem 2.19) it follows that, if
modulo
w,
is said to be self-conjugate modulo

m
to be self-conjugate modulo
th
strictly divide the integer
If there exists an integer
prime divisors of an integer
Assume a non-trivial
and suppose that
of
v.
If
m > 1
(m~w) = 1
then
is
w.
v,k, h-difference set

m < (v/w)o
If
(m,w) > i
then
m _< 2r - 1
where
e(4)
Let
divides
(2.38)
is the number of distinct prime factors of
Proof.
that
(V/W)
Since
=- 0
modulo
w = VlV 2
m.
for
where
Further,
1 < j <w
(v2,m) = 1
(m,w)o
it follows
(as noted above)
- 1.
and where every prime divisor of
vI
let
w-1
e(x) ~
ai x i
mod ( ~
- 1)
i=O
where
w = v 2.
0 _< a i _< v/w

Here
e(~)
First consider the case
necessarily.
~ 0
modulo
for
i < j < w - i
(m,w) = i,
i.e.,
and by Lenzna 2.12 it
also
4O
a.
follows that all the coefficients
are congruent modulo
m.
Let
be the
smallest
such coefficient
Then
w-1
w-1
a.x~
= ~
i=O
where
0 ~ a i - a ~ v/w
zero, then
divides
e(~)
ai - ~
(a i - ~) x i
i=O
and not all the
for all
i=O
and hence
Assume now that
w-1
+
ai - ~
are zero.
[For, if they were all
would also be zero~ a contradiction].
it follows that
(m,w) > i
m ~ a i - ~ ~ v/w
has exactly
Since
distinct prime divisors.
Consider
the polynomial
w-i
~(x) =
where,
as usual,
~v I
v2"l
i
Xi =
~
a i~vl
i:o
is a primitive
v~
st
~
j--o
b xj
root of unity and
J+v2 + o
bj = aj ~ i
Since
+ aj+v2 ~Vl
is self-conjugate
modulo
~J+(Vl-l)v2
"" + aj+(Vl-l)v2
and
vI > 1
j;
a
0 < ~ < v 2 - 1.
further
b j,
b. ~ 0
(mod m)
By Le~na 2o12 this implies that

for some
since
n ~ 0o
yields
m < 2 r-I (v/w)
"
it follows that
v2 ) ~ 0
for
Vl
bj = 0
modulo
for all
Applying Corollary 2.11 to such
41
This theorem shows, for example, that if
(n,v) = lo
and
[For if
n = k - k.
divides
(n,v)
then
v
p
is a prime power then
divides
Thus the theorem may be applied with
v,k,Z = 56, ll, 2.
since
k2
m = p, w = v.]
particular no cyclic difference set may have parameters

Consider the parameter set
n,
Since
Av + n
In
v,k,h = 16, 6, 2.
n = 9
is a square, all
previous theorems allow the possibility that a difference set might exist with
these parameters.
If
But it is ruled out by Theorem 2.13, since
(a,c) = l, a b ~ 1
x (1 ~ x < b)
then
Theorem 2.1~.
let
ql
modulo
and
ax ~ 1
modulo
is said to be the order of a modulo
(Yamamoto,
strictly divide
v.
1963)
Let
q = 4t + 3
33 m -1
modulo 28.
for any
c,
written
ord c a = b .
be a prime divisor of
Assume that any prime divisor
of
and
satisfies
one of the conditions:

(1)
order of
modulo
(ii)
order of
modulo
q~
(iii)
is even
is
q~-l(q . 1)/2
p : q.
Then, if there exists a non-trivial
v,k,k - difference set, the diophantine
equation
2
+ qy ,
0 -< x ,
x, y.
Sn = x
Proof.
group of
Let
K(~w)
w = q~, e ( ~ )
= ~
0 _< y
< v q -~ ,
and let
over the rational field;
is a primitive root modulo
w~
If a prime
takes
satisfies
from Theorem 2.19 that all its prime ideal factors in

automorphism
even;
s2.
If
(Theorem 2.19) that the p-component of
such that
V
in
into
where
are fixed by the

modulo
pf = -1 (mod w).
K(~)
s
~w
(ii) or (iii), it follows
K(~w)
satisfies (i) then the order of
thus there exists an integer
_< 2vq -~
be a generator of the Galois
then
p
is also
This implies
is fixed under complex
42
conjugation and thus (from

integer
2
G
a.
Thus in
K(~)
= n)
all the prime ideal factors of
Hence the principal ideals
where
is a unit of
it must be the principal ideal
(~)
K(~w).
(To"2 )
and
(pa)
for some
are fixed under
are the same, i.e.,
~ = ~T
0`2
It follows from (2.20) and Theorem 2.20 that
thus must be a root of unity in
K(~),
i.e.,
q = 4
for some integer
where
E=+I.
Let
N : ~(w) = q~-l(q _ 1),
EN/2 = g
then
N/2
is odd since
q ~ 3 (4).
So
and
1 = ~l+~+'"+J-2 = N/2 -w
<j(l+~+'''+J-2)
shows that
is a w
th
root
is replaced by its shift
of unity;
D + u
then
thus
h = T
g = + i.
i-~
(2.39)
If the difference set
is replaced by
Thus there will be no loss of generality in assuming that
~ = + i
provided that
it can be shown that
(i - s2)u e - j
has a solution
i - s
u.
If
is prime to
q.
q ~ 3
modulo q~
then (2.40) clearly does have a solution since then
When
q = 3,
3~
the 3-component of
3-component of
I - sN
is
equation (2.39)
[i.e.,
j(l - sN)/(l - s 2) ~ 0 modulo 3 ~]
j,
since
G 2.
n = ~
So
~ = + I
i - s
is a primitive root of
which of course guarantees a solution
without loss of generality,
is the norm of an integer of

w = (-I + ~ - ~ )
the complementary difference set
D*
K(~-q).
has
is
3 ~.
and the
Thus
3
for (2.40) in this case alsoo
and thus
/ 2 ;
provides that
thus
divides
So,
is fixed by the automorphism
is an algebraic integer of the quadratic subfield
rational integers and
(2.40)
So
T = a + b~
K(-~q)
where
4n = (2a - b) 2 + b2q.
T* = - a - b~,
that
and
a, b
are
[Note that
~ = a - b - b~
43
and that
~* = b - a + b~.]
Thus by using
or by replacing the difference
by its complement or by doing both it can be assumed that
a > 0
and
set
b > 0.
From (2.30) it follows that
l
W
i
~(i) ~q =
i=l
Here
~(i) = i
or
q, {q = e 27~i/q
if
- Zi=
,~-i
0 B(i)
j
xi
according
is a quadratic residue or nonresidue
depends upon the value of

residue of
x w - i,
w-i
f(x) =
as
is a quadratic
modulo
yields
x = ~;
~(q~-l)
and
in the relation
otherwise)
Let
. Z-I
B(i)x i - \ a + b
~(j)x 3q
j=l
for all
io
C(i)x i
i:0
so apply Theorem 2.10 with
C(i) = 0
of
then the polynomial
i:O
is zero for
iq~_ I
,(i) ~w
i=l
and the sign
~-i
~qw
= ~qJ (+
e(~)
~i
s = d = i
In particular,
let
and
~ = 0.
This
i = 0, q ~ - l , . . . , q ~ _ q ~ - i
then
B(O) - a = B ( q ~ - l r ) T b ~ ( r )
and since
4(1) = i, ~(q - i) = 0
B(-q~-l).
As
a ~ 0, b ~ 0
Applying this same process to
and
it follows that
0 ~ B(i) ~ vq -~
Combining these results establishes

Yamamoto
= b - a + be
B(0) - a = B(q ~-I) 7 b =

this implies that
yields
the theorem with
shows further that when
v =w = q
r = l,...,q - i
O ~ a , b ~ v q -I.
la - b I ~ vq "~.
x = 12a - b I
and
the only non-trivial
y = b.
difference
sets which satisfy the conditions of Theorem 2.14 are equivalent to the set
consisting of the quadratic residues of
in partieular~
or to its complementing
Theorem 2.14 shows that no difference
set
D*.
D
Thus~
set exists with parameters
44
v,k,k = 239, 35, 5
(a parameter set not ruled out by the previous results of this
section).
Theorem 2.15.
prime divisors of
where
(Yamamoto, 1963)
v
and let
q~
Let
rm
denotes Euler's function.
q = 4t + 3
and
with
strictly divide
be distinct odd
($(q~)~ ~(rm)) = 2,
Assume that any prime divisor
of
modulo
satisfies one of the conditions:
(i)
Ordqp ~ 0 (mod 2)
(ii)
order of
and
modulo
q~
OrdrP ~ 0 (mod 2) ~ 0(mod 4),

is
~(q~)
and order of
is
~(rm),
(iii)
p = q
and order of
4n = x 2 + qy 2 ,
0 ~ x,
modulo
rm
is
$(rm).
v,k,h - difference set, the equation
0 ~ y ~ 2vq-~r-m,
x + y
4vq-~r-m
x, y.
Note that, by Theorem 2.7, these hypothesis are only satisfied if

square.
is a
Thus as a non-existence test, applied after Theorem 2.7, it can be
restricted to those cases.

for parameters
21, 5, 1.
The integers
With
v,k,h = 306, 61, 12
P = 7, q~ = 9, rm = 17
3, 6, 7, 12, 14
q = 7, r = 3
(ii) and the equation has solution

meters
the prime
x = 4, y = 0.
form a difference set

2
satisfies condition
On the other hand, the para-
are not associated with any difference set since
satisfy (ii) of Theorem 2.15 and the diophantine equation
has no solution.
Proof.
Let
group of
K(~)
where
[respectively
K(~R)]
Q = q~, R = rm, w = q~rTM
and
G ( ~ ) = Vo
Note that the Galois
over the rational field is generated by two automorphisms
Krespectively
K(~Q)]
p]
fixes every element of the field
and generates the Galois group of
over the rationals.
then there exists an integer
If
f
K(~Q)
is a prime divisor of
such that
pf ~ -i
modulo
and
K(~R)
[respectively
which satisfies (i),

w;
thus (as in the
45
previous proof) the p-component of the ideal

for some integer
(~)
is
(pb)
Finally, if
of
Similarly, if
for some integer

p
is the principal ideal
(pa)
satisfies (iii) then the p-component of
(a consequence of Theorems 2.7 and 2.19).
satisfies (ii) it follows from ((P(q~), $(rm)) = 2
modulo
divisors of
(~)
that the order
is
q0(w); thus there are two (Theorem 2.19) prime ideal
(p)
in
K(~w)
quadratic subfield
and since
OrdQ p = (P(q~) they originate in the
K( ~-q ).
Hence the ideal
(~)
is fixed by
p,
fixed by
o2
and originates in
i_~ 2
K(~-q)
Thus V
= ~, 1 - p
implies (by 2.20) that

unity in
K(~).
of unity.
Now
o2,
if
= 55 = 1
l-p
is an
,i
and
q = 3
5 = e ~R
then
and
K(~-q)
are units in
1-p
K(~);
9, 5
of unity and
hence
is a
q~th root
= 81-o~ = + 1.
Thus
of degree
2~(r m)
i, j
with
g,g' = + i
a.
q = 3(h) has no units except
D + ~r TM
but allows
~ = + 1.
+i
unless
[Shifting
5. ] Shifting again by a multiple of
to take the shape
g'
g i ~3a
or
for
unless
Thus
q = 3;
[This last follows
q~
q = 3. ]
E = +l
for a judicious choice of
assume, without loss of generality, that

has no effect on
is
over the rationals.
By the same proof as above, see equation (2.39), it follows that
m
r
are roots of
51"~2
may occur for some integer
that by considering the shift
this
is a root of unity in the subfield fixed by
for some integers
8 = g 3~R
from the fact that
rmth root
K(~R, ~-q )
t ~a~i
~, B
and that (Theorem 2.20)
T(1-c2)(l'P);
K(~Q)
i.e., in the field
= g~
But both are
a root of unity of
= 5 where
and
one may
by a multiple of
does not disturb
q = 3.
l.C 2
First consider the case

an integer of
fixed by
belongs to
p,
K(~R, ~-q )
i.e.,
T2
K( ~r*, ~Q)
q ~ 3.
Since
and since
1-p
is an integer of
where
K(J~-q) S,
= g, = + l
K( ~
).
over
T
in
K(~)
it follows that
it follows that
Also
T l-p2 = l,
as before.
~ = K(~-q, ~r*).
then
In this case, for some ifiteger

polynomial satisfied by
= ~ = 1
r* = (-l)(r-1)/2r
integer of the biquadratic field

does not belong to
If
g' = -1
necessarily generates
K( ~
), x
That is,
- a = 0
[i.e.
~
over
2
so
~
is
is
T
is an
if
K( ~
).
is the irreducible
and thus [Mann (1955) Chapter 12] the
46
relative different of
(r,n) = 1
is prime to
algebraic integer of
2
T '
K(~-q)
is
27.
q = 3o
is odd,
: n
belongs to
K({R; ~
K(~)
r;
a contradiction.
satisfies
).
Since
= K(~3)
[here
= I
extension
~q of
a subfield of
K( ~-3 ).
K(~R, ~ - ~ )
Now
a ---0 ( 3 ) ]
~' = 1
and
thus its relative different is
T~
x3 - b = 0
is cubic over
Thus
T2
determines a cubic
K( ~
).
a - 0 (3)
and
since
On the other hand
72
of
K( ~
);
(r,n) = I
and
belongs to
q ~ 3
Thus in every case
T = e(~w)
theorem~ this implies that [with

according as
modulo
K( ~
and, since
plays
~' = i
).
is an integer of
T = a + b~
).
K( ~'q ).
w = Zq-ll ~(e)~q,
is a quadratic residue or nonresidue of
As in the previous
~(e) = i
or
q~ 8(x) - Z iw-i
= 0 B(i) x i
xw - 1 ]
f(x)
w-l~
, ~
/,
Bki)x i -
{'
\ a + b
i=O
has a zero at
that
K( ~
[see
is
since
72
K({3)
no essential role in that argument, it may be invoked here to show that

for some integer
which is prime to
Thus
and thus
72
So this case has been reduced to the conditions for
is an
it follows that either
divides the diseriminant of
374,
Contradiction.
it follows that
or
properly containing
satisfies an irreducible equation
r ~ 3 = q.
Thus
T 2(l-P) = {3
2a
van der Waerden (1949) p. 171 for this fact].
and that
and
K( ~q-q).
Since
belongs to
since
Since
is implied by conditions (i)~ (ii)~ (iii)~ it follows that the
discriminant of
Let
over
x = ~.
~r(e)
m ~-i
x er q
e=:l
for all
io
w-1
Ci[ i ")"x
i=l
This implies (Theorem 2.10 with
A(wq -I) ~(wr -I) C(i) -- 0
s = 2, d = i
and
~ = 0)
That is,
c(i) - c(i + q~-lm) ~ c(i + q~r m-l) - C(i + q~m-Z
+ q~-lT)
(2.41)
47
for all
i.
Combining equations
B(0) - a - B(q~-!rmj)
for
Now
j = l,...,q - io
i = 0, q~'irm'...,(q- 2)q~-irm
yields
% b~(j) = B(q~r m-l) - B (q~r m-I + jq~-irm)
When
j = I
and
j = q - 1
equation
(2.42)
(2.42) becomes
B(0) - a - B(q~-ir m) W b = B(qlr m-l) - B(q~r m-I + q~-irm)
(2.43)
B(0) - a - B(-q~-l~ TM)
(2.44)
0 < B(i) _< v/w
Ib 1 _< 2v/w
(2.41) for
for all
i.
= B(q~ m-l) - B(q~ m-I - q~-irm).
Thus equation
follows from the same reasoning
from subtracting
(2.44) from (2.43).
(2.4~;) shows that
Consideration
the equation
and
applied to the equation which results
resulting equation analogous to (2.44) produces

x = 12a - bl, y = Ibl
lal _< 2v/w
of
~* = b - a + b~
Ib - a I < 2v/w.
4n = x 2 + qy2
and the
Thus with
has a solution of the proper
type and the theorem has been proved.

Yamamoto notes that when
Im
v = w = q r
the only difference
all the conditions
of this theorem have parameters
are all equivalent
to the set
Theorem 2.16.
divisors of
v,
(Yamamoto,
let
1963)
Let
q = 4t + 3
be a quadratic non-residue
where
divisor
satisfies one of the conditions:
(i)
(ii)
of
v,k, h = 21, 5, i;
thus they
[3,6,7,12,14}.
(q0(q2),~0(rm)) = 2
p
sets satisfying
q~ , rm
strictly divide
and
of
v.
r = 4s + I
be prime
and let
Assume that any prime
ordqp ---0 (mod 2) and ordr(P) ~ O(mod 2) ~ O(mod 4)

order of
modulo
q~
is
@(q~)
and order of
modulo
rTM
~(rm).
4n = x
+ qry 2,
0 < x,
v,k,~ - difference
0 < y < 2vq-~r -m,
se%
the equation
x + y < 4vq-~r -m
is
48
x, y.
Again, as a non-existence test, applied afte9 Theorem 2.7, this can be

restricted to those cases where
is a square.
The integers
0,1,2,4,5,8,10
form a difference set with parameters
v,k,k = 15, 7, 3.
satisfies (ii) for
and the equation is satisfied by
q = 3
and
r = 5
v,k,h = 286, 96 , 32
On the other hand, the parameter set

tes%
since
q = ll, r = 13, p = 2
Here the prime
2
x = y = io
is ruled out by this
satisfies (ii) and no solution to the
diophantine equation exists.
Proof.
e(~)
= 7
field,
and let
generate the Galois group of
generating the Galois group of
generates the Galois group of

of
Q = q~, R = rm, w = q~rm,
As in the proof of Theorem 2.15 above, let
K(~R)
K(~Q)
and fixes
K(~)
over the rational
and fixing
K(~Q).
K(~R)
If
while
is a prime divisor
which satisfies (i) then it follows, exactly as in Theorem 2.15, that the p-
component of the ideal

While if
(7)
is the principle ideal
satisfies (ii) it follows from
(pa)
for some integer
(~(q~),C0(rm)) = 2
that
ord
a.
p = q0(w);
thus there are two (Theorem 2.19) prime ideal divisors of

since
OrdQ p = ~(q~), o r ~
TM)
p = 0(r
(p)
they do not arise in
in
K(~w)
and
K(~Q)
or in
K(~R).
Since [see Mann (1955), Chapter 13] they must arise in a quadratic subfield of
K(~w)
it can only be
Hence the ideal
1-~p
= N
K( ~
(T)
is a unit of
= + 1.
Since
the field fixed by
is fixed by
K(~w)
unity in this field, i.e.,

difference set
),
~ = + ~J
for some integer
by a suitable shift
(e(q~),~(rm)) = 2,
and
O2
K( ~
).
Thus
D + ~q~ + ~'rm
both
~0
j.
~2
and so
and
By replacing the
it may be assumed that
are powers of
~ 1-2 = ~yl-p2 = + 1.
~p.
Thus
In
~
is
and as such lies in the biquadratic field
= K( ~r, ~-q).
Furthermore,
~p
Suppose T
= -T,
then since
2
~/
~
is fixed by
~p
is an integer of
1,(1 + $r)/2, (1 + ~q-q)/2, (1 + ~r + ~

it follows that
and originates in
and by (2.20) and Theorem 2.20 it must be a root of
fact they are both even powers of

fixed by both
~p
~p.
~ = (c ~-q + d ~fr )/2
+ -~qr)/4
and thus belongs to

~
K(-~qr).
and since
for some rational integers
c, d
0,
such that
49
c =- d
modulo
2.
Thus
4n = 4 ~
c2q + d2r,
and since
equation
solution in integers
not all zero.
x,y,z = 2 ~ n ,
c, d
II.B note 2) shows that this only happens when

which contradicts
the hypothesis.
Thus
square, this implies that the diophantine
- qy
is necessarily
- rz
= 0
But Legendre's
has a
test (see
is a quadratic residue of
7 ~p = 7
i.e.,
is an algebraic
r,
integer
K( ~ ) .
of
So
7 = a + b~
is the Gaussian
+ 1
: 0
or if
for some rational integers

s qr-1
. i
-i=l ~(1)~qr"
sum
/2
where
if
Here
if
is a quadratic non-residue
of
w-i
~
f(x) =
f(x)
= 0;
(2.30)].
Let
~
2B(i)x i - \ 2 a
2B(O) - 2a - 2 B ( j q # - i r
for
j = l,j'
TM) +
j : i,
(j'
for
yields
~*
+ qry 2
la-bl
i.
modulo
~-i m-i
r
and
[This
of
xw - 1
~r,
and let
C(i)x i
s = 2, d = i,
- 2)q~-lr TM
~ b - 2 B ( q # r m-1 + j q # - i r m )
]a I _< 2v/w.
of
q)
Further,
_( 2v/w.
otherwise.
That is, equation
i =0, q~-lrm,...,(q
alsoo
that is
i=0
for all
a quadratic non-residue
associated with
2
1951);
representations
Apply Theorem 2.10 with
it follows that
Ibl _< 2v/w
4n = x
r, = -i
~(j)xjq
b = 2B(q#r m - l )
Theorem 2.15, that
equation
and
8(x) ~ Zi=
lw-1 B(i) x i
&(wq -1) (wr -1) C(i) = 0
for
+ 2b
x = ~.
and combining these equations
From which,
~(i) --
j=l
has a zero at
thus
and
of the analoguous
i=0
then
2wi/qr
~ = (-1 + -~qr)/2
is a quadratic residue of both
of both
is a consequence
given by equation
~qr = e
where
is the Jacobi symbol (see Nagell,
(i,qr) > 0, = I
representation
a, b
yields
_+ 2b @(q + j r )
Combining these equations
provides,
as in the proof of
the analogous equation
Thus with
(2.41) holds
x = 12a-bl,
(for
y = Ibl
j = i)
the
has a solution of the proper type and the theorem has been
5O
proved.
Yamamoto notes that in this theorem when
q, r
are twin primes (i.e., either
v = w
q = r + 2
or
then in fact
r = q + 2)
v = qr
where
and the only non-
trivial cyclic difference sets which occur are the so-called twin prime difference
sets;
these have parameters
v,k,h
q r , ( v - 1)/2,
(v-3)/4.
These difference sets
are discussed further in section V.D. below.

Let
n = k - h
divides
so
be a prime divisor of both

it follows that
the relation
divides
divides
and
and
k ( k - i) = h ( v - i )
also.
Suppose
r+s
n,
h
then since
also.
pr
implies
pS
strictly divides
(ii)
r < s
implies
pr
strictly divides
v.
the p-component of
v,
pr
strict ~
is the p-component of
r > s
p<~
In fact if
shows that
(i)
Thus in these cases, with
k 2 = hv + n,
strictly
divides
n~ s > O.
it follows that
h;
Then
<z < ( r + s ) / 2 .
Finally
(iii)
r = s
implies
Now, in this case, let

where
that
kI
and
2 r+3
nI
pr
p = 2.
are odd.
divides
divides
v.
Then
is a square;
Further
since
n
k2
2
2
k I - n I -= 0
~2r n 2
k = 2rkl ' n = ~
I
thus
2 = by,
n = 2 2r-(k2I - nl)
modulo 8.
which shows
The next result shows that,
in fact, no cyclic difference set has such parameters.
This quite specialized
result has application to some of the difference sets of section IV.C. below~ as
well as elsewhere.
Theorem 2.17.
v, k, h
such that
Proof.
divides
v,
From
let
(Turyn, 1965)
k
w =
k -= 0
22t (t _> I)
No cyclic difference set may have parameters

strictly divides
if
2 t+l
By (i), (ii) only case (iii) need be considered.

and
while
2t+s-j
modulo
for all integers
r.
2 t+~
divides
(0 < j < t + s)
2t
v.
and let
Let
Here
2 t+s (s > 2)
A(w/2)CJ(i) =- 0
e(~)
2t
v.
strictly
strictly divide
e(x) =- Zi=oW-i cJ(i)x~
and Theorem 2.19 it follows that
So, by Theorem 2.10,
divides
modulo
=- 0
modulo
modulo
2t;
i.e.
- i.
2t
51
cJ(i + w/2) ~ cJ(i)
and thus
cJ+l(i) = cJ(i + w/2) + cJ(i) m 2cJ(i)
modulo
2t
modulo
2t
modulo
2t
In particular
ct(i) m 2ct-l(i) ~ ..o ~ 2tcO(i) m 0
for all
i.
Z(i) = ct(i)/2 t,
Let
then for
w-i
w = 2s
w-i
(2.4~)
i=O
for all
m ~ 0
modulo
of this equation becomes

Surmuing (2.45) for
i=O
w,
~2t 2
n : m n I.
where
kI
2
When
where the odd integer
m = O,l,...,w- i
w
kI
divides
the right side
satisfies
k : 2tk I.
yields
w-i
w-i
2
(2 s - 1)n~ = 2 s
kI +
z(i)z(j)
i~o
i# j
Since this last sum is zero for all
i { j
m= 0
it follows that
w-i
Z2(i) = n 2 +
2
2
kl - n I
2s
i=O
Since
2s
strictly divides
is thus even.
contradiction.
2 - n 2I
kI
On the other hand
[see case (iii) above] the sum
Z~i=O
-I Z(i) = k I
9-10
Zi=
z2(i)
is an odd sum of integers,
Thus no such difference sets exist, as was to be proved.
52
All parameter sets
v,k,h = 4N 2, 2N 2 - N, ~
- N
to process cyclic difference sets by this theorem.
for
N = 2m
are shown not
Among others, the case
N = 28
is not excluded by previous results.

The following facts of algebraic number theory are appended for easy reference.
Proofs may be found, for example, in Mann's book (1955).
Theorem 2.18.
degree
~(d).
The numbers
~(r)
K(~d)
The conjugates of
i~ ~d'
rationals.
any
The field
If
~(d)-!
'''~d
(r,s) = 1
is a normal extension of the rationals of
~d
are the
~(d)
the field
consecutive powers of
K(~rs )
~r
i
~d
numbers
where
K(~d)
is of degree
~(r)
(i,d) = 1.
over the
over
K(~s)
K(~rs )
and
over
K(~s)O
Theorem 2.19 .
is of the principal ideal
(p)]
mapping
K(~d)
d = pi
(2.46)
(P) = P! "'" Pg
when
(d,p) = 1
(2.47)
Pi
are conjugates.
modulo
is
d.
q0(w)/f and
when
is the order of
irreducible modulo
~d
is
~(d)/f
Pi"
d = paw, (p,w) = i
of (2.47), (2.48) can be determined explicitly.

irreducible equation satisfied by
Further,
The field automorphism determined by the
fixes each of these prime ideals
(P) = (P1 "'" pg)~(pa)
where
is given by
when
is the order of
~d ~ ~
in
[that
(p) = (i - ~d )~(d)
where the distinct prime ideals

where
The prime ideal decomposition of the rational prime
modulo
For, if
w.
The ideals
f(x)
p,
~a
modulo
PI' ""Pg
denotes the
over the rationals then, with the
f(x) ~ (fl(X) ... fg(x)) (p)
(2.48)
f.
i
53
and
Pi = (P'fi(~d))"
Theorem 2.20.
Any algebraic integer which lies, together with all its
conjugates, on the unit circle is a root of unity.
III.
MULTIPLIERS AND CONSTRUCTIVE EXISTENCE TESTS
The mere fact that parameters
v, k, h
have passed the existence tests of
Chapter II does not insure the existence of an associated difference set.
Of
course the parameters may well belong to a known family of difference sets (see
Chapter V for a discussion of these) in which case there is no problem.
Often
enough~ however, the parameters neither belong to ~ known family nor are they
excluded by the results of Chapter II.
When this happens an attempt is usually
made at constructing a difference set with the given parameters.
The straight-
forward process of examining all sets of
0, l~...~v - 1
soon becomes prohibitively large.
elements taken from
Thus~ more efficient methods have been devised;
for the most part these methods depend upon the existence of a multiplier of the
hypothetical difference set in question.
This chapter is concerned first with
general theorems about multipliers (multiplier results specific to certain types of

difference sets are found in Chapters IV and V) and second with constructive
existence tests~ whether based on multipliers or not.
A.
Multiplier Theorems
The question of whether every cyclic difference set necessarily possesses a
non-trivial multiplier
meters
v, k~ h,
multiplier.
(i.e.,
t ~ i
modulo v)
is open.
Thus, given para-
one cannot in general assume the existence of a non-trivial
However, under certain circumstances, multipliers can be shown to
exist - the main result of this type is due to Hall (1956):
Theorem 3.1.
of
n~
where
Let
(nO,v) = i
there is an integer
jp
be a
and
v~ k, h - difference set and let

n O > h.
If, for every prime
such that
Op
~ t
(modulo v)
nO
be a divisor
dividing
nO ,
55
then
is a multiplier of
Proof.
D.
From
e(x)9(x -1)
m n + ~(1 + x + ...
+ x v-l)
(mod x v - 1 )
comes the factorization
9(x)8('x-I) e n : non I
when
+ x
fi(x)
V-I
which
is least positive;
@(~)e(~ -I) = n0n 1.

~,...,~u-1
(3.l)
fi(x)
is any one of the distinct irreducible factors of
over the rational field

j
modulo
K.
Let
{ =
form an integral basis [here

K({)
be that root of
fi(x)
for
then congruence 3.1 yields the factorization
In the cyclotomic field
algebraic integers of
e2Wlj/v
T(x) = i + x + ...
K(~)~
the algebraic integers
is the degree of
fi(x)]
l,
and the
can be associated with the residue classes of poly-
nomials with rational integral coefficients modulo
fi(x)
[see~ for example, Mann
(1955) Theorem 8.6 for a proof of these facts]

Now if
(p,v) = l,
leaves
is any prime ideal divisor of the rational prime
then the automorphism

fixed
(i.e.,
P~ = P).
determines an automorphism of
n0o
Hence
nO
divides
K(~)
e(~)e(~ -t)
of the field
Si(x )
desired.
fi(x)
of
Thus
~P,
~ ~ St
which fixes all the prime ideal divisors of

as well as
9(~)8(~-1),
modulo
has rational integral coefficients.
each irreducible factor
and if
determined by
[See Mann (1955) Theorem 8.1.]
e(x)9(x -t) ~ n0Si(x )
where
K(~)
T(x).
so
(3.2)
fi(x)
There is such a congruence for
A similar congruence modulo
T(x)
is
Suppose
@(x)9(x -t) = n0Rj(x ) + A(x)Fj(x)
(3.3)
56
where
Fj(x) = fl(x)f2(x) ... fj(x)
and
with rational integral coefficients.

3.2
have no common factors.
as well as
Rj(x)
This is immediate for
Assume equation (33) holds for
Fj(x)
A(x)
and consider
Thus their resultant
j = 1
j + i.
z
are polynomials
from congruence
Now
fj+l(X)
and
[van der Waerden (1949)
p. 83-87 establishes all the resultant theory needed here] is a non-zero rational
integer, and there exist integral polynomials
C(x)
and
D(x)
such that
(3.~)
c(x)Fj(x) + D(x)fj+l(X) : z.
But
Fj(x)
can be expressed as a product of factors

and
is a root of
unity, and if
fj+l(X).
is a primitive
appropriate exponents
y, Z.
Thus
~ - ~
and
[(x+l)
~Y
v-
is unit of
1]
is a root of
~ - ~ = ~Y(~
K(~)
xV-1 + ' ' "
are different
v th roots of unity,
Now
where
and
v th roots of
- l)
- 1
for
is a root of
+V
thus
since
with
- 1
divides
(n0,v) = 1
i = j + 1
v.
Hence
will divide an appropriate power of
has been assumed, then also
(nO, z ) = 1.
v,
and,
From congruence 3.2
follows
C(x)Fj(x)8(x)e(x -t) = n0C(x)Fj(x)Sj+l(X) + C(x)B(x)Fj+l(X).
Multiplying congruence 3.3 by
D(x)fj+l(X )
(3.5)
and adding the result to equation (3.5)
yields [by (3.4)1

ze(x)@(X-t) : n0S(x ) + G(x)Fj+l(X).
This can be combined with the trivial relation
n00(x)e(x -t) = n0H(x )
57
to yield (since
nO
and
are relatively prime)
6(x)e(x -t) = n0Rj+l(X) + A(x)Fj+l(X)
Continuing in this manner provides the desired equation
@(X)e(X - t ) = n0R(x ) + A(x)T(x).
Since
A(x)T(x) ~ A(1)T(x) modulo x v - I,
equation (3.6) yields
e ( x ) e ( x " t ) m n0R(x ) + A(1)T(x)
Let
x = i
in this congruence, then
any difference set and

altering
R(x)
(nO,v) = 1
(3.6)
(mod x v - l ) o
k 2 = n0R(1 ) + vA(1).
this implies
A(1) m ~
Since
k 2 = n + Zv
modulo
nO .
in
Thus, by
if necessary 3
e ( x ) e ( x - t ) ~ noR(X ) + hT(x)
(mod x v - 1) o
(3.7)
Now every coefficient on the left side of this congruence is non-negative and since
no > h
all the coefficients of
this congruence provides

Since
R(x)
are non-negative alsoo
k 2 = noR(1 ) + hv;
thus
x = 1
R(1) = n 1.
(t,v) = l,
e(x)6(x -1) m e(xt)e(x -t) ~ n0n I + ZT(x)
thus
Further with
e(xt)e(x-t)e(x)e(x "l) e [n0n I + ZT(x)] 2,
As
(mod x v -
R(x)T(x) m R(1)T(x) m niT(x )
comparison of these two results yields
x v - l)
while (3.7) gives
[n0R(x ) + %T(x)] [n0R(x-1 ) + %T(x)]
for this same product.
(mod
modulo
l)
- ,
58
R(x)R(x -I) ~ n~
This implies
[since
R(x)
(mod
x v - 1).
has non-negative coefficients] that
single non-zero term, i.e.,
R(x) m nlx's (mod
x v - i)
R(x)
has only a
for some integer
s.
Thus
congruence 3.7 implies
e(x-l)e(x t) ~ n x s + ~T(x)
Multiplying this last congruence by
e(x)
(mod
and simplifying yields
o(x t) ~ xSe<x)
i.e.,
x v - 1).
(mod x v - l)
is a multiplier of this difference set as was to be proved.
This theorem was first established for cyclic projective planes
(i.e.,
h = 1
only) by Hall (1947) and later extended (Hall and Ryser, 1951) to the case of
general
in the form stated in I.E. above.
generalization.
known case.
The conditions
nO > h
and
Theorem 3.1 represents a further

(n0~v) = 1
are superfluous in every
For~ no cyclic difference sets are known with
prime divisor
of
(n,v) > 1
and every
is a multiplier of every known cyclic difference set.
Morris Newman (1963) extended this result slightly by showing that the odd
prime
is always a multiplier whenever
n = 2p
and
(7p,v) = 1.
Turyn (1964)
generalized Newman's result.
Theorem 3.1A
(Turyu)
that for every prime
Let
dividing
n = 2n 0
nO
nO
odd and prime to
there is an integer
pJP -= t
Then
with
modulo
jp
v.
Suppose
such that
v .
is a multiplier of every difference set with these parameters, provided
merely that
whenever
is a divisor of
v.
59
(7,v) = i
Note that in particular this eliminates the condition

result.
For if
residue of
n = 2p a (a
odd), the assumption that
implies that
contradiction that
t3 ~ p3jp ~ -i
(mod 7).
t ~ pop
from Newman's
is not a quadratic
So Theorem 2.7 provides the
is necessarily even.
Mann and Zaremba (1969) investigate the situation when

is not a quadratic residue of
7.
divides
and
However they do not resolve it completely.
particular, they find no case where
t
In
is not a multiplier.
On occasion it is possible to establish the existence of a w-multiplier for

some divisor
multiplier.
of
Frequently this is of importance in constructive existence tests.
[Section III.C.
contains an example of such a case.]
under the conditions

that
even when it is not possible to show the existence of a
(n0,w) = l, n O > hv/w, pJP ~ t
is a w-multiplier.
However the condition
thus this is not of much use.
Theorem 3.2
n
Let
there is an integer
jp
By retracing the proof above

(mod w)
n O > hv/w
it can be established
is rarely satisfied;
The following related result is more useful:
divide
and suppose that for every prime
dividing
such that
Jp
p
with
(t,w) = i.
parameters
Then
~ t
(modulo
w)
is a w-multiplier of every difference set with these
n, v.
Of course the proof of this theorem is almost identical to that of Theorem 3.1
above.
The congruence analogous to (3.7) above, being
9(x)~(x -t) =- nR(x) +
hv
(i + x + ..- + x w-l)
(rood
x w - i)
(3.8)
with
above.
R(1) = 1.
R(x)R(x -I) ~ 1 (rood xw - i)
But this implies that
must be that
3.1.
From which
R(x) = x -s
R(x) = + x "s
for some
is deduced in the manner

and since
R(1) = l,
it
From which point on the proof concludes as for Theorem
6O
A surprisingly important fact about cyclic difference sets is that:
The?rem 3.3.
Minus one is never a multiplier of a non-trivial cyclic
difference set.
This fact was known for several years prior to any publication of its proof.
This accounts for the anomaly that it is often referred to in publications which
predate the papers
[Johnsen (1964), Brualdi (1965) and Yates (1967)] containing
proofs.
Proof.
The result (proved in section III.B. below) that any multiplier o f a
difference set
Assume that
-1
belongs to
x - y ~ d
is a multiplier and that

only if
and
tions of
fixes at least one shift
-x
(= v - x)
(-y) - (-x) ~ d
unless
x = -y.
for
Hence,
D + s
D
is fixed by
does also.
x, y
if
in
D;
d ~ 2x
0 ~ x ~ v/2.
of
Thus
for some
So
in
for every
in
y ~ x (y
(0 ~ x ~ v/2)
in
D)
v/2
v.
is represented at least
in
(such
occurs provided
Whence
y ~ x - v/2
k - i
y - (-y) ~ d
also.
x ~ y + v/2.
Thus,
also belongs to
times.
Hence
D.
h ~ k - i
So, only trivial cyclic difference sets have
as was to be shown.
has been shown (Mann~ 1952) that
B.
occurs an even n~nber
such that
It is, of course, not necessary that a multiplier
set only when
x - (-x) ~ d
the element
and the difference set is trivial.

-1
for some
then
Thus
which can only happen for even
Thus the difference
multiplier
then
can appear an even number of times as a difference of elements
only if there exists a

2x m 2y,
D,
D.
i.e., that
they are distinct representa-
0 # d ~2x
of times as the difference of elements of
-1,
Consider the differences
must exist if the difference set is non-trivial),
If
of the difference set is used.
divide
n.
However,
is a multiplier of a non-trivial difference
is even.
Difference Sets Fixed by a Multiplier

The use of a multiplier
for constructing a difference set is greatly
it
61
facilitated by the assumption that the set is fixed by the multiplier (i.eo, that
tD ~ D modulo v).
As mentioned in section I.E. every multiplier
set determines an automorphism of the associated block design.

the incidence matrix of the block design, then the multiplier
tation matrices
and
(Q
takes coltunn
That is, if
t
into column
of a difference
A
is
determines permu-
tx
modulo
v)
such
that
PAQ = A
since (see section I.C.)
and thus
(3.9)
A-1pA = Q-1
Hence (by
is non-singular for non-trivial designs.
well known facts of linear algebra)
Tr(P) = T r ( A - % A )
where
Tr(X)
elements).
denotes the trace of the matrix

But
Tr(P)
Theorem 3.4.
fixed by
then
[Similarly, if
is the number of objects fixed by the
tx ~ x
modulo
also fixes the

t
v,
which is
shifts
E + j(v/d),
shifts of
is one such shift, then all others are of the form
t,
modulo
for
of
w.
E + J(w/8)
Hence
there exists
In fact if
is a w-multiplier for some divisor

(t - 1,w) = 8
(t - 1,v) = d.
with multiplier
shifts fixed by the multiplier.
necessarily fixes exactly

w
Tr(Q)
Given a difference set
(t - 1,v) = d
t,
(i.e., the sum of its diagonal
So, by equation (3.10), the number of shifts fixed by the multiplier
is the number of solutions of
exactly
is the number of blocks (or shifts of the difference set)
fixed by the multiplier, whereas

multiplier.
(3.1o)
= Tr(Q -i) = Tr(Q)
is a shift
j = 0,1,...,d- 1.
v
then
If
modulo
modulo
w,
for
j = 0,1,...,8 - i.]
Suppose
suppose that
tl, t 2
D
is also fixed by
Theorem 3.5.
are both multipliers of the same difference set
is fixed by
t 1.
If
t !.
Then
tl(t2D ) = t2(tlD ) = t2D;
and
that is,
t2D
So
t l, t 2
are multipliers of the same difference set then
t2
62
permutes the shifts fixed by
t I.
Thus if any mu!tiplier
fixes only one shift of the difference set then
that shift is fixed by all multipliers.
Theorem 3.6.
(i)
Hence
If there exists a multiplier
such that
(t - l,v) = i,
then exactly one shift of the difference set is fixed by al__!multipiiers.

(k,v) = i
(2)
If
then there exists at least one shift fixed by all multipliers.
Part (2) follows because

difference set has
(k,v) = i
insures that exactly one shift
e I + e 2 + --- + e k m 0 (mod v).
of the
Such a shift (being unique) is
certainly fixed by any multiplier.

Some additional fixed shift results which apply only to the case
contained in section IV.A.
h = 1
are
The fact that every multiplier fixes at least one shift
of the difference set was shown by MeFarland and Mann (1965).
Part (2) of Theorem
5.6 is due to J. Jans and the remainder of this section restates for arbitrary
results of Hall (1947).
C.
Multipliers and Diophantine Equations

Suppose it is known (by Theorem 3.1 or otherwise) that a hypothetical
(Theorem
difference set has a multiplier
t.
Then
set is fixed by the multiplier.
Thus, there is no loss of generality in assuming
that the difference set is a union of sets

modulo v.
3.4) some shift of this difference
{a,ta, ...,tra-la],
where
tma -= a
So
Lemma 3.7.
union of sets
If a
v, k, ~
[a, ta, .... tm'la),
difference set with multiplier

where
tma ~ a (modulo v),
distinct elements and forms a difference set with parameters

The sets
[a,ta,...,tm-la)
exists, some
has exactly
v, k, ~,.
are often called blocks fixed by the multiplier
t.
The number of distinct elements in each of these fixed blocks is always a divisor
of the order of
modulo
v (this follows, for example, from Theorem 60 of Nage!l,
1951) and is in fact always equal to that order unless

prime all the blocks (save
[0])
(a,v) > i.
Thus when
fixed by a multiplier contain the same number of
is
63
distinct elements
( = the order of
set can exist only if
k = jm
or
modulo
jm + i,
v).
In this case a difference
for some integer
j.
Lemma 3.7 is not always easy to apply (for sometimes there are many unions of
these blocks having
cant information
almost trivially.
By Theorem 3.1 above,

151 is prime and
k = 51
with
14]
and
{0},
modulo
151)
or
{3, 6, 12],
so a difference
modulo
[9, 15, 18],
set candidates
These are equivalent
15,
Now
set
contradic-
that
{7, 14]
are
is a
and two
{3, 6, 7, 12,
(see section I.B. for this
sets, as is easily verified.
set exists,
is a multiplier.
Theorem 3.1 establishes
only non-trivial one known in which every residue

If a difference
15;
i
it provides signifiv, k, ~ = 151, 51, 17.
151]
is
Thus the only difference
(7, 9, 14, 15, 18].

difference
modulo
21, 5, i,
the fixed blocks are
elements each.
definition)
76
were congruent to
For the parameter values
multiplier~
Consider the parameters
t = 76 [ ~ 214 ~ (17) 35
m ( = order of
could only exist if

tion.
distinct elements) however frequently
[This difference
d.
l
has a c o ~ o n
then its Hall-polynomial
set is the
factor with
9(x) = x
dl
+ -'. + x
v.]
satisfies the congruence
e(x)e(x -1) ~ n
Thus, for any divisor
+ ~(1 + x
of
v,
+ ... + xV-1)
(mod
xv-
1).
(3.11)
one has
e(x) ~b o +bzX+... +bw_ZZ - I
(mod Z - Z )
(3.12)
e(x)e(x -I) ~ n +
(mod
(3.13)
where
bi( _< v/w)
yields
(comparing
Lemma 3.8.
~v
(i + x + .-. + x w-l)
is the number of
coefficients
in
in congruence
If a difference
there exists integers
dj
set exists,
b i (i = 0, ...,w - l)
satisfying
x w - i)
dj m i nod w.
This
3.13).
then, for every divisor
satisfying the diophantine
of
v,
equations
64
w-i
w-i
b. -- k~
l
b.2= n +
i
hv
-~'
(3o14)
0 < b, < v/w
i=0
i=0
and
w-i
~, b.b..=
i l-j
(3.15)
;~v/~
i=O
for
j = l,...,w-
i.
(Here the subscript
i - j
is taken modulo
w.)
An example of the application of Lemma 3.8 is provided by the parameters

v, k, h = 70, 24, 8.
thus also for
Here
w = 5, 7.
is a w-multiplier
Consider a shift of
with
O(x)
fixed under the multiplier
2.
The residues modulo
impart certain restrictions
on
O(x)
modulo
Mod 35
w = 35
modulo
35
x5 - i
(Theorem 3.2) and

x 35 - i
which is
break into fixed sets which
and modulo
x 7 - 1.
Mod 7
Mod 5
1,2,4,8,16,32,29,23,11,22,9,18
4(1,2,4)
3(1,2,3,4)
3,6,12,24,13,26,17,34,33,31,27,19
4(3,6,5)
3(1,2,3,4)
5,10,20
3, 6, 5
3(0)
15,3o,25
1,2,4
3(o)
7, 14, 28, 21
4(0)
1,2,3,4
Thus
0(x)
~ o o + Cl(X + x 2 + ... + x 18) + c3(x3 + ... + X 19) + C5(X5 + x I0 + x 20)
+ c15(x15 + x 30 + x 25) + c7(x7 + xl 4 + x 28 + x 21)
(mod
x 3 5 - i)
65
where
c. (0 < c, < 2)
where
is the coefficient of
(mod
x 7 - i)
e(x) ~ b 0 + bl(X + x 2 + ~
(mod
x 5 - l)
and
+ x 4)
0 ~ b. ~ 14.
b 0 + 4b I = 24, b 02 + 4b~ = ]28.
Then
For
equation (3.14) becomes
has only two solutions with

a0 = 6
c I = c 5 = O.
x~x
and hence
If
w = 5
equation (3.14) becomes
b 0 = 8, b I = 4
implies (from the residue table above) that
Thus
Further
e(x) ~ a 0 + al(x + x 2 + x 4) + a3(x3 + x 6 + x 5)
0 ~ a. ~ i0
w = 7
x i.
c7 = 1
is the unique solution.

and hence that
a 0 ~ 4;
these are
a0 ~ 4 .
a0, al, a 3 = 6, 2, 4
then
For
2 = 96
+ a 3)
a 0 + 3(a I + a3) = 24, a~ + 3(a
This
c O = 2.
When
a I = 2, a 3 = 4
a I = 4, a 3 = 2
then
c 5 = 2, c I = I, c 3 = c15 = 0.
or
which
6, 4, 2.
c15 = 2, c 3 = i,
Since
transforms this second solution into the first (and takes the difference
set into an equivalent one) it is only necessary to consider one solution.

without loss of generality, modulo
Thus,
x 35 - i
e(x) ~ 2(1 + x 5 + x I0 + x 20) + x + x 2 + x 4 + x 7 + x 8 + x 9 + x II + x 14
(3.i6)
+ x 16 + x 18 + x 21 + x 22 + x 23 + x28 + x 29 + x 32
It can be seen (after some searching) that no difference set polynomial

satisfy congruence 3.16.
24, 8
D.
Thus no difference set with parameters
@(x)
can
v, k, h = 70,
exists.
Polynomial Congruences
If a difference set exists then, for every divisor
exist polynomials
ew(X), G[w](X )
o(x) ~ e[wl(X)
of
v~
there must
with rational integral coefficients such that
modulo
xw - l
(3.17)
66
O(x) ~ 8w(X )
where
fw(X)
fw(x)
(3.18)
is the irreducible polynomial satisfied by the primitive
of unity over the rational field.

non-negative.
[@w(X),
modulo
Furthermore,
the coefficients of
th
roots
O[w](X )
are
Conversely (by the Chinese Remainder Theorem), the set of polynomials
all w's dividing
8(X) -
v]
uniquely determines
e(x)
8w(X ) BV, w(X )
(mod
modulo
x v - i.
x v - i)
In fact,
(3.19)
wlv
where
V
r
rlw
and
is the MSbius function.
S[w](X) = ~
- i
Similarly
Sd(X) Bw, d(X)
(rood ~ - l)
(3.21)
alw
Proof.
By the Chinese Remainder Theorem, congruence 3.19 can be established
by merely verifying the conditions imposed by congruence 3.18.
That is, by
verifying that
@w(X) Bv, w(X ) - Or(X )
wlv
for an arbitrary divisor
of
v.
modulo
fr(X)
(3.22)
67
[To facilitate this as well as for future reference, recall that if

g(x), h(x)
are integral polynomials and
field, then
g(x) m h(x)
any root of
f(x).
f(x)
is irreducible over the rational
if and only if
g(r) = h(r)
where
is
Further recall that
xm- 1 =
where
modulo
f(x)
f(x),
I~ fd(X)
dlm
a~d
fd(~) =
[~
~jd
(xh- l) ~(d/h)
(3.23)
is the Mobius function.]
Now if
and
m
x
x
I
- i
are divisors of
m/s
modulo
modulo
then
fr(X)
when
fr(X)
otherwise
divides
- 1
This follows from (3.23) for

the left side at
e2wi/r
when
s
Bm'd(X)-
m,
r]s,
r's not dividing

r
s sm
]d
divides
_
=
so
and can be seen by evaluating
Thus, when
divides
~
r]s,
modulo
fr ( x )
Id
fd(x)
Bm'd(X) ~ I
modulo
modulo
fr(x)
for
r /d
by the standard property of the ~6bius function.
From this congruence 3.22 is
immediate and so congruence 3.19 is established.
For future use~ note that when
divides
68
m
x -i
where
(')
[x f~(x)]
denotes derivation with respect to
verified by substituting the various

gruence 3.24.
unity;
(mod
th
x.
xm - l )
This congruence may be
roots of unity for
The only difficulty arises when
(3.25)
and using con-
is a primitive
d th root of
but l'Hospital's rule then shows that the right side is indeed
as
desired.
A constructive existence test procedure can be based on congruence 3.21.
this congruence is used to construct
integral polynomials
modulo
fd(x).
~d(X)
it requires the knowledge of
for all divisors
of
such that
O(x) m ed(X)
Neglecting for the moment the problem of finding an exhaustive
list of candidates for

[G d}
~[w](X),
If
(i.e., one
ed
Od(X),
note that given a set of integral polynomials
for each divisor
of
w)
there is no guarantee that
the polynomial computed from them by congruence 3.21 will have integral coefficients,
much less that these coefficients will be non-negative.
Of course, if these co-
efficients are not non-negative integers, then there is no difference set corresponding to this set of
used to construct
Od(X)'S.
e[w](X)
Furthermore, if congruence 3.21 is being
for some divisor
expect that integral polynomials
e[d](X)
have been constructed previously.
of
v,
it is quite reasonable to
(for all divisors
of
w)
will
Thus, the assumption that they are known is
not restrictive.
This assumption allows the use of the following lemma, which
helps screen the
ed(X)
candidates by imposing the condition that
e[w](X )
have
integral coefficients.
Lemma 3.9.
d
of
w,
Let
be a positive integer and suppose that, for each divisor
an integral polynomial
integral polynomial
O[w/p](X )
6d(X )
is given.
Further, assume that an
is known, for each prime
that these are consistent with the given
O[w/p](X) ~ ed(X)
ed(X)'S,
i.e.,
dividing
assume that
modulo fd(~)
w,
and
69
for all divisors
of
w/p.
Then, necessary and sufficient conditions for the
existence of an integral polynomial
e[w](X),
e[w](X) ~ ed(X)
for all divisors
of
w,
modulo fd(x)
Proof.
Let
dividing
e[w](X)
(3.26)
are that
a-i
%(x) ~- e[w/p](:~)
for all primes
such that
w.
Here
mod(P,fwPz (x))
w = paw I
with
prime to
(3.~)
w I.
be an integral polynomial satisfying congruence 3.26.
By the Chinese Remainder Theorem
e[w](x) ~ e~[w,/P ](x)
mod(x w/p - i)
e[~/p](X) ~ ew(x)
mod[x ~/p - l, r(x)].
e[w/p](X) -= % ( x )
mod[p, fP 1
SO
Thus
a-i
(x)]
i.e., congruence 3.27 has been established.

Conversely, assume
e[w](X)
Remainder Theorem from the given
is the polynomial provided by the Chinese

ed(X)'S
(it may not have integral coefficients)~
then by congruence 3.24
[9[w](X ) - ew(X)] BW,w(X ) ~ 0
(mod x w - 1)
7O
(w)
If
divides
modulo
s[e[w](X
w,
x s - i,
) .
9w(X)]
Xs - 1
x
- 1
-0
(mod
xW-1)
the Chinese Remainder Theorem guarantees that
(3.28)
8[s](X) ~ e[w](X)
and so
8[w](X
- 1
- e r
](x)
Ls~
-i
(mod
xw -
1)
- i
thus (3.28) becomes
(;)s
We[w](X) ~ Wew(X) -
Let
w = P2 "'" Pj~
sEe[s
by
w
-
~ = w/pw.
a
P
Then, since
(3.29)
is glven by
a2
a.
P2 "'" PjJ
~(q2r) = 0
for any prime
only non-zero terms in the sum (3.29) are those for which
Hence dividing through by
(mod x w - i).
ewC~) xS-i
where the prime power decomposition of
and define
3(x)
q,
the
is divisible by
yields
"-n
T)
p~S[w](X) ~ p~Sw(X) r
r[e[r~](x)
- ew(x)]
x
x
7T
ro
- 1
(3.30)
-1
r~pTr
modulo
- i.
Thus the theorem is proved provided it can be shown that the sum
on the right side of congruence 3.30 has all its coefficients divisible by
By the second part of equation (3.23), with
w I = w/pa~
pF.
71
a-I
f
a-i
(x~) =~l(X p )---fPwl (x)

P2"'" Pj
modulo
p.
Thus congruence 3.27 implies
%(~) - e[w/p](~) ~ o
mod
[p,f (xW)]
which in turn implies~ by congruence 3.24, that
mod(p,Z - l)
[e[w/p](X) - ew(x)] Bpv, v(~ ~) ~ 0
or
[e[w/p](X ) -@w(X)] ~
~(~)r
r'~l
As
e[r~](x) ~ e[w/p](X)
modulo
mod(p,x w - 1).
xW-re0 1 - 0
(3.31)
-i
x rw - i
for all divisors
of
this be-
comes
Z
rlTT
-1
mod(p,Z
l)
where it should be noted that the polynomial on the left side of this congruence
has integral coefficients by assumption.
Y(x),
of degree less than
~~. ~ (~)
r
rpp~
w,
So, the unique integral polynomial
defined by
r[e[r~] (x) - ew(x)]
xwrw- l
x -1
(moaZ-
l)
72
has every coefficient divisible by
pv.
Thus
e[w](X ) = ew(~ ) _ (pv)-i
~(x)
has integral coefficients, as was to be shown.

Thus, provided a complete list of candidates for
each divisor
of
w)
ed(X)'S
is available (for
congruence 3.21 (or its computationallymore convenient
formulation, congruence 3.29) can be used together with Lemma 3.9 to construct
integral polynomials
@[w](X)
and ultimately, if these have non-negative coef-
ficients, the difference set polynomial

Of course, for any divisor d ~ l
e(x)
itself.
of v, the major source of polynomials
ed(X )
is the equation
ed(~)ed(~ -1) = n
which must hold for any primitive
d th root of unity
spondence between the polynomials
ed(x)
factorizations of
over the field of
an algebraic integer which satisfies
(3.32)
~.
Thus there is a corre-
and a restricted set of principal ideal

dth roots of unity.
c~ = n
If
ed(x) ~ ~ x j ~, ai xi
(c)(~) = (n)
will be constructed.
ideal in the field of
(3.33)
in the field of d th roots

However, for small
it can be done.
As an example of this method, the

7, 12, 14}
8d(X)'S associated
fd(x).
modulo
of unity is, in general, an extremely difficult problem.

v, k, ~
is
are given by
Determining all such principal ideal factorizations of
parmmeters
(the bar denotes complex conjugation)
then, by a theorem of Kronecker [Theorem 2.20 above], the only

with the principal ideal factorization
c = Z ai~
Here
v, k, h = 21, 5, 1
e[l](X) = k = 5
difference set
{3, 6,
and since (2) is a prime
3rd roots of unity [Theorem 2.19 above],
e3(x) = ~ 2x a
73
for some
a = 0,i, 2.
By congruence 3.27
e[l](x ) = ~ : a ~ 2
thus
@3(x) = + 2x a
necessarily.
mod(3, x - i)
By congruence 3.29
eE3](x) = 2x a + i~ [5- 2xa] xx 3--i1 _ ~ a + 1 + x + x 2
So, by shifting the difference set if necessary,
_ l) .
(mod x 3
813](x) = 3 + x + x 2
with the
shift fixed modulo 3.

In the field of
7 th roots of unity the ideal (2) splits into a product of
two prime ideals [Theorem 2.19 above] and since, as Reuschle (1875, p. 7) lists,
(i + ~7 + ~ ) (i + ~7 + ~ ) = 2,
(3.32), the ideal
~73)2.
(87(~7))
these ideals are principal.
can only be (2)
Thus, by equation
62
(1 + ~7 + ~7 )
or
(1 + ~7 +
Since these last two could only correspond to equivalent difference sets,
only one of them need be considered.

(b = 0,1,...,6)
using
or
If
(@7(~7)) = (2)
then
e7(x) = + 2x b
and congruence 3.27 shows that the sign is negative.
@7(x) = -2x b
a contradiction.
However
eEv](X),
in congruence 3.29 yields negative coefficients for
Thus, without loss of generality, one may assume that
e7(x) = (1 + x 4 + x6) 2 x c
for some
c = O,1 ..... 6.
5 - + (i + x 4 + x6) 2 x c e + 9
By congruence 3.27
mod(7, x - i)
thus the negative sign prevails and from congruence 3.29
e[7](x) -z _xC(l + x + 2x 3 + 2x 4 + x 5 + 2x 6) + 2(i + x + ''' + x 6)
The different values of

(3,7) = l, c
(mod x 7 - i).
correspond to different shifts of the set.
can be specified arbitrarily without affecting
uniquely specifying the shift one may assume that
(c = 5)
e[3](x);
Since
thus by
74
e[7](x ) = 2 + x 3 + x 5 + x 6
In the field of
two prime ideals
~i)
= 2,
be (2) or
these ideals are principal.
1>2
(I + ~ i + ~
d = 0,1,...,20.
3.27;
When
d = 3e.
~21(x)
21 st roots of unity,
~[3](x)
For
thus
P = 7
P = 3,
the ideal
.18,2
(i + ~21 + ~21 ) "

@21(x)
e[21](x)
for some
e = 5.
Thus
[3, 6, 7, 12, 14}

Of course,
is the desired difference
x 21 - i.
(mod
x 21 - i)
set.
there are much simpler ways to construct this particular difference
set (Lemma 3.7 for exsmple),

all the principal
but the method is perfectly general and works whenever
ideal factorizations of
unity can be determined.
@d(X) = ~
(n)
in the fields of
d th roots of
Thus there are parameter sets where this method is
easier to apply than any of the others.

is a square and
modulo
3.29 yields
e(x) : Q[21](x) e x 3 + x 6 + x 7 + x 12 + x 14
i.e.,
can only
3.27 rules out the minus sign and shows
this same congruence yields
by congruence
The first two of these do not
= (I + x 12 + x18) 2 x i5 ~ x 9 + x 15 + x 18 + 2(x 3 + x 6 + x 12)
Computing
(@21(~21))
= ~ (i + x 12 + x18) 2 x d
congruence
(i + ~1221 + ~21
)18 (i + ~ i
As before,
12
or
= 3 + x + x
the ideal (2) splits into a product of
[Theorem 2.19 above] and since
satisfy congruences
that
and
~n x s
As Turyn (1960) noted,
for all divisors
of
the cases where
are particularly
nice.
Note i.
In the course of the exsmple above the fact that a trial
had a negative,
eT(x ) = -2x b.
though integral,
@[7](x)
coefficient was used to exclude the possibility
This is a consideration
outside the range of L e n a
might be led to suspect that the complete collection of conditions
3.9.
Thus one
(3.27) imposed
by Lemma 3.9 was not sufficient to guarantee the existence of a difference

This is false.
the problem,
That is, given that the polynomials
i.e., that
@d(X)
set.
used are meaningful
for
75
Sd(X)Sd(X'l)
In
k2
then any integral polynomial

polynomial of a
e[v](X)
when
d % 1
(3.34)
when
x = 1
computed b y the above process is the Hall
v, k~ k - difference set.
integral polynomial of degree less than
e[v](X)O[v](x-l)
x = ~d
For, whatever else it is, it is an
~ n + ~(1 + x + " "
which satisfies
+ x v-l)
(mod
x v - I)
SEv](1) ~ k
as follows from equations (3.26) and (3.34).
Thus with
9[v](X) = Z a'xil
(a i
i n t e g e r s ) i t follows t h a t (compare constant c o e f f i c i e n t s )
2
2
2
a_o + al + ''" + av--I = k
a 0 + a I + "-- + av_ I = k
and the only solutions to these diophantine equations have

conditions
a i = 0,i.
So the
(3.27) of Lemma 3.9 together with the trivially necessary conditions
(3.34) are not only necessary but also sufficient for the existence of a
v~ k, h - difference set.
Note 2.
Since this method and that based on Lemma 3.8 are both aimed either
at establishing the non-existence or at the construction of successive polynomials

9[w](X),
they are often combined (i.e., for a particular value of
method is easier takes precedence).
whichever
Generally speaking however (as seen in the
example given in section III.C.) the successful application of Lemma 3.8 requires
the knowledge of a multiplier or at least a w-multiplier.
[Thus, in view of the
multiplier theorems of section Iii.A~ Lemma 3.8 is more likely to be useful when
76
has a relatively large divisor
prime to
n.]
On the other hand, multipliers
play no obvious role in the method of this section [where known they can be used
to restrict the possibilities for
9d(X)] ;
thus the two approaches tend to comple-
ment each other.

Note 3.
The successive construction of the
~[w](X)'S
as a means of deter-
mining whether or not a particular difference set might exist has been used almost
from the beginning of the study of difference sets.
Indeed, the use of the
algebraic number theoretic implications of congruence 3.32 in this, is also quite

standard.
1961). ]
[Perhaps the best documented examples are in the works of Turyn (1960,
Nevertheless the explicit determination of the relations (3.19)~ (3.20),
(3.21) upon which the method is based as well as Lemma 3.9 is quite recent and is
due to H. C. Rumsey, Jr.
IV.
DIFFERENCE SETS OF SPECIAL TYPE
Various groupings of difference sets have been studied more extensively than
others.
These groupings usually consist of all (or all cyclic) difference sets
with a certain fixed property.
For example, those having
may be constructed by some special process.
k = 1
or those which
If the common property is of a
constructive nature, the grouping is usually called a family of difference sets.

(These difference set families and their special constructions are discussed in
Chapter V.)
The present chapter concerns itself with some groupings of difference
sets which have received special attention but are not of the familial type.
A.
Planar Difference Sets

The incidence matrix of a non-trivial symmetric block design with
also the incidence matrix of a finite projective plane.
h = 1
is
That is, if the blocks
are called lines and the objects are called points, the incidence matrix details
the structure of a system of
(i)
+ n + 1
each line contains exactly

n + 1
(ii)
v = n
n + 1
points and
lines such that
points and each point is on exactly
lines
any two distinct points are contained in one and only one line;
any
two distinct lines contain one and only one point in common
(iii)
there exist four points no three of which are on the same line.
This last condition serves to exclude certain trivial configurations.
[An
introduction to the study of finite projective planes is provided by Albert and

Sandier (1968).
See Dembowski (1968) for a comprehensive survey. ]
An open question, which has received a great deal of attention is that of

determining the values
points, exist.
for which finite projective planes~ with
They are known to exist whenever
2
v = n +n+l
is a prime power and known
not to exist whenever the associated Bruck-Ryser condition (see section II.B. fo~
78
this) is not satisfied.
For all other values of
projective plane is undecided.
[In particular
n,
the existence of a finite
n = lO
is undecided;
i.e.,
it is
not known whether or not a symmetric block design exists with parameters
v, k, h =lll,
ll, 1.]
Primarilybecause of the interest in this problem~ the existence question for

/
cyclic symmetric block designs with k = 1 (i.e., difference sets with k = l)
has been pursued extensively.
These difference sets are called plana r or simple.
Planar difference sets do exist with parameters

h = 1
for all prime powers
tion details].
[Singer (1938),
see section V.A. for construc-
On the other hand, not all finite projective planes correspond to
cyclic difference sets;

~ny
pJ = n
v = p2j + pj + l~ k = pJ + l~
those that do are called finite cyclic projective planes.
of the results originally developed for planar difference sets were
subsequently generalized to the case of arbitrary

sections of this survey.
and as such appear in earlier
In order to increase the readability of this section some
of these results are repeated here;
others are merely referred to when needed.
Three areas of interest regarding these planar difference sets are discussed
in this report.
n = p3
Singer's construction process for planar difference sets with
prime, is presented in section V.A.
The question (still open) of
whether there can exist multiple inequivalent planar difference sets for prime
power
is mentioned in section VI.A and elsewhere.
Finally,
results concerning planar difference sets for general values of

restricted to prime powers) are given.
in this section,
n
(i.e., not
Of course, since all known planar difference
sets are of the Singer type, these results are mainly rules which establish the
non-existence of planar difference sets with certain parameter values.
If
is a multiplier of a planar difference set, then
determines an
automorphism of the associated symmetric block design (as noted in section I.E.
above) and hence an automorphism of the associated finite cyclic projective plane
v;
thus
the points of
is also said to be a multiplier of the plane

~
under its cyclic automorphism is
for an arbitrary automorphism
v.
[If the ordering of
Po, PI~...,Pv.1,
to be a multiplier of
7,
then, in order
it is necessary that
79
there exists an integer
according to the rule
such that the points of the plane are permuted under

Pi ~ Pti "]
All non-trivial planar difference sets have non-trivial multipliers as is

easily seen from Theorem 3.1 and the parameters
In particular,
all divisors
(Hall, 19h7) and
of
v~ k, h = n
are multipliers.
+ n + l, n + l, 1.
[In fact, the primes
(Mann, 1952) are multipliers of a planar difference set if and
only if they divide
n.
This is not true in general;
multiplier of the Singer set
v, k, k = 21, 5, 1.]
for
ll ( ~ 25 )
Since
(k,v) = 1
is a
for all
planar difference sets, Theorem 3.6(2) shows that there exists at least one shift
E
of the difference set (i.e., line of the plane) which is fixed by all the
multipliers.
Actually,
combining a result of Evans and Mann (1951) with one of
Mann (see Hall, 1947):
Theorem 4.1.
At least one and at most three shifts of any planar difference
set are fixed by all the multipliers.

fixed shift
E;
When
n ~ 0,2
this shift contains the object
does not contain
when
n ~ 2
modulo
3.
If
modulo
for
n ~ 0
n ~ i
modulo
there is a unique
modulo
3
and there may be one or three shifts fixed by al__~lthe multipliers.

determined by the pair of objects
determined by the object pairs
multiplier satisfies
Proof.
Since
t ~ i
Vl, 2v I
O, v I
modulo
and
n ~ O, 2
modulo
shift is unique and no divisor of

the blocks
e.g.,
[0])
[a, ha, n2a].
fixed shift
n,
(save
E.
When
O, 2v I
O, 2Vl;
then
modulo
also divides
then
t ~ i
(n - i, v) = i
n - i.
contain
3,
thus the fixed
elements each,
belongs to the unique

so
v = 3v I.
Since
(t,v) = i
necessarily,
Here
fixes the three objects
and hence also the three shifts containing the object pairs
Vl, 2v I.
3.
This implies that all
(n - i, v) = 3;
modulo
or
yields the first part of
(n - i, v) = i;
Thus determining whether or not
as well as any other multiplier
O, v I, 2v I
The shift
are fixed if and only if every
it follows that
fixed by the multiplier
n ~ i
v = 3v I
3.
v = (n - l)(n + 2) + 3
When
and
is always fixed, whereas the shifts
Thus applying Theorems 3.4 and 3.5 to the multiplier

the theorem.
then
O, Vl;
the only other multipliers
8O
possible have
t e 2
modulo
thus the only shift fixed by

containing
Vl, 2v 1.
With
3.
n
These fix
and interchange
vI
with
2Vl;
and also fixed b y such a multiplier is the one
Thus the theorem is proved.
n = 2,3,4,7
the planar difference sets of Singer (see section V.A.)
provide an example for each of the possibilities listed in Theorem 4.1.
Corollar~f 4.2
(Evans and Mann, 1951).
trivial planar difference set with

t
modulo
while if
n ~ 2
Proof.
case 3
E
divides one of
modulo
Since
divides
n, n + i.
then
So
n ~ O,
fixed by all the multipliers.

v
uniform size
As
~.
If
If
divides
is a multiplier of a non-
+ n + i
modulo
Furthermore
prime, then the order
n ~ 0
modulo
n ~ i
then
modulo
of
divides
(for in this
and hence there is a unique shift

(since
is prime), all the non-
are distributed into disjoint blocks

E
n + I.
is prime it follows that
v).
zero residues of
v = n
[a, ta,...,t~-la}
of
is necessarily a union of these blocks with the possible
addition of the object
the only question is whether or not
belongs to
E.
So the corollary follows from Theorem 4.1.

Another important result, used but not explicitly stated by Hall (1947), was
stated b y Mann (1952) as
Theorem 4.3.
and if
If
ti~ t2, ts, t 4
tI - t2 ~ t 3 - t4
modulo
v,
are multipliers of a planar difference set

then
(t I - t2)(t I - t3) ~ O
Proof.
modulo
v.
Theorem 4.1 guarantees the existence of a shift
fixed b y all
multipliers.
Such a shift must contain, together with each of its elements
the elements
tle, t2e , t3e, t4e;
thus
tle - t2e ~ t3e - t4e
modulo
v.
e,
81
Since
h = I
element
this is only possible if

of
tie = t2e
or
i ~ e i - ej
ated equations
modulo
(4.1) for
for some
e.
i
and
Applying Theorem (4.3) with
modulo
el, ej
e.
j
of
and
2j - 2 ~ 0
modulo
divisor
of
v.
thus subtracting the associ-
2j + 1
i.e.,
t I = l~ t 2 = 2, t 3 = 2 j - l, t 4 = 2 j
2
(4.1)
t I = l, t 2 = 2, t 3 = 2 j, t 4 = 2 j + 1
for which they are not distinct multipliers,
planar difference sets having
E;
v.
establishes the theorem.
the only planar difference sets having
Similarly
So for every
it follows that
(t I - t2)(t I - t3)e ~ 0
Now
tle = t3e.
and
2j - 1
shows that
as multipliers are those
2j - 1 ~ 0
modulo
v.
yields the result that the only

as multipliers are those for which
When Theorem 4.3 is combined with the fact that every
is a multiplier for any planar difference set (Theorem 3.1),
it provides a quite effective non-existence test for these difference sets in the
case where
is composite.
Many of these cases fall within the scope of the
following corollary:
Corollary 4.4.
(Evans and Mann, 1951)
Let
al, a 2, a 3
be non-negative
integers for which
aI
a2
a3
q - Pl = P2 - P3 '
where
q' PI' P2' P3
are prime divisors of
no planar difference sets with
Proof.
Since
aI
Pl < 3q,
n~
plq~
v = n
2q
aI
and
a2
P2 < 3q
Pl % q % P2"
Then there are
+ n + i.
it follows that the hypotheses imply
a2
n2
which contradicts Theorem 4.3 and establishes the corollary.
82
This corollary
modulo
[let
Another
shows,
for example,
that no planar difference
set has
n ~ 0
q = 3, Pl = P2 = P3 = 2, a I = a 2 = I, a 3 = 0].
efficient
non-existence
test for planar difference
composite
is provided by the next theorem.
collection
of some of the more easily recognizable
Of course,
these special
full generality.
[Actually
cases were established
[See Hall (1947)~
Mann
(1952),
it is no more than a
special
before
sets having
cases of Theorem 2.9.
Theorem 2.9 was known in
Hall and Ryser
(1951) and Evans
and Mann (195m)].

Theorem 4.5.
and
be a multiplier
be prime divisors
ing conditions
are met
of
and
has even order modulo
(ii)
is a quadratic
(iii)
n ~ 4
or
(iv)
n m i
or
modulo
2
nI
or
modulo
2
n I + n I + i.
The elementary
[see, for example,

(i)
modulo
If the order of
(iii)
~ery
If
n m 4,6
modulo
8.
is
(iv)
and
of
P m 3
(n,v)
of
modulo
then
2f
= i
q
8
modulo
and
is of even order
residues
t f =- -i
modulo
is used in this
q,
then
is even
symbol
q
so Theorem 2.9
suffice.
is of even order modulo
So the Jacobi
least one prime divisor

residue,
(1951)].
non-residue
Then if any of the follow-
number theory of quadratic
Nageli
set and let
a square:
2
nI + nI + i
modulo
and the fact that

(ii)
of a planar difference
respectively.
non-residue
n ~ nI
Proof.
is necessarily
(i)
(v)
proof
Let
of
~
v
(let
p = 2)
= -i.
for which
q.
~us
2
and
v ~ 5,3
there exists at
is a quadratic
non-
i.e., this reduces to (ii).
the reciprocity
law for the Jacobi
symbol and the ~ p o t h e s e s
)=-l
dove
83
since
divides
divisor
(v)
Since
nI
2
n~ + n~ + l;
As an example
13
excludes
and
nI
it
+ nI + i
shifts.
case
if a planar difference
(Hall,
v
2
vI = nI + nI + 1
1957).
designate
v.
nI
Since
+ nI
of even order modulo
+ 1.
is of even
some prime divisor
n I = 3.
set is to exist with
or
12
modulo
13.
This shows that

n ~ 3
or
Among others this
an individual multiplier
Let
the finite
(t - 1,v) = v I
t.
subplane
Vl
Of course
having
of
is a multiplier
nI + 1
be a multiplier
set
m a y fix more than
vI
may be
vI > 1
0,v'~...,(v I - 1)v'.
let
Let
Then
representation
~v' = e i - ej
is unique
(i ~ ~ < Vl).
it follows
that
representations
of
~v'
unless
also fixes
these elements
of
is uniquely
v'
from
vI > 3
then
determine
every multiplier
in section III.B.
are
which is fixed by
is of course also a planar difference
v',
non-zero multiple
Further,
be a shift of
of
but if
for general
as well as all multiples

from
then the fixed elements
E = [el,...,en+ I}
t.
or
shifts of
Do
Vl"
v = VlV' ,
the multiplier
vI
together with the fixed shifts
The first assertion was established
Assume
plane generated by
and exactly
points on a line.
of the subplane
cyclic projective
objects
and the fixed objects
cyclic
E;
modulo
n = 35.
fixed by the multiplier
above.
~ 0
In fact
and let
Proof.
of a proper prime
Theorem 4.1 shows that at most 3 shifts of any planar difference
Then there are exactly
(v) of Theorem 4.5 when
p ~ 2,4,5,6,7,8,10,11
Theorem 4.6.
set
that
is also a divisor of
are fixed by all the multipliers,

3
follows
it is necessarily
consider
the possibility
Whereas
the existence
thus this case reduces to (i) and the theorem is proved.
must be a square
modulo
This insures
as in (iii).
or
2
nI + nI + 1
order modulo
of
~ nI
So any divisor of
of
n.
represented
being multiples
of
v'
But since
set.
t
e. - e. = te. - te.
e.
and
as a difference
also.
e..
So the
fixes
E,
are distinct
Hence every
of elements
So the elements
of
of
E
84
divisible
by
v'
determine
parameters
the form
E + iv'
fixed by
for some
constitute
as was to be proved
shifts fixed by
the subplane
Bruck
v = n
Vl
j,
If
Since
with
nI + 1
of
Vl"
Vl'
~l
with
is of
together w i t h the shifts

points on each line
D then
(Theorem 3.5) hence
Thus all assertions
[For, each line of
v I > 3)
permutes
the
is a multiplier
of
of the theorem have been established

plane
v,
with
2
v I = n I + n I + l,
with
contains
n - nI
Thus the number of points of
2
n = n1
then
points of
which
which lie on no line of
2
2
2
+ n + i - (n I + n I + i) - (n - nl)(n I + n ! + i) = (n - nl)(n - nl)
n > nI
2
nI
than
on exactly
necessarily,
it follows that
there exists a point
2
nI + nI + I
lines joining
n + i
be improved to
lines of
of
n ~n~o
which
to the points of
~
that in certain special cases
it must be that
(including
n _> n 2 + n I + 2o
If
~i
are distinct
n ~n~
+ nlo]
divide
n,
see H. Neumann,
For any integer
fixes every object and shift that
are thus
nO + 1
Corollary
4.7
(Hall~
is a line fixed by
and as
Roth
lies
(1964) shows
that of Theorem 4.6) this inequality m a y
plane examples
nI
divides
(For an arbitrary
are known where
is a multiplier
t
fixes.
whenever
If
then Theorem 4.6 shows that
objects
So the
nI
subplane
does not
1955).
j > 0, t j
(t j - 1, v) = v 0
~i"
In all known cases of Theorem 4.6
finite projective
is actually greater
lies on no line of
but the question of whether this must be so is open.
of an arbitrary
Vl
is another multiplier
has a proper subplane
for
is
if
fixed by
(1955) has shown that if a finite projective
+ n + l,
n,
set (non-trivial
Since each shift fixed by
the objects
among themselves
are not points of
Vl
difference
a cyclic subplane
also.
2
n ~ n I + n 1.
or
a planar
2
v I = n I + n I + l, k I = n I + l.
of
1947)o
and if
fixed by
If
v0
t j.
is, and
tj
is any shift fixed by
v 0 = n02 + n O + 1
certainly
t
and
and that there
So
is a multiplier
is a divisor of
of a cyclic plane
such that
7,
(t x - 1 , v ) =
if
v0
85
for
x = j
nO + 1
but not for
points on
permuted by
v = m
set
D1
of
mr
fixed b y
(Ostrom,
+ l, n = m r ,
Since
m3
These
lengths
1953).
of
nO + 1
divide
and there are exactly
points of
are thus
jo
If a planar difference
(r,3) = 1
vI = m
is also a multiplier
Proof.
t j.
with
with parameters
2
v0 = nO + nO + 1
then
in cycles whose
Coroilar~ 4.8
2r
x < j,
set
has parameters
then there exists a planar difference
+ m + l, n I = m.
Furthermore,
every multiplier
D 1.
is obviously
a multiplier
Theorem 4.6 once it can be established
of
D,
the result
follows from
that
(4.2)
(m 3 - i, m 2r + m r + i) = m 2 + m + 1 = v I.
From
(r,3) = I
it follows that
thus the only question

(n + 2) + 3
3v I
shows that
is whether
value of
divides the left side of equation
some multiple
(n - i,v) = i
is the only candidate.
and this implies that
vI
or
If it were
vI ~ 0
modulo
3v I
3.
for which this happens.
3;
of
vI
thus
then
Thus
Now
(m - l,v) = 1
m ~ 1
v ~ 0
So equation
does alsoo
modulo
modulo
or
3
(4.2),
v = (n- i).
3.
So
necessarily
and there is no
(4.2) is valid and the corollary
has been established.

Assume
v.
t
Then
of
modulo
a planar difference
exists and let
is said to be a type I divisor of
having
q
set
be
lower order modulo
~.
or
is the modulus of a proper subplane
Mann,
1951):
if there exists
v.
some multiplier
Let this order
Then
where
w
be a prime divisor of
than it does modulo
(t ~ - 1,v) = w ~ 0
properly
divides
v.
modulo
By Theorem 4.6
~l"
2
w = nI + nI + i
Thus,
and either
in particular
w = 3
(Evans and
86
Corollary
modulus
q
4. 9 .
If no proper factor of
is also its order modulo

Prime divisors
as it does for
then
3,
q = 3
q ~ i
set, then the order of every multiplier
modulo
for which every multiplier
q ~ 1
~ = 1
prime divisor
3.
so
(Ostrom,
of
v,
If
~ = I
q = 3.
If
of
(i.e.,
1953).
n ~ i
~ = 3
then
of
modulo
3
If a planar difference
group of
q,
type Ii~ so
t 3 - i =- 0
modulo
Corollary
of
modulo
v.
i.e.,
n
q
of
modulo
modulo
and
divides
set
~(q)
i.e.,
has a type ii
is cyclic and its order
of the multiplier
of
Thus
that
v).
Theorem 4.11
modulo
t I (t 3 - l) ~ 0
t3 - 1 ~ 0
1953).
be distinct
and if then
modulo
modulo
is isomorphic
q.
qo
Since
But
is of
the distinctness
set with
q - i.
n ~ pJ
is sought
the search to the cases where
of
of
with a subgroup of the non-
Theorem 4.5 insures that no multiplier
any of the prime divisors
(Ostrom,
t!, t 2
it is cyclic and has order dividing
When this is done~
Then there exists a multiplier
t 2 ~ tlt 3
in restricting
group of
Hence this image group is
For let
4.8 shows that if a planar difference
even order modulo
q.
also and this contradicts
group of
is no loss of generality
not a square.
modulo
this implies
So the multiplier
zero residues
residues
it would follow that
necessarily
have the same image.

tI ~ t2
t 2 ~ tlt 3
modulo
(tl, q) = 1
there
then
The image under reduction modulo
such that
tl, t 2.
n2 + n + i ~ 0
For if
then the multiplier
No two multipliers
multipliers
tI ~ t2
3.
and this implies that the order

or
q;
modulo
is of course a subgroup of the non-zero
t3
has the same order
q - i.
Proof.
cyclic.
3o
Theorem 4.10
divides
is the
and
modulo
modulo
it should be noted that the only prime divisors
modulo
i.e.,
+ n + I ~ 3
by the prime
are called type II divisors.
n3 - i ~ 0
divides
2
are
divisible
v.
and
Before going further

n2 + n + i
v.
is
is of
Thus
Suppose that there exists a planar difference
87
2
set modulo
v = n
necessarily
distinct primes.
for some
i, qi
multipliers
+ n + 1
where
3h
where
Theorem 4.12
and the
Then the order
is odd and
3h
and all the prime divisors
qi
cyclic group of multipliers
divides
(When
n ~ 0
divisor of
modulo
3.
pliers
n + 1
n ~ 1
when
n ~ 2
modulo
3,
residues
size
of
S.
are distributed
Thus the unique
is necessarily
a union of these
Thus the theorem is proved.
3.
By Theorem 4.1 the object
Combining
a result of 0strom
Theorem 4.13.
v = VlV2, v I > 1
w i t h respect to
by
and
divides
v.
v 2 > l,
Suppose
then
Proof.
divides
Let
are multiples
of
n - nI
further that
type II divisor
and
[a, ta,...,tS-la]
is added if and only if
(t j - 1,v) = Vl,
Then
addition of
n ~ 0
(1951) yields
set with
v2
is of type II
where
j < S
and
2
vI = nI + nI + 1
and
v2
are primes,
nI ~ 1
and
tJ;
it contains
nI + 1
objects which
(see the proof of Theorem 4.6 above).

E~
let
a(t ~ - i) ~ 0
of
vI
divides
(n - nl)/V 1.
objects of
vI
let
4.1) shift fixed by all the multi-
where every prime divisor of
be a shift fixed by
v2
Then
sets
(1953) with one of Evans and Mann
If in addition
S;
is of type II the
Suppose that there exists a planar difference

and
n - nlo
v.
of the
is always a type I
into disjoint
is a generator of the cyclic group of multipliers.
modulo
sets together with the possible
modulo
other
then
group is cyclic of order
(Theorem
0.
n - nI
modulo
Since every prime divisor of
the object
divides
of Theorem 4.11 are satisfied
are of type II, then the order
By Theorem 4.10 the multiplier
be a generator of this group.
of uniform
~(qi ) = qi - 1.
v)
Proof.
non-zero
are not
is not a square and that
divides
If the hypotheses
of
qi
of the cyclic group of
1953)o
when
(Ostrom,
... qj
Suppose further that
is of type II.
is
v = qlq2
v 2.
Thus
If
be the least power of
modulo
~ = S
v I v2
and
hence
S
such that
t~ - 1 z 0
divides
is any of the
n - n I.
modulo
If
v2
at ~ a
some
is
88
prime then
(Theorem 4.10)
divides
v~~ - 1.
2
n 2 + n + 1 = (n I + n~~ + l)v 2
Since
(n - nl)(n + n I + i)
V~
vI
Now
vI
(since
divides
n - nI
n I ~ 1).
divides
by assumption,
Since
(n - nl)/V 1
divides
thus
n - nI
n + n I + 1 =- 2n I + 1 ~ 0
and
vI
is prime it follows that
and M a n n
to
sets with
(1951) to
n < 100 have
parameters
n, v
Let
respectively.
Corollary
(b)
If
n = 4,6
modulo
then
(c)
If
n -= 1,2
modulo
and if
(d)
If
n - nI
n2
modulo
tests for
P = 3
then
(e)
If
is a quadratic non-residue
of
(f)
If
is of order
and
if
n - 0
If
(g)
n + 1
(h)
Let
is of order
if
n -= 2
v = vlq
3.
~
3o
If
of any multiplier
If
is not a square
be prime
set with
conditions:
is a square.
is of even order
(In particular
the
were used.)
q
then
v
is a square.
is prime,
then
then
is not a square
modulo
must be odd.
must divide
divides
must be odd.
set exists modulo

q
divides
must be odd.
is prime,
where no planar difference
then
is a square.
and
n
and if
is not a square
modulo
modulo
order
n
If
of a difference
modulo
n2 + n I + 1
modulo
p, q
must be a square.
n I = 1,2~3~5,6,7
and let
Theorem 4.3 must hold.
n 2 + n I + l,
modulo
p. 209) was pushed
is subject to the following
4.4 and more generally
with respect to
(1968,
be a multiplier
Then the existence
(a)
or
that the only planar
This was extended by Evans
to Dembowski
v , k , h = n 2 + n + l, n + l, 1
associated
(unpublished).
The tests of Evans and Mann.

of
a prime power.
n < 1600 and according
n _< 3600 by V. H. Keiser
divisors
v1
as was to be shown.
Utilizing mainly Theorem 4.3 Hall (1947) established

difference
modulo
v 1.
Then the
G = (q(Vl), q0(q)).
89
(i)
Let
v = vlq ,
Vl, q
exists modulo
vI
multiplier
of the
modulo
but
of
vI
modulo
divides
Proof.
are both primes and a planar difference set
but not modulo
t ~ 1
q
q.
Let there exists a non-trivial
v,n + 1,1 - difference set such that

modulo
divides
n - n I (n I ~ l)
(n - nl)/V I
above.
where
q.
n - nI
If
is not a square then the order
and is odd.
then the order of
If, in addition,
modulo
(f)
Consider test
and
(h).
(g)
thus
divides
So Theorem 4.5 finishes off.
~(Vl)
and
Consider test (i).
are prime it follows from Corollary 4. 9 that

multiplier
divides
(a),o..,(e)
are a combination of Corollary 4.2 and Theorem 4.5.
Here Theorem 4.6 shows that the order of
the same as its order modulo

definition.
v1
and is odd.
Theorem 4.3, Corollary 4.4 and Theorem 4.5 establish
Tests
t = 1
modulo
divides
Since
is a type II divisor.
of the test corresponds to the multiplier
tj
vI
is
~q)
and
by
v1
The
of Theorem 4.13.
Thus Theorems 4.5 and 4.13 establish the validity of test (i).
Since the only known planar difference sets have prime power
and in fact
may all be constructed by the process of Singer (see Chapter V), it is easy to make
up perfectly reasonable conjectures about planar difference sets.
Just conjecture
that any property possessed by the Singer sets holds for all planar difference
sets.
One such property of the Singer set
v,k,h = p2j + pj + l, pJ + l, 1
that its multiplier group consists of all the powers of

powers of
modulo
are necessarily multipliers has been observed earlier.
only the powers of
are multipliers
v.
is
[That all
The fact that
is non-trivial aud is due to Gordon~ Mills
and Welch (1962), see section V.A. for a proof of their more general result. ]
a general planar difference set (i.e.,
For
not necessarily a prime power) the
analogous conjecture would be that its multiplier group was generated by the prime
divisors of
n.
A reduction lemma established by Halberstam and Laxton (1964), in
the course of providing an alternate proof
(h = 1
only)
of the Gordon, Mills~
Welch result on Singer sets, may be of some use in attacking this problem.
that
t, nt, n2t
Note
are necessarily either all multipliers or all non-multipliers of
9O
any planar difference set with

be of reduced type modulo
+ n + 1
0 < r, s < n
Lemma 4.14.
with
n > i,
and
modulo
0 < r + s < n.
to
n2 + n + i
Then
(Halberstam and Laxton)
then at least one of
define an integer
if
j-=r+sn
with
Furthermore,
k = n + i.
If
t > i
t, nt, n2t
and if
(t,n 2 + n + i) = i
-
is of reduced type modulo
2
n
B.
+ n
+ i.
Hadamard Difference Sets

Difference sets whose parameters
Hadamard difference sets.
(ii)
There are several reasons for this; among them are:
the relative abundance of such difference sets

with
k < v/2
as usual,
section I.B.
varies between
and
(v - 3)/4~
see
Thus planar difference sets and Hadamard difference sets
present the extreme values of

(iii)
are called
Like the planar difference sets of section IV.A., these
have been extensively studied.

(i)
v, k, h = 4t - l, 2t - l, t - 1
h.
the autocorrelation function of the
l, -1
characteristic function of
these difference sets (see section I.D. for this) is minimal

[~(j)
= -1
for
j ~ 0
modulo
communications applications
v].
This has led to several digital
Ksee, for example, Golomb e t a l
(1964)
or Goldstein (1964)].
(iv)
the relation between these difference sets and the~ as yet unsolved,
Hadamard matrix problem (see the note below).
The known Hadamard difference sets can be classified according to the value
of
v.
(a)
The groupings are:

v = 2 j - i, j ~ 2;
section V.A. discusses a large family of difference
sets whose parameters include these (construction details are given there).
91
(b)
v = 4t - i
is prime;
here there always exists a Hadamard difference
set composed of the quadratic residues modulo

prime
v = 4t - 1
is expressible
as
4x 2 + 27,
set (due to Hall, 1956) whose construction
(see section V.B.) and when the

there is an additional
is discussed
difference
in section V.C.
Some
others exist also.

(c)
v = p(p + 2)
where
and
p + 2
are both prime numbers
(see section
V.D. for the details).

Occasionally
satisfies more than one of these conditions
most part, this leads to multiple

(a)
Mersenne
and
(b)
(a)
overlap if and only if
primes of the form
Chowla and Lewis

and
4x 2 + 27
difference
are
sets.
Specifically:
the only
is a Mersenne prime;
v = 31, 127
and
[see Skolem,
131071
(1959) for this].
(c)
overlap if and only if
The known Mersenne ~rimes

with
inequivalent
and, for the
v = 15.
(i.e., primes of the form
2 j - i)
are
v = 2j - 1
j = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89, 107, 127, 521, 607, 1279, 2203, 2281,
3217, 4253, 4423, 9689, 9941, 11213

at present,
[see Gillies,
1964;
in fact
2 I1213 - i
is,
the largest number known to be prime].
The difference
v = 3, 7, 15
and
sets corresponding
31.
Now
(a) provides a difference

set corresponding
to
v's
set and (b) provides

is equivalent
sets arise from
While all known Hadamard difference
two more.
(c).
In particular,
sets with parameters
except for
is prime, thus
However,
the difference
to the one from (a);
thus only two
v = 31.
sets have
not all of them can be constructed by the methods

in (a), (b),
are inequivalent
v = 31 = 25 - 1 = 4.8 - i = 4.12 + 27
4x 2 + 27
truly distinct difference
to these
v's of types
(a),
(c),
(section V.A. - V.D.) indicated
there are exactly six inequivalent
v, k, h = 127, 63, 31
(b),
difference
(see Baumert and Fredricksen,
1967),
three of which do not arise from these constructions.

It is known (Golomb,
v < i000,
then
Thoene, Baumert)
is one of the forms
that if a Hadamard difference
set has
(a), (b), (c) with six possible exceptions.
92
These exceptions are

decide
this
v = 399, 495, 627, 651, 783
and
975.
The methods used to
were~ of course, those of Chapter II and III.
Some problems of electrical network theory [Belevitch (1968), see also

Goethals and Seidel (1967)] have led to the consideration,
skew Hadamard difference sets.
That is, Hadamard difference sets which contain
precisely one of the residues
d, v - d
for
1 < d < v - 1.
obvious examples of such sets are the quadratic residues

primes
q ~ 3 (mod 4).
Theorem 4.15.
e(x)
Let
Johnsen (1966B) has shown that there are no others.
(Johnsen)
The only cyclic difference sets which are skew
T(x) = 1 + x + ''' + x v'l
for such a difference set.
- i
and so [using
Of course, the
(see section V.B.) of
Hadamard are given by the quadratic residues of a prime
Proof.
among other things, of
q,
where
q ~ 3 (mod 4).
and consider the Hall polynomial
It satisfies
e(x)e(x "l) ~ n + h T(x)
1 + e(x) + e(x -1) ~ T(x)

and
@(x)T(x) ~ k T(x)]
modulo
it
follows that
e2(x) + e ( x ) + n ~ n T(x)
So, for all
v th roots of unity
mod(x v - 1).
~ % i
e2(~)
+ e(~)
e(~) = ( - i
since
v = 4n - 1
Since
for which
Let
p % q
divides
roots of unity.
,.,~)/2
(4.4)
it has an odd prime divisor

but
s+l
does not divide
be another odd prime divisor of
equation (4.4) shows that

th
(4.3)
in any Hadamard difference set.
v ~ 3 (mod 4),
s
+ n = o
(-1 ~ ' ~ ) / 2
Contradiction.
and let
q
v
with
and
q m 3 (mod 4)
is an odd integer.
~ = ~p = e 2wi/p,
then
is an algebraic integer of the field of

So
is an odd power of the prime
q,
where
93
q ~ 3 (mod 4).
Let
~q = e 2vi/q
and let
z(x) =
so that
Z(~q) =
1
~
~q
in section III.D.
divisors
v (=qS).
G i(x) = q
Here
gi = ~ 1
From (3.19),
+x
+x
To do this we need the complete set of

Equation
(4.4) provides us with these,
el(X ) = k = (qS . 1)/2
and that
1
~
(3.20) it follows that modulo
ew(x) Bv,w(X)
~(i) = l, ~(q) = -i
and
for from (4.4),
for
-v
and
r = w/q.
in assuming that
2v
ew(X)
s1 = + I.
x---f:-i--!
rl w
~(qi) = 0
i = 1 ..... s.
for
i = 2,...,s,
So interchanging
- 1
this last summation
the order of summation and
matching terms yields
for all
xv - 1
wl v
wll
r = w
ed'S
process
i-1
+ el q(S-l)/2 z(xq
only involves
(4.5)
~ge shall use the constructive
and there is no loss of generality
Since
x[(q-l)/2] 2
+ "'" +
(Gaussian sum).
discussed
of
- - -
1
v
Oq(X)
qi
i=l
1
--i
xq - 1
x---?'i
{eqi(X) - eqi+l(X)} ]
94
Now, for
i = 0,1,...,s,
x q i ( x-V- i ' "i )
xV l -i
xq - 1
md(xV - i)
xq - 1
Using this fact
e(x) -= ev(X) + ~
-d
x v - i~
(4.6)
s-1
+
) -
aj+l(~/2)}
x q3 - 1
so the only question is whether this has integer coefficients.

if
v = q,
then (4.6) becomes
e(x) ~ - 1
j =!
(gl = i,
+z(x) = - ~ 1
+ ~z
If
s = l~
i.e.,
as noted earlier)
+x
+x 4
+ ...
+ ~[(q-Z)/2]
which does indeed have integer coefficients and in fact is the quadratic residue
difference set for
Let
efficients,
q ~ 3 (mod 4).
be odd and
s > 3
then in order for (4.6) to have integral co-
it is necessary that the terms
_q(S+l)/2
2~
( ~
Z -- i
I ) and
-i
q(s+l)/2 ( 6 1 z ( x ) } ( x v_- _1 )
(4.7)
x q- i
compensate for each other, since they are the on]~v terms of (4.6) which have the
coefficient
~(s+l)/2
v
i
q(s-1)/2 "
95
A l l other terms of (4.6) contain higher powers

side of (4.7) contributes
contributes
to
to all
(qS + qS-1)/2
other and therefore
of
q.
coefficients
coefficients.
no such difference
But the term on the left
whereas
the other term of (4.7)
So they cannot compensate
set exists.
for each
Thus Theorem 4.15 has been
established.
Note:
A n y symmetric block design
parameters
course,
v,k,h = 4t - i, 2t - i, t - i
gives rise to the name Hadamard
set of a cyclic design.

a Hadamard
distinct
matrix,
design,
-i.
a matrix of
O.
orthogonal.
achieves
If
-i
not necessarily
difference
That is, a
21
Such a matrix
abs. val.
det.
= (4t)2t].
the matrices,
For example,
modified
v,k,h = 7, 3, i
Hadamard
difference
of any two
+l's
to this
row inner products

4t
are
whose rows are mutually
a Hadamard matrix because

determinantal
Thus the name Hadamard
of
in the incidence matrix of
whose distinct
to the associated block designs

the
row and column of
the upper bound specified by Hadamard's
which,
set for the associated
square matrix of order
is called
design,
is such that the inner product
Thus, by adding a constant

+l's is constructed
cyclic) with
is called a Hadamard
is used instead of
the resultant matrix
rows is
uniformly
its determinant
inequality
[i.e.,
passed from the inequality
and finally to the difference
difference
set
(1,2,4]
to
sets.
has associated
incidence matrix and Hadamard matrix:
-i
-i
-i
1
-i
1
1
i
-i
-1
-1
1
-1
1
i
i
-i
-1
-1
1
-i
Chapter 14 of Hall
existence
Spence
(i.e.,
-i
i
1
-1
-i
-1
1
i
-i
1
1
-1
-i
-i
(1967)
-i
i
-i
1
1
-1
-i
surveys
of Hadamard matrices;
(1967),
and Whiteman
Goethals
(1970).
i
i
i
1
1
1
1
1
-i
-i
1
-1
1
1
-1
i
-i
-i
-1
1
-i
1
1
(with proofs)
for results
and Seidel
i
i
-i
-i
-i
1
-i
1
i
i
i
-i
-i
-i
1
-i
i
-i
1
1
-1
-i
-i
1
i
i
-i
1
1
-i
-1
-i
subsequent
(1967), Wallis
cases are
n = 188,
i
-i
-i
1
-i
1
1
-i
most of the known results
on the
to Hall's book see
(1969 AB,
1970),
It is known that the order of such a matrix
and the first few undecided
i
-i
i
-i
1
1
-i
-i
Turyn
is
236 , 260, 268, 292.
(1970)
i, 2
or
4t
96
C.
Barker Sequences ~ Circulant

In 1953 R. H. Barker
munications,
considered
and minus ones

coefficients
Hadamard Matrices
(1953),
in connection with a problem in digital
the question
[bi] [ ~
of the existence
of finite
with the property that their aperiodic
should be as small as possible,
sequences
comof ones
auto-correlation
That is, he asked that
v-j
c.J =
b i bi+j
= 0
or
-i
i=l
for all
become
J, i ~ j ~ v - i.
customary
sequences~
and
to relax Barker's
whose aperiodic
Barker sequences.
denotes
He found such sequences

condition
v = 3, 7, ii.
It has
slightly and call all finite
autocorrelations
Only the following
for
e.
J
are restricted
Barker sequences
to
are known:
I, -i
-i~ 0r ix
(+
denotes
+i
-i)
v =2
++
v=4
+++-;
V = 5
+ + +-
V =7
+++-
- +-
v =ii
+++-
- +-
v =13
+++++-
++-
- +-
- ++-
+-
together w i t h the sequences which may be derived from them by the following
trans-
formations:
b: = ~"C-l) i b
1
1
b: = (-i) i+1 b.
l
1
b~ = -b..
l
I
In fact,
Storer and Turyn
(1961) have shown that any further Barker sequences which
may exist must be of even length,
indeed they show that
v ~ 0 (mod 4)
is necessary.
97
Note that in terms of the
i, -i
representation of the characteristic function
of a difference set (see section I.D. for this) all these sequences correspond to
difference
sets.
v = 7,11,13
For
v = 2,3,4,5
the difference sets are trivial;
the sets have parameters
v,k,h = 7, 4, 2;
ii, 5, 2
and
for
13, 9, 6
respectively.
It can be shown (Storer and Turyn, 1961) that
Barker sequence.
Further,
cj + cv-j = ~ ( j )
if
v - O (mod 4)
then
e. + c
,]
v-j
~ v (mod 4)
cj + Cv_ j = O.
in any
Thus, as
[the correlation coefficient defined in section I.D], any
further Barker sequence
{bi}
has autocorrelation function
Rb(J)= Ii if j ~0
modulo
otherwise
i.e., a two-level autocorrelation function.

difference set.
2.1 and since
v = 4N 2.
values of
Since
n, v
Since
~(j)
is even,
n = k - k
= v - 4(k - h) = 0
k(k - l) = h(v - l)
show that
Thus such a sequence corresponds to a
for
is a square (say
j ~ O
modulo
N 2)
it follows that
for any difference set and
k = 2N 2 - N
or
2N 2 + N.
b y Theorem
n = k - ~
Since these
these
k's correspond
to complementary difference sets, there is no loss of generality in assuming that

v,k,h = 4N 2, 2N 2 - N, N 2 - N.
Thus, further Barker sequences exist if and only if there exist difference
(v,n) = ( 4 ~ , ~ )
v,k,h = 4N 2, 2 ~
= N2 ~ i
- N, ~
- N
for
and 2.17 above rule out many of these cases;

with the single exception
by a constructive method;
Since
here, this is a subcase of the unsolved problem con-
cerning the existence of cyclic difference sets with
i ~ N ~ 55
N ~ i.
N = 39.
(v,n) > i.
in particular,
N ~ 55,
all the cases
Turyn (1968) excludes this case
essentially that of section III.D.
Barker sequences exist they must have
Theorems 2.13
i.e.,
Thus, if any further
v ~ 12,100.
A matrix is called circulatory or said to be a circulant if each successive

row is derived from the previous row by shifting it cyclically one position to the
98
right.
For example, the matrix
is a circulant.
(+
for
+i, -
for
-i)
This particular circulant has every entry
orthogonal to each other.
!1
and its rows are
Matrices with these properties are called Hadamard
matrices and they have been extensively studied [see the note at the end of
section IV.B].
The example, thus, is a circulant Hadamard matrix.
rearrangement and scalar multiplication by

only known circulant Hadamard matrix.
-i
In fact, up to
of its rows and columns~ it is the
It follows immediately from the autocor-
relation function of a Barker sequence of even length
v ~ 4,
that there is a
one-to-one correspondence between such sequences and circulant Hadamard matrices.

Thus (from the Barker sequence results above), if there exists any further circulant
Hadamard matrices they have orders
v ~ 12,100.
It sho~Id come as no surprise
then, that the absence of any further Barker sequences/circu!ant Hadamard matrices
has been conjectured.
[Using the fact that
-i
is never a multiplier of a non-
trivial cyclic difference set (Theorem 3.3 above), Brualdi (1965) has shown that
there does not exist an Hadamard matrix of order
v ~ 4
which is a symmetric
circulant.]
The related problem of finding
i, -i
sequences of length
for which the
maxi~2~m aperiodic correlation coefficient is of least magnitude (i.e., for which
m~ lojl
J
is minimized) and indeed the problem of determining this minimum, at least
asymptotically as a function of
v,
is unsolved.
of the known results on this subject.
Turyn (1968) provides a survey
V.
FAMILIES OF DIFFERENCE SETS
The known difference sets (with a few exceptions) can be divided into
families.
This chapter deals with these families of difference sets, construction
methods specific to them, their multiplier groups and the status of some open
questions related to them.
A.
Sin~er Sets and Their Generalizations.
The Results ' of Gordon~ Mills and Welch
Singer (1938) discovered a large class of difference sets related to finite

projective geometries.
These
parameters:
have
N+I
v
N
-i
q - i
for
N > i
k =
'
N-I
~ ~
~ =
q - i'
and they exist whenever
-1
(5.1)
q - i
is a prime power.
In order to discuss Singer's result properly it is necessary to know some of

the theory of finite fields [see, for example, van der Waerden (1949) for proofs].
For any prime power
there exists a finite field with exactly
elements.
This field is unique up to isomorphism and is called the Galois field of

[written
GF(q)].
The multiplicative group of
generated by any of its
~(q- i)
GF(q)
elements of order
is cyclic;
q - i.
elements are called primitive roots and if
ever
the residues
is prime to
q - i.
For prime
p,
structed from
GF(q)
irreducible over
all divisors
by adjoining any root
GF(q).
of
m.
The subfields of
GF(p).
~
These generating
GF(pm),
O,i,...~p - I
p;
~u
when-
form a
this field is often
m
GF(r)~ r = q ~
of any
elements
thus it is
is a primitive root so is
field with respect to addition and multiplication modulo

taken to be the generic representation of
can be con-
m th degree polynomial
prime, are
GF(p j)
for
f(x)
lO0
GF(qm)
GF(q).
is often represented by the set of all m-tuples with entries from
In this representation addition is performed componentwise but multiplica-
tion is more complicated.

polynomial
am_ 1 x
m-i
Associate with the
+ ... + alx + a 0.
m-tuple
am_l, am_2,...,al, a 0
the
Then, in order to multiply two m-tuples,
multiply instead their associated polynomials and reduce the result modulo any
fixed
m th degree polynomial
f(x)
irreducible over
GF(q).
The coefficients of
the resulting polynomial constitute the m-tuple which is the product of the original
two.
For multiplicative purposes it is more convenient to represent
terms of a primitive root
~;
in which case,
GF(qm)
GF(qTM) in
consists of
O,l,C~, 2 ~ o . o ,(~q -2
Multiplication then becomes a simple matter of reducing exponents modulo
but addition is more complicated.
Both these representations of
are used
in the proof of Singer's theorem.
Table 5.1 shows both kinds of representation for
TABLE 5.1.
0000
O0
0000
Ol
o(
2
o~
J
c~
J
8
2
lO
c~
~5
GF(26)
with
GF(qm)
f(x) = x 6 + x + i.
i01000
~i
i001
Ol
010011
~2
0010
0 i
48
001101
~49
011010
i00111
0000
i0
i00110
o~ 3
0100
io
0001
O0
001111
~4
i001
00
~0
ii0100
ooio
i i
~51
i01011
OlOi
i 0
~2
010101
~53
i01010
010111
0010
O0
011110
a35
0100
O0
iiii00
~36
i000
O0
0000
ii
22
iii011
~Y
lOll
0 0
ii0101
~38
OliO
1 l
J4
iioi
i o
~5
i01110
0001
i0
i01001
~39
0011
O0
010001
iOli
i I
J6
011111
0110
O0
i00010
~41
Olii
o i
~57
iiiii0
000111
J2
iii0
i o
~8
iiiiii
001110
~43
44
iioi
i i
iiii01
i011
OllO
o i
0 1
~59
6o
(~
61
ii00
i 0
~62
i00001
ii00
00
i000
ii
0001
Ol
25
26
28
c~
011100
0010
i0
iii000
J5
0101
00
ii0011
(~46
iii001
ii0001
- i
i01
GF(26).
[In this example the primitive root
no means necessary;
satisfies
That is, a primitive root of
will always satisfy an irreducible polynomial of degree

polynomial is said to be primitive of degree
find such polynomials.
polynomial of degree
such that
over
GF(p).]
The finite projective geometry
that
in
dimension
and
Thus any set of
a subspace of
0
PG(N,q)
PG(N,q),
PG(N,q)
GF(q).
of dimension
GF(q)
(baN, baN.l,..o,ba0)
j + 1
GF(q);
such a
The trick is to
of dimension
J.
The
N - 1
Thus there are

and
over
b ~ 0, b
(N + 1)-tuples determines
(qN+l _ 1)/(q - i)
subspaces of
( J + l _ 1)/(q - l)
sub-
Any two distinct hyperplanes
so they have
v = (qN+l _ 1)/(q - l)
k = (qN _ 1)/(q - i)
GF(q), con-
are identified for all
are called hyperplanes.

N - 2;
subject to the restriction
linearly independent
intersect in a subspace of dimension

points in common.
over
a primitive irreducible
are the point ~ of this geometry and the
spaces of dimension
planes in
over
pm < 109,
(N + 1)-tuples of elements of
(aN,aN_l,...,a0)
GF(q).
GF(qm)
Alanen and Knuth (1964, Table 7) list, for each prime
and all exponents
sists of all
This is by
however it is often quite convenient and it is theoretically
always possible to arrange things this way.
p < 50
f(x) = 0.
(qN-1 _ 1)/(q - l)
points and
hyper-
points in any hyperplane.
Singer
(1928) has shown:
Theorem 5.1.
PG(N,q)
Considering the points as objects and the hyperplanes as blocks,
forms a symmetric block design with parameters given by (5.1) above.
block design is cyclic;
thus the points of any hyperplane determine a
This
v, k, h
difference set.
Proof.
The discussion above shows that
A,
the incidence matrix of this
configuration, satisfies
AAT=
(k - ~)I + kT,
= kJ.
Thus conditions (ii), (iii) of the block design definition follow from the result
of Ryser (1950) discussed in section II.C. just below Theorem 2.3.
So
PG(N,q)
102
forms a symmetric block design as indicated.

It remains to be shown that there exists a numbering of the points and
hyperplanes of
PG(N~q)
which demonstrates the cyclic nature of the design.
be a primitive root of
G F ( J +l)
and let
satisfy the irreducible polynomial
f(x) = x N + I + c ~ x N + ... + C l X + c o
over
GF(q).
GF(q).
Then each power of
Since
vi
belongs to
(5.2)
corresponds to a unique
GF(q)
for all
i,
the elements of
are
point of
Thus there is a one-to-one correspondence between the elements
= 0,1,...,v - l)
PG(N,q)
an exponent
and the points of
~j+vi
GF(q)
and it follows that
~(j
and
(N + l)-tuple over
0,1,~v~...,~ (q-2)v
PG(N,q).
Let
PG(N~q)
correspond to the same
which assigns to every point of
j, 0 < j < v - 1.
Consider the mapping
~:~
i+l
~:0~0
(5.3)
or in additive notation, using equation (5.2),
: (aN,...,al, a 0) ~ (aN~ I - aNCN,.-o,a 0 - aNc !, - aNCo)
(5.~)
This mapping obviously maps points onto points and [as is clear from (5.4)]
maps subspaces onto subspaces without any loss of dimension.
planes into hyperplaneso
that corresponding to
If
H
H,
~J~
the mapping
is not cyclic of order
and an integer
of
Since the point corresponding to
then
ts.
chosen;
so
s, 1 ~ s ~ v - l,
So
~j+iv
is cyclic of order
such that
~s
fixes
form an orbit in
H.
divides
on the points.
Let
under
~s
be a point
with
is necessarily the least positive integer such that
This is, of course, independent of which element

t
is the same as
on the hyperplanes then there exists a hyperplane
i, i+s ,o..,~ i+ts = ~ i
i( ts _ !) = 0.
divides
Thus~ it maps hyper-
k.
Since
does not divide
of
was
(by assumption) the fact
lO3
that
divides
that
(v,k) > l;
necessarily and
ts
implies that
and as
this contradicts the fact that

~
is cyclic of order
Singer has been established.

(say
(v,t) > i
~i,~,...,Gm),
divides
v - qk = 1.
Thus
on the hyperplanes.
it follows
v
divides
So the theorem of
Thus, if one lists the elements of any hyperplane
their exponents form a difference set with parameters given
by (5.1) above.
Any mapping
from
G F ( J +I)
onto
GF(q)
which satisfies
L(b~ + c%) = bL(~) + cL(v)
for all 6, ~
from
in
G F ( J +l)
GF(q N+I)
to
GF(q).
such a linear functional

in
PG(N,q).
and all
b, c
in
The set of elements

L
[i.e., such that
Further, every hyperplane of
functional from
GF(q)
G F ( J +l)
to
GF(q).
is called a linear functional

of
GF(q N+l)
L($) = 0]
PG(N,q)
N = 5
then
v, k, ~
6th degree polynomial (say
are
constitutes a hyperplane
is annihilated by some linear
Thus to apply Singer's Theorem one merely
computes the null space of a single linear functional.

and
annihilated by
63, 31, 15
x 6 + x + 1 = 0)
and
over
For example, when
is to be a root of a primitive
GF(2).
Consider the linear
functional
which maps each element into its right-most component.
shows that
annihilates
when
q = 2
is one of
Table 5.1
l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13,
14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 25, 27, 28, 29, 33, 34, 36, 37, 39, 42, 46, 49, 50, 53, 55, 57.
Thus these numbers constitute a difference set with parameters
Note:
v,k, 7~ = 63,31,15.
Singer's construction can be varied in several inessential ways, the
only effect of this is to generate a difference set equivalent to the original one.
For example, if a different hyperplane (or linear functional) is used this merely
shifts the set.
G,
If the primitive root a t, tr - 1 mod(q N+l- 1),
the equivalent set
root is needed.
is not in
GF(q)
rD = {rdl,.. o,rdk)
results.
In fact not even a primitive
It is only necessary to have an element

for
i = 1,...,v - 1.
[The use of
difference set as that generated by the primitive root
is used instead of
6( = ~u)
for which
Gi
results in the same

Gu+jv,
the existence of
104
which (for some value of
j)
is guaranteed by the condition on
G. ]
Extensive use will be made of the following well-known fact:
Lemma 5.2.
GF(q m)
Let
be any linear functional, not identically zero, from
to its subfield
linear functional from

defined by
GF(q j)
GF(q m)
L~(~) = L ( ~ )
and let
to
for all
be any element of
GF(q j)
~
is of the form
in
GF(qm).
GF(qm).
Then every
L~,
where
L~
is
Moreover if
~ ~ v
then
L~ ~ L w.
[Linear algebra provides the fact that there are precisely
functionals from
GF(q m)
to
GF(q j)
qm
linear
and the above process constructs
qm
distinct
ones. ]
Complementary to any Singer set
is a difference set
D*
with parameters
N+l
v =
for
N > i
and
- i
q-l'
k = qN
h
'
a prime power.
Here
qN-l(q_l)
(5.5)
j = O,l,..o,v- 1
belongs to
D*
if and
only if
L(~)
~ 0
root of
GF(qN+I)o
where
is a fixed linear functional and
Call this difference set
of generality in assuming that
L(1) = l,
D(L,~).
is a primitive
Note that there is no loss
for this may be arranged by taking a
different linear functional

The difference set
of
D(L,~)
corresponding to the example given above consists
O, 6, ii, 12, 16, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 30, 31, 32, 35, 38, 40, 41, 43, 44,
45, 47, 48, 51, 52, 54, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62.
that modulo
3,4,5~6,7,8)o
they constitute
In fact
D(L,~)
Examination of these residues shows
copies of the trivial difference set
gives rise to the array of Table 5.2
E = [0,2,
i05
TABLE 5.2.
where the
(i,j)
that, for each
entry is
i
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
i~= 0
i 0 1 0 0 1 1
D(L,G)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 ! I i
3
4
0 1 1 1 0 1 0
5
6
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
7
8
0 i 0 0 1 1 !
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
i 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
in the difference set
one of its shifts.

of
1
2
if and only if
characteristic function of the
D(L,~).
A Representation of
E,
i + 9J
belongs to
D(L,G).
Note
the rows of this array are the
w,~,~ = 7,4,2
difference set
F = [0,2, 5,6]
or
Gordon, Mills and Welch (1962) have shown that the structure
always depends upon difference sets
and
in this manner.
Specifically, they prove:
Theorem 5.3.
N > 1.
Let
Let
be a power of the prime
and let
N + !
be a linear functional from the finite field
be an integer,
G F ( J +l)
to the sub-
field
GF(q),
such that
intermediate field
L(1) = lo
GF(qm),
where
functional which assigns to each

GF(qm),
Set
m
~
which satisfies the relation
polynomials of
y = x ~.
GF(q N+l)
be the restriction of
divides
in
D(L,~)
and
N + 1.
GF(q N+l)
Let
to an
be the linear
the unique element
L0(~(~)5 ) = L(~5)
~nd
and let
~ = ~.
D(L0,B)
respectively.
Let
for all
~ = vl~.
@(x)
and
Let
~(y)
[For m = i,
~(~)
in
~
in
GF(qm).
be a
be the Hall
take
~(y) = i.]
Then
G(x) ~ ~(x) ~(y)
where
L0
v = (qN+l - l)l(q- i), w = (qm _ 1)l(q- l)
primitive root of
Let
Let
(mod
x v - l)
(5.6)
lO6
~(x)
: Z
xiy ri
(5.7)
and this summation is taken over those values of
~(i)
~ 0 ,
In the example above

E
0 _~ i < { ,
r.
1
and
for which
~(czi) : B
N + 1,m,q,p = 6,3,2,2,
is the difference set determined by
The
-r.
1
(5,8)
F = D(L0,B) = {0,2,5,6]
and the extension
GF(qN+I)
determine the shifts associated with the various copies of
Proof.
a~L(~8),
Consider
8
in
~.
Let
GF(qm),
be an element of
GF(qN+I).
is a linear functional from
Lemma 5.2, there is a unique element, call it
~(~),
of
GF(qm).
in the array.
Then the mapping
GF(qm)
of
while
to
GF(qm),
GF(q).
So, by
such that
=o(Z(O~) = ~ ( ~ )
for all
in
GF(qm).
[L0
is not identically zero since
is a properly defined mapping from

remains is whether or not
of
GF(qm)~
and
fixed~ and let
= L((aq
to
~, ~
belongs to
L0(1 ) = 1
GF(q)
when
GF(qm).
that
m : l,
L0
L(1) = I]
+ b~)8)
Let
= L(aqS)
Thus
The only question which

a, b~ 5 be elements
be fixed elements of
GF(q N+l)
then
+ L(b~8)
Lo((a~(q ) + bZ(~))8) .
is indeed a linear functional and in fact
follows from
Let
GF(q N+l)
is a linear functional.
Lo(~(a q + b~)8)
So
(5.9)
~(i) = i.
is the identity mapping on

it follows from (5.9) that
When
m = i,
GF(q);
~ = L
it
since
in this case.
lO7
w-~
5jyj
~(y) =
{ 0 if L0(~J) = 0
with
j=O
5. =
J
I if Lo(~J) ~ 0
and let
v-Iz
8(x) =
i=0
"
a.x
~
l
{ 0 if L(Gi) = 0
with
e.1 =
~-i
= ~
xi~i(y)when
i if L(Gi) { 0
w-i
o]i(y)= ~, si+~jy3o
i:o
j:o
Since ~ is a primitive root of GF(qTM)
every value of ~_LL(i) is either 0 or
-r.
a power of ~, say ~ I. Now si+__~j= 0 if and only if L(G i+~j) = 0 and
L(~i+~j) = L(~i~j) = L0(~((~i)~j) =
if
~(~) : o
if
Z ( i ) ~ o.
J_ri )
L0(~
So
if
Z(~ i) : o
3-r.1
Thus ~i(y) = 0 if ~(i) = O; while if ~(Gi) # 0
w-i
~i(Y) =
w-i
w-i
Z
i+~J yj = ~
5J-r. yj = ~
5J yj+ri = y
1
j=O
j=O
j=O
~(y)
(mod
Xv
- l).
r.
Hence @(x) -~(y) 7. xly m

the theorem is proved.
r.
1
where the sum is taken as prescribed by (5.8), and
108
Now
~(y)
is the Hall polynomial of the
has parameter values (for
w :
@0(y )
set
D(L0,~ ) which
m > !)
m
q - 1
q-1 '
m-i
~ = q
,
Gordon, Mills and Welch show that, if

polynomial
w~,~-difference
$(y)
~ : qm
-2
(q-l)
(5.10)
is replaced in (5.6) by the Hall
of an arbitrary difference set having parameter values (5.10),
i.eo, if
eo(X ) ~ ~(x) ~o(y)
then
(5.5).
e0(x )
(mod
is again the Hall polynomial of a
x v - i)
(5.11)
v, k, h-difference set with parameters
For let
w-1
~o(Y) =
be a Hall polynomial and let
y = x ~.
Z
j:O
Let
~JYJ
G(x)
be given by (5.7).
e.
eo(X) = n(x) ,o(y) :
Then
i=l
where the
modulo
e.
I
v
are distinct modulo
by construction.
Further~ by definition,
l,
Co(y) ~o(y -I) =- (~ - ~) + ~(i + y + ... + yW-l) _ ~(y) @(y-l)
Hence, modulo
x v - i,
Io9
eo(X) eo(x'l) = n(x) ~(x-1) ~o(y) ~o(y-1) ~ ~(x) o(x"l) ~(y) ~(y-1)
= o(x) e(~-1) .
Thus
el, ...,e k
example, let
[For
form a difference set with the parameter values of (5.5).
@0(y ) = 1 + y + y2 + y5
then using
G(x) = i + x2y 6 + x3y 3 + x4y 4 + x5y 4 + x 6 + x7y 6 + x 8 4
from
set
D(L,~)
above, in congruence 5.11 yields the
D(L,~)
This difference set is not equivalent
as is explained below.]
Gordon, Mills and Welch show that two

(5.11), are equivalent if and only if
the
difference
0, 2, 6, 7, 9, ii, 12, 15, 16, 18, 22, 23, 24, 26, 30, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44,
45, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62.
to
v,k, k = 63,32,16
w,~,~-difference
v,k,h-difference
@0(y ) = yS @(y).
sets are shifts of each other.
sets derived from
That is, if and only if
[Since
-1
is never a
multiplier of a cyclic difference set (section 3.1) the difference sets

are never shifts of each other.
generate inequivalent
Thus the polynomials
v,k,h-difference
the inequivalence of the two
@(y)
and
sets by these means.
63, 32, 16
@(y-l)
and
always
This accounts for
difference sets mentioned above.]
Several lemmas are required for the proof of this result (which is Theorem 5.12
below).
Following Gordon, Mills and Welch, let
C = {Cl, C2,...,c ~}
be two
w,~,u-difference
B = {bl, b2,...,b ~}
sets, and let
ci
be their Hall polynomials.
[If
m = i
and
let
~b(y ) = ~c(y ) = i.]
Put
-D
ii0
eb(~) = ~(x) %(y),
Then
eb(X )
say
and
such that
and
8c(X )
C.
If
are the Hall polynomials of two
(t~v) = 1
ec(X) = a(x) ~c(y).
and
are equivalent then there exist integers
Proof.
(mod
(mod x v - l )
~b(y ) ~ yS 9 c ( t )
(mod
and
such that
(5.13)
r.
and
x a 8c(X ) = Z xa+tiy
Let
be such an
i;
and
~.
a + th m j
modulo
~.
tr.
i ~c(yt)
for which
~(i) ~ o,
then, comparing terms in (5.12)
i
a+th t rh Wc(yt)
x iy r. ~b(y ) ~ x
y
Since
@b(y ) ~ yS @c(yt)
Now
yW _ l)
are inequivalent then so are
where these summations are taken over those values of
where
and
By construction
where
and
(5.12)
O(x) ~ x r O(xt )
eb(X ) = Z xly I ~b(y )
0 < i < ~.
x v - i).
If (5.12) holds, then there exists integers
In particular if
and
eb(X ) ~ xaec(Xt )
Lemma 5.4.
v,k,h-difference sets,
(mod
x v - 1 = yW _ 1
(mod
x v - l)
this yields
(5.14)
yw _ i)
s = tr h - r. + ~-l(a + th - j).
3
@b(y) @b(y -I) ~ ~ - ~ + ~(i + y + ... + y w - l )
modulo
yW . i
and this
iii
implies that
~b(y )
is relatively prime to
yW _ i.
So from (5.12), i.e., from
~(x) ~b(y ) ~ xa~(x t) ~e(y t)
(mod
xv -
e(~)
(mod
xv
i)
and (5.14)
x a -ys
9(x t)
1)
and the lemma is proved.

Let
Q = GF(q)
Lema
5.5.
and let
Q*
be the set of all non-zero elements of
Suppose (5.13) holds and
be an element of
GF(qN+I).
Then
~(w)
(t,v) = i.
Let
belongs to
Q*
~ = ~r,
Q.
and let
if and only if
~(h t)
does also.
Proof.
Since
is a linear functional from
G F ( J +l)
to
GF(q
TM)
it follows
that
~(x) = ~. xiyri = ~
x i+~ri =
xj
(5.15)
j in S
where
is the set of all
such that
~(aJ) = i,
O ~ j < qN _ 1.
Q*,
the effect of adding
by a primitive root of
Q*.
Thus (5.15) can be written as
V~
a(x) ~
~,
to
(mod
xj
Since
is to multiply
c~v
~(~)
x v - i)
j in S'
where
(5.13)
S'
is the set of all
Z(~)
belongs to
len~na is trivial.
If
Q*
~ ~ 0
such that
~(eJ)
if and only if
belongs to
~(r+jt)
Q*,
does also.
the result follows by putting
~ = ~.
0 < j < v.
If
~ = 0
the
112
Lemma 5.6.
element of
Suppose (5.13) holds and
GF(qm)
if and only if
and let
~(q t)
belong to
belongs to
GF(qN+l).
Let
~ ~ 0.
belongs to
Q*.
By Lemma 5.5 this is true if and only if
Here
~(~w t)
~(~)
let
~ be an
belongs to
~Q*
~tQ..
Let
which is equivalent to
~ = r,
Then
Proof.
Q*~
Then
(t,r) = i.
~(~)
belongs to
L(~w t)
~Q*
if and only if
being a member of
belongs to
vtQ *
for some
in
first part of this proof
~(~)
is an element of
~(~-I)
~(~ t~-t)
belongs to
~tQ.. Next suppose
GF(qm).
If
v ~ 0~
~(~) = 0.
then by the
vQ*~ contradiction.
So
v = 0
and the proof is complete.
Lemma 5.7. Suppose that (5.13) holds and

elements of
GF(q N+I)
ei, ai( 1 < i < s)
(t,v) = i.
Let
which are linearly independent over
be elements of
GF(qm)
~1,~2, .... ~s
GF(qm)
be
Let
such that
(}.16)
i=l
Then
a.
Proof.
belongs to
c~ Q*,
Since the
linear functionals
~i
K.
J
i=l
i < i < s
are linearly independent over
over
GF(qm)
such that
By Le~ma 5.2 these

exists elements
u.
J
of
K.
if
GF(qm)
( l ~ i~ j ~ s)
i = j.
can all be expressed in terms of
GF(q N+I)
there exist
such that
Z(uj q)= ~ij"
~,
that is there
i13
Then~ by Lemma 5.6j

Now
~L(~ujt ~ ) = 0
~(uj Z e i ~i ) = cj,
if
i ~ j,
and
~(~u t ~ )
belongs to
Q*.
so that
~(~u~( ZC i ~i )t)
belongs to
c~ Q*.
On the other hand, using 5.16,
and thus belongs to
Len~na 58.
for
c I
c 2
. . . . .
t
al~ a 2
t
% ai ~i = 0
with
ai
shows
that
0~
this
in
N + 1 >mo
Then
a 2
Let
~i' ~2' "'" Is
be a basis
are also such a basis.
GF(qm)o
a I
Suppose (5.13) holds with
c~ Q*
(t,v) = 1.
then
and suppose
of
is an element of
GF(qm);
c s
Lermma 5. 9 .
G F ( J +l)
aj
~t,~t,...,~ ts
over
Let
~1~2
=~v,f:,...,~
s
So
Suppose (5.13) holds with
G F ( J +I)
Proof.
ajQ*.
Apply Lemma 57 with
. . . . .
GF(q m)
a s
0o
Hence
and form a basis for
(t,v) = i.
Let
OF( +I)
be an element of
(1 + ~)t = al + a2 t
for some elements
Q*.
Proof.
First assume that
a basis for
G F ( J +l)
over
is not an element of
GF(q m)
C 1 = C 2 = l, e 3 = o.o = c s = 0;
so
which contains
i + ~ = Z c i ~i"
GF(qm).
Then there exists
~l = l, ~2 = ~
Moreover
Let
~'~''"~s t
is
also a basis (Lemma 5.8) so
(I + ~)t = Z ai~ ~
with
to
ai
in
GF(qm).
By Lemma 57,
a3 = a4 . . . . .
a s = 0,
and
al, a 2
belong
Q~.
NOW suppose
is in
GF(qm).
Let
~ be an element of
GF(q N+l)
such that
114
~({) = ~
and so
and
does not belong to
<(w) = w;
~(M) = O.
element
Q*
Now
M.]
thus
N + 1 >m
Now
for some elements
Z(~)=
~(~) = ~.
Q*o
~(~ it )
Thus
~(1) = 1
[Such a
exists since
does not belong to
b, e
+ {)t)
(1) ~(~(1 + {)t)
(2)
Q*.
belongs to (1 + w) t
Q*
~(q(l + {)t)
(1 + ~)t =
Thus
: ~(~(h + c{t))
belongs to
and
guarantee the existence of such an
and so
of
~(1) = 1
GF(q m)
On the other hand, by the first part of this proof
~(~(i
and
and
where
~(1 + ~) = 1 + w
by Lemma 5.6.
b + c{ t
{ = w + M
GF(qm)o
while
= b ~(~) + c ~(~ {t)
~(G ~t)
is of the form
belongs to
a I + a2 t
tQ.
since
with
al; a 2
in
Combining this with (i) above completes the proof.

Lemma 5.9 is the first major step in the Gordon, Mi!is~ Welch proof of Theorem
5o12 below.
To complete the proof some results about the implications of the
condition
(l + ~)t = al + a2 t
are required.
every pair
such that
G F ( J +I)
If (5o17) holds for all w
PI' 02
of elements of
bl, b2,...,b u
(P I + 02 + ... +
GF(J+I),
GF(qN+I),
(PI + P2 )t = b! P~ + b2 P~"
there exist
in
then it follows that for
there exist elements
By induction, given any
in
Ou)t
(5.17)
Q*
bl, b 2
pl, P2,.o.,pu
of
Q*,
in
such that
t +
t
t
= blP I
b2o 2 + .. + buO u o
(5.18)
Write (5.17) in the form
(I + ~)t = rw(l + s
with
to
rw, s w
Q
in
Q*.
Since
then neither does
(t,v) = i,
and hence
t)
it follows that if
rw, s
does not belong
are uniquely determined
ll5
Lemma 5.10.
elements
Let
N ~ 2
al, a 2
of
Q*
(i)
if
wt
T t ~ ~t
(ii)
if
and, for every
in
GF(J+i),
such that (5.17) holds.
For uniquely determined
let there exist
Then

G F ( J +l)
which are not elements of Q, s
Proof.
Q~
and if
= 1 and
then
s
s~/w = s~/T s /w.
= l,
then for all
(1 + w) t = 1 + wto
bl, b2, b3, Cl, c2, c3
of
Q*
blG~t + b2 Tt + b3~t = (~ + T + ~)t = Cl(W + T)t + c2~t
= clwt(1 + T/w) t + c2 ~t = c3(wt + sT/w Tt) + c2 ~t .
So
s iw = b2/b I
and by symmetry
S~l ~ = b3/b2, S~l w = b31b I
which establishes
part (i) of the len~ao

Consider the
sw = i
assertion of (ii).
is not contained in any proper subfield of

over
Put
Qo
Hence
w = u,
i, t
and
I ~ u ~ J+l
2t
. I
Since
(t,v) = I
GF(J+I).
Hence
it follows that
t
has degree

and induct on
s 2 = s
Uo
(as
N + i
N + i ~ 3).
By part (i) it follows that
= i
so
or
2.
Let
positive integers less than
uo
Since
as
sw = i
when
(t,v) = i.
i, t ,
ut
u = i
So
and
wt
or the elements
u ~ 3
and suppose that
sW = i
is not an element of
i, G 2t, Gut ,
Let
i, ~ t ,
Gut
be independent
(j = i
and the induction hypothesis
=S
=S
neither is
s.=l
or
i, t ,
2),
t
w ,
Now the elements
if both these element sets are dependent then so is the set

tradiction).
Q.
for all
G2t
Q;
for
(con-
then by part (i)
116
and so the first assertion of (ii) has been established.

Since
over
Qo
N + 1 > 3,
there is a
Then~ for suitable
such that
Cl, c2, c 3
in
l~ t
~t
are linearly independent
Q*.
(1 + ~ + {)t = Cl + c2 t + c3{t
with
Cl, c2, c3
uniquely determined.
by the linear independence of

Qo
So
(i + ~)/~
is not in
i, t ,
Qo
Since
~t
= i, (i + w) t = rw(l + t ) ,
it follows that
a = r(l+~)/~.
and from this that
Theorem 5.11.
Hence
r e = 1.
Let
v = (qN+l _ l)/(q - i)
that for every
such that
Proof.
where
that
and
in
+ ar t
let
and let
be an integer relatively prime to
be a power of the prime
there exist non-zero elements

Then
Without loss of generality
0 < t < v
and
is a fixed primitive root of
GF(qN+l).
Since
(t',v) = lo
Furthermore~ for any
p,
let
Vo
al, a 2
Put
in
GF(q)
modulo
v.
(i + G) t = r (i + sGGt),
s~
t' = t + vc.
G F ( J +l)
Suppose
in
is congruent to a power of
e, 0 ~ c < q - 1.
cI = c3
as was to be shown.
N + i > 3,
G F ( J +l)
for some
+ a~t
By the same process it follows that
(1 + ~)t = 1 + t
(1 + ~)t = al + a2 t.
sG = v c
Q*
in
c I = c2
So
is not in
Thus
(i + w + ~)t = a(1 + ~)t + a~t = a r
where
(i + ~)t/~t
and
is in
Q*
it follows
Then 0 < t ' < J + l - 1
there exist
r'
W
and
s'
W
such that
(l+~)t'=r~(1+s'~t')o
Note that
s' = io
Thus by part (ii) of Lemma 5o10
(i + w) t' = I + w
t !
(5o19)
117
for all
power of
of
po
which are not elements of
N+l
- q
(5.19) by
roots
Therefore
~u(1 + ~)u
yields
t' > q
= (l+~)~u
for all
of
G F ( J +I)
N+l
< 3q - 2
power of
the proof.
and
N + 1
N + I~
~(x)
N+l
Let
t' +
u >
(Gordon, Mills and Welch)
~(y),
there corresponds a
If
and
equivalent if and only if
Proof.
with
Start with
respectivelY.
(t,v) = 1
Hence, since
and
Hence
(qN+l
2u k J + l
t' - l,
_ qo
So
- q)
N + 1 ~ 3, q ~ 2o
If
modulo
Thus
v,
t'
is a
which completes
be a power of a prime
N + 1 >m
~ 23
where
are
let
set
v,k,h-difference
set B
w,~,~-difference
sets then
and let
with Hall
with Hall polynomial

B
and
are
Co
and construct the Hall polynomials
is equivalent to
and
divides
~ = v/w,
w,~,~-difference
Ob(X), Oc(X )
then there exist integers
a,
such that
N + i > 3,
Let
is a cyclic shift of
and
B
To any
Ob(x) =- xao c(x t)
of
is not a
N+l
u = q
- 1 - t t.
Let
be given by (55) and (5.10),
be the polYnomial given by (5.7)
B, C
- qo
Qo
v, k, ~, w, ~, ~
O(x) = fl(x) @(X~)o
- 1 =
be a positive integer such that
polynomial
of
t'
Finally, the result promised above can be established.
Theorem 5.12.
let
Suppose
+ (l+~)u
which is impossible since

t
N+l
which do not belong to
or
Q.
Then (5o19) becomes a polynomial equation of degree at most
with at least
Multiplying
GF(q
N+I)~
(mod
x v - l) o
Lemma 5.4, Lemma 5.9 and Theorem 5.!1 establish that

p
modulo
vo
Now every power of
is a multiplier
(applY Hall's Theorem 3.1 above to their complements).
So
ll8
*c(y t) -yU*c(y )
for some integer
Uo
Thus by Len~na 54
*'b(y) ~ y
and
(rood yw_ i)
is a cyclic shift of
c~y )
(mod
yw _ i)
as promised.
In the course of the above proof it was concluded that, for
Gb(X ) ~ xaGc(Xt )
only happens when
(mod
same observation shows that only powers of

sets
the
~o
With
D(L,~)
powers of p
m = 1
x v - l)
modulo
v.
If
B = C
may be multipliers of
As mentioned earlier, Theorem 3ol shows that the
are always multipliers of these difference sets~ so:
Theorem 5.13.
(Gordon, Mills and Welch)
difference set or if
If
is a non-trivial Singer
is any non-trivial difference set derived from congruence
56, then the multipliers of
are precisely the powers of
modulo
Another by-product of Theorem 5o12 is the existence of parameters

for which at least
and let
j > 0
inequivalent difference sets exist
denote the number of inequivalent
given by (5o10)o
Since
-1
2J
which is a cyclic shift of any other.

v, k, Z-difference sets with
Theorem 5o14o
of
v, k, h
possible
v, k,
For, let
sets with
w,~,~-difference
Hence there are at least

given by (5.5) or (5.1)o
(Gordon, Mills, and Welch)
be positive integers with

r
w,~,~-difference
vo
m _> 3~
w, ~,
is never a multiplier of a non-trivial difference set
(see Theorem 3~3) there are at least
m, M
this
may be multipliers of the difference
this shows that only the powers of
difference sets.
N+I>3,
m > 3.
Let
Let
inequivalent
In particular
be any prime power and let
N + 1 = ~u
prime numbers, not necessarily distinct.
2J
sets, none of
and let
be the product
Then there exist at least
2r
ll9
inequivalent
difference
(5.5) and thus
(by taking
complements)
with parameters
N+I
v_q
B.
Nthpower
Residue
A difference
or of the
-1
q-l'
Difference
set which
is some reason for distinguishing
restricted
to divisors
residues
and the
that the
of non-zero
venient
5.15.
form a difference
Proof.
residue
(N, v - l )
coincide
rl, oo.,r f
for the number theory required

difference
When
is a prime,
set with parameters
residue
srl, sr2, sr
r,
say
[Nagell
residue
r I - r 2 =- ro
If
residues
Thus one of
s
also.
equally often as a difference
and vice versa.
r 2 - r I - -r)
residue with the same number of representations

v , k = 4t - l, 2t - l;
The set
~1,2~4~
modulo
thus
The best known

(1933):
residues modulo
is a quadratic
r I - r 2, r 2 - r 1
residue of
Thus eve~# equation
set w i t h
the fact
(1951) is a con-
is any quadratic
residue of
(e.g.,
N th power
sets of Paley
c, -c
st. - s r . -= sr
l
j
these congruences
sets,
v, k, h~ n = 4t - l, 2t - l, t - l, t.
with an equation
Reversing
set.
form a subgroup of the group
corresponds
is represented
the
v = N f + l,
the quadratic
1 < c < v - lo
are quadratic
v,
Attention m a y be
in this section].
sets are the quadratic
v = 4t - 1
some prime
difference
= d >l
For primes
w i l l be used extensively
for a prime of this form,
then
the two types]
Recall from number theory that exactly one of
is a quadratic
v,
N th power residue
since if
N th power residues
residues modulo
N th power residue
Theorem
d th power residues
distinct
reference
v - l,
N th powers modulo
N TM power residue difference
is called an
when there
of
1
q-l"
Sets and C~clotomy
zero are called modified
N-I
h=q
is composed of all the
N th powers and zero,
[Those containing
N
q-1
q-l'
yields
also.
r. -r. -=r
Hence every quadratic

of quadratic
residues.
every quadratic
non-
Hence this is a difference
h = t - lo
is the first non-trivial
quadratic
residue
120
difference set.
Note that the parameters imply that every quadratic residue set
is a Hadamard difference set (see section IV.B. for a discussion of this special
type).
Another class of residue difference sets was discovered by Chowla (1944):
Theorem 5o16o
The biquadratic residues of primes
a difference set with parameters
v = 4x 2 + l, x
v,k,% = 4x 2 + l, x 2, (x2 - 1)/4.
The first non-trivial biquadratic residue difference set is for

v,k,~ = 37,9,2
Other
and
odd, form
x = 3,
here
D = {1,7,9,10,12,16,26,33,34}.
N th power residue difference sets have been discovered and a general
theory for them has been developed by ~mma Lehmer (1953)o
In order to explain her
results a little of the theory of cyclotomywill have to be introduced.
No more
cyclotomy than is necessary for an understanding of the difference set results of

sections V.B., V.Co, and V.Do is developed here.
[A complete introduction to
cyclotomy from the classical point of view is given ab initio in Dickson (1935 ABC);
T. Storer's booklet "Cyclotomy and Difference Sets" (1967 A) gives a different
development also ab initio and discusses most of the difference set results of
these sections.]
Let
v = Nf + 1
An integer
number
R
be a fixed primitive root of
is said to belong to the index class
exists an integer
sists of
be an odd prime and let
such that
distinct numbers
(~,m)N
R ~ gNX+~ (mod v).
~.
That is,
R + 1
(~,m)N
with respect to
if there
Thus, the index class
g~,g N+~, .o. ,gN(f-1)+~
counts the number of times
belongs to index class
modulo
v.
Vo
con-
The cyclotomic

is the number of solutions
when
x, y
of the congruence
where the integers
Nx+~
x, y
that there are at most
+ 1 ~
gNy+m
(mod
are chosen from

N2
numbers depend not only on
0,1,...,f- 1.
v)
This congruence shows
distinct cyclotomic numbers of order

v, N, ~, m
(520)
but also on which of the
and that these

~(v- l)
121
primitive roots
of
is chosen.
The following elementary cyclotomic facts are all that is needed for an understanding of the results of this section (note that when
is odd,
is
necessarily even):
(~,m)N = (~',m')N
when
~ ~ ~'
and
m ~ m'
(mod
(m,~)N
N)
even
odd
(5.22)
(~,m)N = (N - ~, m - ~)N = I
(m + N/2,
N-I
Z
(~,m)N = f - n~,
where
m=0
~ + N/2) N
II
~ ~ 0 (mod N)
even
~ ~ N/2 (mod N)
odd
n~ = < 1
0
then
(~,m)~
s
is prime to
Proof.
nition.
is based on the primitive root
(523)
otherwise
(5.24)
(~,m)~ = (s~,sm)N
where
(5.21)
g' ~ g
modulo
v;
necessarily
v - lo
Equation (5.21), of course, is an immediate consequence of the defi-
The first part of (5.22) follows from the definition after congruence
5.20 is multiplied through by the inverse of its first term
[i.e., by
gN(f-x)-~].
Similarly, the second part of (5.22) follows after congruence 520 is multiplied
through by
-1,
that is by
-i -= g(Nf)/2 = ~
gN(f/2)
even
(5.25)
L gN(f-1)/2
+N/2
o~d .
The sum in equation (5.23) is simply the number of successors of members of index
class
~ which belong to any index class at all.
Since
-1
is the only element
122
whose successor does not belong to an index class, equation

correctness of (5.23).
Equation
to
sx
v - 1
implies the
(5.25) implies the
(5.24) follows from the definition,
ranges with
since
prime
over a complete set of residues modulo
fo
In terms of these cyclotomic n~nbers
(~,m)N
and sufficient conditions for the existence of
it is possible to give necessary

N th power residue difference sets;
in fact:
Theorem 5.17o
(Lehmer,
1953)
N th power residues of a prime

even,
Necessary and sufficient conditions,
v = Nf + 1
form a difference set, are that
is
is odd and that
(~,o) N :
(f - I ) / N
for
The parameters of such difference sets are
~ ~ o , I .... , N -
v,k, ~ = v,f,
(5.26)
l o
(f- I)/No
Necessary and
sufficient conditions, that the
N th power residues and zero for a prime
form a difference set, are that
be even,
1 + (0,0)N = (~,0)N = (f + I)/N
The parameters of such difference sets are

[Note that equations
for
~ = 1,2 .... , N - 1 .
(~,0)N
N th power residues
then there are exactly
solutions
r i - rj ~ 7
and hence the congruence
(5.27)
v,k,Z = v, f + i, (f + I)/No
(5.22) and (524) show that these existence conditions
individual cyclotomic ntnnbers
If the
v = Nf + 1
odd and that
(526) and (5.27) are independent of the primitive root
Proof.
that the
g,
even though the
are not]
rl,.oo,r f
ri, rj
are a difference set modulo
v3
to the congruence
(mod
v)
(5.28)
123
riril
-= Trj I + i
for all
7 ~ 0
(c,0)N = ~;
as
thus
v.
But for
(i,0)N = ~
h = (f - 1)/N
is an
f
modulo
for
follows from
(mod
in index class
0 < i < N - 1
v,k = v,f.
If
N th power residue, hence a multiplier,
is odd and as
and
all
i.
Nf
is necessarily even,
is odd, equation
Hence
That is, the

v,k,~ = v,f,
When
(522) provides
(5.29)
this implies that
and in particular
f
so is
(5.26) holds
is even~ then by (5.25),
which contradicts
N.
(f - I)/N
form a difference
-1
Theorem 3.3~
Conversely,
since
0)N : (f-
(i,0)N = (i + 2 '
(529) and (5.28) have exactly

N th powers modulo
v)
Thus
is even
I)/N
solutions for all
for
7.
set with parameters
(f - I)/N.
is added to the set of
N th power residues the only effect is that
differences
r. - 0 = r.
1
and
have to be counted alsoo
As before,
So,
is even) and
each
is odd (hence
ri
(N/2, 0)N
and
-r i
In particular,
v,k = v, f + lo
odd and that equation

(5.22)] it follows,
difference
even implies that

-1
(5.27) holds.
equation
Since
that the
v,k = v, f + i;
(5.27)holds,
[1,2,4},
(ii)
v = 4x 2 + i, x
IN = 4, Chowla
odd;
e.go, the
and
(f+l)/N
is even,
here
is
[by equation
and zero form a
N,
i.eo, those for which
with the following results:
sets exist which consist of (i)
the quadratic residues of primes
~=
thus
h = (f + I)/N.
Theorem 5.17 has been applied for several values of
Difference
N
(i + ~ , 0)N = (i~0)N
hence
N/2;
(0,0)N
since
N th power residues
the eyciotomic numbers have been computed,
is a multiplier
On the other hand, assume that
as before,
set with
Theorem 5.18.
-i
is represented once more than the numbers
indicate.
follows from
0 - r. = -r.
v = 4t - i;
e.g., the
(1944)] the biquadratic

v,k,Z = 39,9,2
set
IN = 2, Paley
v,k,h = 7,3,1
(1933) ]
set
residues of primes
[1,7,9,10,12,16,26,33,34],
124
(iii)
[N = 4,
Lehmer
(1953) attributes
residues and zero for primes

[0,1,3,9),
(iv)
[N =8,
v = 4x 2 + 9, x
Lehmer
1 = 64b 2 + 9, k = a 2, ~ = b 2
[1,2,4,8,16,32,37,55,64),
(v)
IN = 8,
Lehmer
these to M. Hall, Jr. ] the biquadratic

odd;
e.g., the
(1953) ] the octic residues of primes
with
a, b
odd;
e.g., the
the next such prime
is
v,k,h = 26041,3256,407
odd,
(by these methods)
even;
v < 34,352,398,777.
it can be shown that n__oomodified quadratic
sets exist and further that no non-trivial
residue difference
sets exist when
(1966),
of
v.
(x)
(viii)
N = 16,
The case where
(vl)
N = 6,
N = 12, Whiteman
Whiteman
Lehmer
is not an octic residue is open;
(xi)
(1967),
Baumert and Fredricksen
(submitted for publication)

The case where
for the case when
is not a biquadratic
The calculations
(ix)
(1957) for the case when
set here then

(xii)
5
residue or modified
(1953),
(1960A),
that if the residues form a difference

N = 18,
v = 8a 2 +
e.g., the
residue difference
(1960 B),
set
140,411,704,393 ,
set, there are no more such primes
On the other hand
set
v = 8a 2 +
v,k,h = 73,9,1
(1953)] the octic residues and zero for primes
49 = 64b 2 + 441, k = a 2 + 7, ~ = b 2 + 7, a
Whiteman
v,k,?~ = 13,4,1
(vii)
N = 10,
N = 14, Muskat
is an oetic residue
however,
it is known
v > 1,336,337.
N = 20,
Muskat and Whlteman
is a biquadratic
residue of
v.
residue remains unsolved.
involved in determining
the cyclotomic numbers of these
orders are far too extensive to present here, the numbers themselves may be found
for
N = 2 - 6
in Dickson
papers cited above for

By way of example,
N = 8
in Lehmer
though~
if
thus
N = 2
and
(0,0)2 = (1,1)2 = (1,0)2 = ( f -
v = 2f + l, f
quadratic residue difference
odd, equation
1)/2
and
(5.22)yields
In the case
is more difficult;
(0,1)2 = (f + 1)/2.
So
set [ i.e., an alternate proof
and (5.27) prohibits
sets.
which may be
hence the quadratic residues of
odd, form a difference
of Theorem 5.15 has been given],
the cyclotomic numbers
and in the
(5.23) provides two linear relations,
(5.26) of Theorem 5.17 provides no restrictions,

every prime
(1955 B),
N = 10,12,14,16~ 18, 20 o
(0,0)2 = (l~l)2 = (1,0)2

solved for
(1935 A),
the existence
N = 4, f
however,
they are
of modified
odd, the computation of
125
(0,0) 4 = (2,2) 4
(2,0)4
= (v - 7 + 2y)/16
(O,l) 4 :
(3,2)4
= (v + 1 + 2y - 8x)/16
(1,2) 4 = (0,3) 4 = (3,1)4
= (v + 1 + 2y + 8x)/16
(1,3) 4
(0,2)4
and the rest are
(v - 3 - 2y)/16,
where
Thus (5.26) of Theorem 5.17 requires
= (v + l
- 6y)/16
v = y2 + 4x 2
and
y ~ 1
v - 7 + 2y = v - 3 - 2y = v - 5
[That is, a proof of Theorem 5.16 has been given.]
or
f = 2j + l,
x
Y = -3,
then
thus
v : 9 + 4x2.
v = 8j + 5 : 9 + 4x2.
Since
Thus
or
4.
y = 1.
The existence of modified
biquadratic residue difference sets requires, by (5.27), that

2y = v + 3
modulo
v + 2y + 9 = v - 3 -
v = 4f + l, f
odd, let
8j - 4x 2 = 4, 2j - x 2 = l;
hence
is odd, which establishes part (iii) of Theorem 5.18.

A completely analoguous theory of cyclotomy can be developed for prime powers
v = p
(for
= Nf + 1
[see, for example, Hall (1965) or Storer (1967 A)].
N = 2,4,6,8)
in the same conditions for
residue difference sets as before.

are not cyclic and, in fact, for
However
N = 4,8
Theorem 5.18 are only satisfied for
N th power and modified
(for
i > l)
residues plus
for
00
N th power
these difference sets
the quadratic conditions imposed by
i = l,
i.eo,
is prime.
quadratic residues, this was established by A. Uo Lebesque

rediscovered by Hall (1965).
This results
[For the bi-
(1850) and recently
Hall's paper also contains a proof for the biquadratic
Storer (1967 A, Theorem 20) states this result without proof
N : 8.]
The multiplier group for
N th power residue difference sets has been de-
termined:
Theorem 5.19.
(Lehmer, 1953)
multipliers of a non-trivial
Proof.
Clearly the
another multiplier,
then
The N th power residues themselves are the only
N th power residue difference set.
N th power residues are multipliers.

tD ~ D + s
modulo
v,
where
Suppose
was
belongs to an index
126
class
j,
with
j ~ 0 (mod N)o
trl,.o.,trf;
so
D, r
is not in
s ~ 0
u
modulo
+ s ~ tr
r s
u
has exactly
In fact, the index class
-1
solutions,
v.
(mod v)
+ i ~ tr s
y
If
(5.26) when
0
belongs to
belong to index class
-1
(mod
(i,0)N = 0,
i.
Then, if
v)
(N - i,j - i)N = (i,J)N = f.
which contradicts the existence
is non-trivialo
D,
Thus, by (5.25),
then
s
tD ~ D + s
Do
tr u
-1
is a multiplier also, contradiction.
for some
consists of
implies
to
s ~ 0
i.eo, the cyelotomic number
But this implies, b y (5.23), that

condition
Let
u;
(with

thus
and
-1
s ~ 0)
N/2.
implies
0 - s
belongs
On the other hand,
belong to the same index class
As mentioned in sections I.Eo and III.Ao above, every divisor of

is a multiplier for all known cyclic difference sets.
Hence
n = k - h
This is not readily apparent
for the residue difference sets of Theorem 5.18, but was established by ~mna Lehmer
(1955 A).
First consider the quadratic residue difference sets for prime
for these it is necessary to use the law of quadratic reciprocity

Nagell
(1951)]o
whether
(= +l)
As usual, the Legendre symbol

or not
Theorem 5.20.
(=-l)
(p/q) = 1
All divisors of
v,
are quadratic residues.
(mod 8),
q.
are multipliers
v = 4t - lo
By Theorem 5.19, it is sufficient to show that all divisors of
quadratic residues modulo

n
will be used to indicate
n (= k - h)
for the quadratic residue difference sets for primes
Proof.
[see, for example,
is a quadratic residue of the odd prime
(Lehmer, 1955 A)
v = 4t - l;
but then
an odd prime divisor of
Now
which, of course,
n = (v + 1)/4
(and thus of
are
follows if the prime divisors of

and
divides
only if
is a quadratic residue by the reciprocity lawo

n
v + 1 = qm)o
Let
v ~ -1
q
be
By quadratic reciprocity
127
i.e.,
v.
More generally there is:
Theorem 5.21.
cyclic
C.
Nthpower
(Lehmer, 1955 A)
All divisors of
are multipliers for the
residue difference sets of Theorem 5.18.
More Cyclotomic Difference Sets

Denote each index class
by
Ci,
then if
v = 31
and
N = 6
these
classes are:
Letting
CO + C I + C 3
CO + C I + C3
CO:
i,
2,
4,
8,
16
CI:
3,
6,
12,
17,
24
C2:
5,
9,
10,
18,
20
C3:
15,
23,
27,
29 ,
30
C4:
7,
14,
19,
25,
28
C5:
ii,
13,
21,
22,
26
denote the union of these classes,
forms a difference set with parameters
it can be verified that
v,k,Z = 31,15,7.
This is a
special case of Theorem 5.23 given below
Note that if a union of index classes of
the
v = Nf + i
N TM power residues of some odd prime
it is immediate that all the

N th power residue if
Nthpower
for
N th power residues are multipliers.
is even (in fact, all solutions of
xf ~ i
Since
-I
modulo
is an
v
are
residues) such a union of index classes can only form a difference set
odd (see Theorem 3.3 above).
Lemma 5.22.
is odd and
Thus:
A union of index classes
power residues of some odd prime
(with or without
v = Nf + i
Ci+ s + Cj+ s + ... + Cm+ s
added) of the
N th
can form a difference set only if
C. + C. + o-o + C
m
G
m
for any
s;
forms a difference set then
this second difference set can be
obtained from the first by multiplying b y any element of

to the first.
is even
If the union of index classes

so does
form a difference set, then
Cs
and thus is equivalent
(This fact considerably shortens any exhaustive examination of index
128
class unions.)
Let
N = 2,
then with
k < v/2,
as usual, only
CO
need be considered and
this leads to the quadratic residue difference sets of paragraph V.B.

N = 4
(with
k < v/2)
only
C0, C 0 + O, C O + C 2
and
CO + C 1
For
need be considered.
The first three of these correspond to the biquadratic residues, the biquadratic
residues plus
and the quadratic residues;
which of course constitute difference
sets under the conditions given in Theorem 5.18 above.
The cyclotomic numbers
discussed in section V.B. will be used to rule out the remaining possibility.
In general,
congruence 5.20 shows that the cyclotomic number
(~,m)N
is the
number of solutions of
- ~ -= 1
for
in
C~
and
in
Cm.
Thus
(mod
(~-
s, m -
v)
is the number of solutions
S)N
of
Nx+~-s
g ~+m-sNv =- i
(rood v)
and therefore of
for fixed
in
C .
s
Nx+~
gNy+m
(rood v)
md
Thus, the number of solutions of
- B ~ d
for fixed
index classes
d
in
is
in
C
with
.
z l' "'Cz h'
in
CI, G
(mod
in
Cm
is
v)
(~ - s, m - S)N.
(5.3O)
So, for
the nt~nber of solutions of congruence 5.30 for fixed
129
h
Js =
i=l
j=l
Thus a difference set corresponds to
(zi - s, zj
+ ... + C
zI
J0 = J1 . . . . .
so only
JN-1 = %
J0 . . . . .
Since
J(N/2)-l = %
Now consider
CO + C 1
(5.31)
S)N
if and only if
zh
is odd,
Ji = Ji+N/2
(by equation (5.22))
need be checked.
for
N = 4,
then
Jo = (0'0)4 + (1')4 + ('1)4 + (i'1)4 = (4v - 12 - 8x)/!6

Jl = (-i''i)4 + (0''1)4 + (-1'0)4 + (0'0)4 = (4v-12 + 8x)/16
as the values of
x = 0;
but
CO + C1
N/2
given in section V.B. show.
v ( = y 2 + 4x 2)
is
0 - d
Ci
thus
in the union for which
Theorem 5.23.
v = 6f + 1
Js
i ~ s
Since
is odd,
and
C3
should be increased by
modulo
belongs to class
1
for each index
N/2.
N = 6
v - 3
modulo
or
(2)
for an appropriate choice of primitive root

4x 2 + 27.
and
established:
the index classes

g
of
whenever
puts the residue
in
C1. )
N = l0 the same technique was applied by Hayashi (1965) yielding:
A set of residues forming a non-trivial difference set modulo
v = 10f + 1
The only possibilities are equivalent to one of the
(The appropriate primitive root
Theorem 5.24.
a prime
-1
which includes the sextic residues as multipliers may consist
is representable as
For
for which
A set of residues forming a non-trivial difference set modulo
of (1) the qudratic residues for
above.
only if
N = 4.
Hall (1956) applied this technique to the case
CO, C 1
J0 = J1
then, so there is no prime
must be counted also.
(congruence 5.25 above);
a prime
Thus
0 is to be added to the index class union~ differences of the type
and
class
y2
form a difference set with
When
d - 0
(~,m)4
which includes the
l0 th
power residues as multipliers may
13o
consist of
classes
(1) the quadratic
CO
and
Yamamoto
CI
index classes
His test has the advantage
5.25.
Let
residues
Let
or
g = ii
N.
when
added)
be prime with
fth power residues
be the set of all residues
or
and define
D
or
(2)
the index
v = 31o
s
such
forms a difference
The initial form of his result
Then the set
D = E
of
is a difference
of
N
v,
D = E
even and
v)
with
odd
exactly
such that
of the
is:
containing
a (mod
N th
set
that it does not require the prior determination
Let
d = 0
I.
root
modulo
a test for deciding whether a union of
v = Nf + i
be a subset of the set of
v - 3
(with or without
numbers of order
Theorem
for
for the primitive
(1967) developed
power residue
cyclotomic
residues
Let
s
B
such
is in
added according
as
Bo
d = 0
set if and only if
s(sf + 2d - l) ~ 0
(mod
( jf
if)
N)
(5.32)
(rood v)
(5.33)
i=O
for
of
j = 2,4, ~o.,N - 2,
where
Kr
is the sum of the
th
powers of the elements
Bo
After modifying
N = 4,6,8,10,12
Theorem
congruence
5.26.
A set of residues
v = Nf + i
residues
as multipliers,
residues
(with or without
for
v = 4x 2 + 27
forming a non-trivial
N = 4~6,8,10
condition,
non-trivial
residue
or
12,
0),
the octic residues
or the special
31, 6, I
Yamamoto
and, b y way of example,

or modified
residue
difference
which includes
m a y consist of the quadratic
In a further attack on the problem,

different
applied this test for
w i t h the result:
a prime
sets for
5.33, Yamamoto
residues,
the
set modulo
N th power
the biquadratic
(with or without
set of Theorem
(1969) develops
0),
the Hall
5.24.
a slightly
uses it to show that there exist no
difference
sets for
N = 6,10,14.
[l.e.,
131
he reestablishes parts
(vi), (vii),
(ix) of Theorem 5.18, section V.Bo above.]
In addition to the above facts it is known (Baumert and Fredricksen,

that there are
index class unions of the
which lead to inequivalent
v,k,h = 127,63,31
18 TM power residues for

difference sets.
For
v = 127
N = 6
(1965) developed the requisite prime power cyclotomy and generalized his
difference sets to prime powers
v.
However,
W. H. Mills], the only prime powers
4x 2 + 27
sets,
v = 4x 2 + 27
as is shown there
Hall
v = 4x 2 + 27
[proof due to
are in fact primes.
These difference
of Hall, were examined from the point of view of the multi-
plier problem and it was found that indeed every divisor of

these sets.
1967)
was a multiplier for
[Emma Lehmer (1955 A) gives a proof of this fact and attributes an
earlier proof by means of cubic reciprocity to Hall.]
D.
Generalized Cyclotomy and Difference Sets

In 1958 Stanton and Sprott (1958) published a generalization of the following
result:
Theorem 5.27 .
and
p + 2
Let
are both prime.
be a primitive root of both
and
p + 2,
where
Then the numbers
2
1, g,g2,...,g(p - 3 ) / 2
0, p + 2, 2(p + 2),...,
(p- 1)(p + 2)
v,k,h = p(p + 2), (v-i)/2,
(v-3)/4,
i.e.,
a Hadamard difference set.

These difference sets (the so-called twin prime sets) were in fact already
known, although in slightly different guise.
They had been independently discovered
not only by Stanton and Sprott but also by Kesava Menon (1962), Brauer (1953),
Chowla (1945), perhaps first by Gruner (1939) and probably a few others, as they
seem to belong to that special class of mathematical objects which are prone to
independent rediscovery.
Motivated by Theorem 5.27, Whiteman
the
k = d + p
numbers
(1962) investigated the problem of when
132
l,g, g2
consistute
for
a difference
, .... g
k=
a con~non primitive
root
defined b y
condition
odd primes
Whiteman
and
q.
Since
Whiteman
showed:
let
constitute
v
N = 2
(Theorem
and
dN
akin to a primitive
and
Theorem)
is
it follows that
set to exist;
cyclotomy
this
for
root must be established.
root of both primes
dN = (p - 1)(q - 1).
and
Then there exists an
integers
(s = O,1,...,d
a reduced residue
(5.35)
5.27).
a generalized
be a fixed common primitive
such that the
gSxi
to
N = (p - l, q - l)
integer
for such a difference
this problem b y developing
In order to do this something
q;
(p - l, q - l) = N
k = d + p = (v - 1)/N,
condition
v = pq.
Let
~ = (v- I - N ) / N 2
Here
sufficient when
approached
Len~na 5.28.
(5.34)
(easily provided by the Chinese Remainder
is a necessary
is3 in fact,
O,q,2q, .... (p- l)q
(v- l)/N,
(p - l)(q - i) = dN.
q = (N - 1)p + 2
set with parameters
v = ~,
of the distinct
d-i
- l;
system modulo
i = %l,...,N
v = pq.
- l)
(5.36)
[That is, all residues prime
are of this form.]
Proof.
Let
x, y
be a pair of integers
satisfying
the simultaneous
con-
gruences
x =- g (mod p),
y - i (mod p)
x -= i (rood q),
y m g (mod q) .
(5.37)
The existence
and uniqueness
of such
x~ y
are guaranteed by the Chinese
133
Remainder
g
Theorem.
modulo
Note that
i = j.
s # t,
gSxi m gtxJ,
T > 0, ~ > 0.
~;
Note further that the order of
p - l, q - l;
gSxi m gtxJ
divides
T.
i.e., it is
contrary to the lemma's assertion.
Since
can be written
By (5.37) this implies that

so
of
v.
while that fact that the order of
So the assumption
divides
modulo
is the least common multiple
Now assume that

shows that
xy m g
p - 1
is
Then (5.37)
rules out the case
x T m g~ m (xy) ~
divides
0 < ~ < N
do
~ - T
with
and that
this is a contradiction
q - 1
and the
lemma has been established

[Note that
is not unique,
In Whiteman's
numbers
generalized
for
obviously
cyclotomy the index class
and the generalized

i
consists of the
(i,J)N
v)
s, t
s i
(5.38)
is the number of members of index
which are followed by members of index class
g x
j.
That is,
(i,J)N
is
of the congruence
+ i -= gtxJ
(mod
v)
(5.39)
0 < s, t < d - io
Certain elementary properties
difference
set applications
q - 1 = Nf', d = Nff'
f, f'
(mod
c7clotomic number
the number of solutions
where
(s = 0,1~.o,d - l)
a m gSxi
class
serves equally as well.]
below.
of this generalized
N
is, of course,
cyclotomy are needed for the

even and
for some relatively prime integers
f,f'
p - 1 = Nf,
(in particular
are not both even).
g~
-i ---
(mod v)
gd/2
for some
(mod v)
~ ~ l, 0 _< ~ < d - 1
when
ff'
(5.40)
is odd
(5.41)
gW xN/2 (mod v)
when
ff'
is even
i34
where
is some fixed integer,
(i,J)N = (i',J')N
0 < v < d - i.
when
(J
N/2, i
(5.42)
(rood N)
i ~ i', j ~ j'
N/2) N
ff'
even
(5.43)
(i,J)N = (N - i, j - i)N = J
<
ff'
(J,i) N
odd
N-I
(i,J)N =
(~ - 2)(q - 2 ) N
+ 5.
!
ff'
ff'
even
odd
(5.4~)
j=O
where
li
i ~ N/2 (mod N)
i ~ 0
(mod N)
otherwise
N-I
f
(j,i) =
(~ - 2)(q - 2) -
(5.45)
~.
l
j=0
where
i -: o (N)
otherwise
ei
Proof.
This implies
If
~ = i,
If
x N ~ g~
xN-i =ogS
then
for any
~,
then by (5.36)
which contradicts Len~na 5.28.
v = pq;
x N ~ gSxi
So
with
x N = g~
i > O.
for some
~.
this contradicts elementary
135
number theory since
p, q
are distinct odd primes.
So (5.40) has been
established.
Suppose
modulo
Let
and
ff'
d/2
i =
Select
q;
modulo
q;
s
and
as in (5.37).
gd/2 m -1
gS m -1
s ~ 0, d/2
q,
gd/2 ~ xd/2yd/2 ~ -1
v.
v.
Then
(p-l)/2
x s m -1
f, f'
modulo
as well as by (q-l)/2.
is the only candidate.
since one of
i -= g0x0 - g2Sx2i
Thus
Then
mod
modulo
is divisible by
and , as
modulo both
0 < i < No
so
x, y
hence
be even and suppose
divides
gd/2 ~ -1
with
is odd.
as well as modulo
yS _ -1
Thus
ff'
is even.
But
So
-I =- g x
and it follows from Lemma 528 that
N/2.
Equation (5.42) is an immediate consequence of the definition and the relation
(5.40) above.
The first part of (5.43) follows on multiplying
the inverse of its first term and using
(5.39) through by
(5.40) to give
I + g-S-~xN-i ~ g t-SxJ-i
The second part of (5.43) follows from multiplying
(5.39) by
-i
as given in
(5.41).
si
g x
The summation if (5.44) counts, for fixed
i,
+ 1
That is~ all those
which are in any index class at allo
which are prime to

by
v,
let
v.
Of the
such numbers,
be the number divisible by
let
the numbers of the form
+ 1
be the number divisible
but not by
and let
P
number divisible by
si
g x
be the
q
but not by
p.
Then, clearl~v,
N-1
(i,J)N = d - ~
- ~
- Nq.
(5.46)
j=0
By (5.41)
N v = 5..
1
Since
the non-zero residues of
g
p
is a primitive root modulo

are assumed
(q - 1)/N
times by
it follows that all

gS
and hence by
136
s i
g x
N
as
ranges from
= (p - 1)/N - 5..
l
Equation
relations
to
Equation
d - i.
Hence
= (q - I)/N - 8.
l
(5.44) thus follows
(5.45) follows w h e n
from 5.46.
(5.43) is applied to
(5.44).
Let the index class
Lemma 5.29 .
be a fixed integer divisible by
Let
be denoted by
Thus all the
C..
1
in class
C1
and
or
but not by
v.
of the congruence
y - z -= r
with
and similarly
above have been established
Then the number of solutions
is
(mod
in class
CO
v)
(5.47)
is independent
of the value of
and
(p - 1)(q - l)/N 2.
Proof.
modulo
Let
divide
as in Lemma
some fixed integer
528.
and let
Then
such that
g, x
x ~ 1
generate
(mod
v),
0 < u < p - 2.
the reduced residue
and
gUx ~ i
system
(rood p)
In order for (5.47),
i.e.,
for
in
order for
g x-
to be solvable,
(mod
Hence,
q),
ranges of
s.
t - s = u
(q - 1)/N
q - 1
Since
these are congruent modulo
for fixed
(5.47).
that
5.48 for any
a, ga,...,gq-2a.
any fixed
by
(rood v)
(5.48)
(mod
p - I).
values of
Thus for each
t It = u + s + m ( p - 1 ) ,
for which the right side of (5.48) is divisible by
congruence
are
-r
there are precisely
0 < m < (q - I)/N]
ferences
it is thus necessary
s (0 < s < d - l)
and consider
m,
as
precisely
ranges
once.
Thus a fixed
consecutive
is a primitive
root of
to
p, 2p,..., (q - l)p
from
sO
to
For each value of

r
values of
is represented
By symmetry the same result
sO + q - 2
m
is true when
s;
the dif-
and
a ~ 0
in some order.
d/(q - l)
(p - l)(q - I)/N 2
q
Fix
(5.48) represents
there are
exactly
p.
but not
such
times
divides
137
and the lemma is proved.

Using these cyclotomic facts:
Theorem 5.30
of
p - 1 (=Nf)
let
Let
(Whiteman~ 1962)
and
q - 1 (=Nf')
(p - 1)(q - l) = dN
and let
denote the greatest common divisor
where
and
are distinct odd primes,
be a primitive root of both
and
q.
Then
the numbers
!,g3g2
,..o,g
d-i

if and only if
ff'
0,q, 2q,.o.,(p - l)q
(5.49)
v = pq, k = (v - I)/N,
h = (v - 1 - N)/N 2
is even and the following two conditions are satisfied:
q = (N - 1)p + 2
(i,o)~ : (N - i)
[Here
[(p - 1)/N] 2
n = k - h = (Nv - v + 1 ) / ~
(5.50)
(i : 0,1 ..... ~ - l ) .
= (p - f)2
by 5.50 and so
(5.51)
(n,v) = 1
for all
difference sets of this type.]

The statement that the numbers
(5.49) form a difference set is equivalent to
the statement that for every fixed integer

precisely
y, z
not divisible by
v,
there are
solutions to the congruence
y-
with
re
chosen from 5.49 .
and the numbers
z~r
(mod v)
The numbers
0,q,..o 2 (p - 1)q
(5.52)
l,g,..o,g d-i
form the index class
will be said to be members of the class
CO
Q.
Before proving Theorem 5.30 a couple lemmas are required.
Le~na 5.31.
Let
be a fixed integer not divisible b y
of solutions of congruence 5.52 with

(p - 1 ) / m
in
CO
and
in
q.
Q
Then the number
is equal to
138
Proof.
(p - 1)/N
Since
As in the proof of Lemma

disjoint
subsets~
is a primitive
these subsets
Lemma
5.32.
Let
each of which
root of
such that
gS . r
q~
When
of
- g
gm(p-l)+s
excluded
q - i
in
v)
is divisible
is that
_ gS ~ r (mod
consecutive
v)
by
divides
integers,
establishes
Proof of Theorem
t m ~ (mod
with
by
and
q
integers.
in each of
but not by
qo
both in class
but not by
Then
CO
is
the number of
condition for the solvability
p - 1).
1 < m < (q - 1)/N.
r.]
Fix
Thus this congruence

[The value
m = 0
in this range and let
then as before precisely
(p - 1)(q - 1 - N)/N 2
p, q
5.52 with
into
(q - 1)(p - i - N)/N 2.
m r (mod
for then
consecutive
- i
and the lemma follows.
As in the proof of Lermna 5.29 a necessary
there are
be a fixed integer divisible
(p - 1)(q - 1 - N)/N 2.
Proof.
q - 1
0,1,...,d
is exactly one number
is divisible b y
of congruence
is
contains
there
the number of solutions
such solutions
5.29 divide the integers
solutions
one solution
overall,
becomes
is
vary over
appears.
So
S~umuetry
the remainder of the lemmao
5.30.
Suppose that the numbers
set with the prescribed parameters.
Then
(5.49) constitute
(5.50) is an immediate
a difference
consequence
of
k=d+p.
Let
in
CO
corresponds
Thus if
belongs
(i,0)N.
Lemma
then there are

Lemma
CO .
v.
with a solution of
~r + 1 -~ zy
to
- l)
C i (i = % . . . , N
5o31 shows that if

(p - 1)/N
solutions
5.31 also shows that there are

Since
solutions
(r#v) = l, y
to
Every solution of
and
belongs
to
(rood v),
here
to
CO
and if
By considering
-r
(p - 1)/N
solutions w i t h
cannot both be in
and
is
to
instead,
in
Q~
in
and so the total number of
v-l-~
N2
~z =- 1 (rood v).
belongs
(5.52).
2(p-l)
the number of such solutions
(5.52) is
(i,o)~ +
(5.52) with
139
from which
(5.51) follows
Suppose
ff'
were odd.
the number of solutions of
Consider the cyciotomic number

r + 1 ~ s (mod
v)
when
r, s
Corresponding to any such solution is another solution

since
-s, -r
also belong to
from the first unless

(i,i)N
is even except when
So
ff'
(by 5.41).
r ~ -s ~ -r - 1 (mod
(i,i)N = (N - i,0)N,
odd.
C.
l
(v - 1)/2
(i,i)N;
it counts
belong to
-s + 1 ~ -r
C i.
(mod
v);
This second solution is distinct

v),
i.e., unless v = 2r + 1.
belongs to
this implies that equation
C i.
Thus
Since, by (5.43),
(5.51) cannot hold when
ff'
is
is even and the necessity part of the proof is complete.
Now suppose that conditions
(5.50) and (5.51) hold;
it is to be shown that
congruence 5.52 hasIa uniform number of solutions independent of the value of

r (r ~ 0
modulo
v)
when
y, z
are chosen from among the numbers
(5.49)
There
are three cases:

(i)
y
in
Let
and also
divide
r.
(p - 1)/N
(p - l)(q - I - N)/N 2
By Lemma 5.31 there are

solutions with
additional solutions when
(5.50) the total number of solutions is

(ii)
Let
divide
(q - l)(p - I - N)/N 2
solutions.
r.
When
solutions.
If
in
(p - I)/N
Q.
y, z
Lemma 5.32 shows

are both in
Let
CO .
Using
(v - i - N)/N 2.
y, z
y, z
both belong to
CO
both belong to
So, by (5.50) the total number of solutions is
(iii)
solutions with
v.
Lermma 5.32 counts

there are
(v - 1 - N)/N 2.
In the necessity part of the proof
it was shown that the number of solutions in this case is
(i,0)N + 2(p - I)/N
when
(v - 1 - N)/N 2.
belongs to
So the numbers
h = (v - 1 - N)/N 2
C..
1
By (5.50),
(5.51) this is again
(5.49) do indeed form a difference set modulo

and
k = d + p = (v - I)/N.
v = pq
with
That is, Theorem 5.30 has been
established.
As an example of this theorem consider the case
and
ff'
Equation
so (5.51) is automatically satisfied.
N = 2o
(5.43) shows that
Thus the numbers
By (5.50)
q = p + 2
(0,0)2 = (1,0)2 = (1,1)2 ,
(5.49) form a difference
14o
set whenever
q : p + 2.
That is, a proof has been given for Theorem 5.27 above.
Of course, more direct proofs of this result exist

immediately below Theorem 5.27).
0, l, 2, 4, 5, 8, l0
With
constitute
P = 3, q = 5, g = 2
a difference
In applying Theorem 5.30 to the case

numbers
(i,0)4
he shows,
for
are needed
ff'
(see the references
Whiteman
then, the numbers
set with parameters
N = 4
given
v,k,h = 15,7,3.
formulas for the cyclotomic
(1962) derives these numbers.
In particular
even, that
8(0,o) 4 : -a + ~
+ 3,
8(0,1)4 = -a - 4b + 2M - 1
8(o,2) 4 : 3a + ~
- l,
8(0,3)4 = -a + 4b + 224 - 1
(5.53)
8(1,o)4 = a + 2M + 1
the remaining
(i,J)4's
being equal to one of these as (5.43) shows
M = [(p - 2)(q - 2) - 1)/4]
v:
and
a, b
+ 4b 2,
are determined
a-= 1
Whiteman observes that the common primitive

two classes
a power of
G, G'.
g
Here if
g'.
a '2 + 4b '2,
unequal.
(0,0)4
a 2 + 4b 2
and
(0,0)~
G'.
Theorem 5.31.
(Whiteman)
Let
1, q -
and let
roots of
both) of the sets
G'
p, q
of
and
g, ~ gr
G;
g'
respectively
the
1964),
are always
g, g'
gives
be distinct primes such that
d = (p - l)(q - 1)/4.
with
is
as in (5.54)o
(Carlitz and Whiteman,
and
are all powers of any
(5.51) this implies that at most one of

N = 4.
primitive
can be divided into
then every primitive root in
Furthermore
computed for
set for
1) : 4
p, q
(%54)
is used with the primitive roots of
with those of
In view of equation
rise to a difference
(p-
4) o
There are two distinct representations
One such representation
the numbers
belongs to
and similarly the primitive roots of
particular one
other,
from a representation
(mod
roots of
Here
(rood v)
Let
g, g'
for any
r.
be distinct common
Then one
(but not
141
l~g,g2 ,...,g d-i ;
O,q,2q, .... ( p -
l,g,,g,2,...,g,d-i
is a difference
only if
set with parameters
q = 3P + 2
The generalized
(Whiteman,
and
(5.55)
0,q, 2q,..., (p - l)q
(5.56)
v = pq, k = (v - 1)/4,
h = (v - 5)/16
if and
is an odd square
cyclotomic numbers
1962 ) and for
l)q
N = 6,8
(i,J)N
(Bergquist,
have been computed for

1963 ) .
N = 2,4
They may be found
(ff'
even only) together with a detailed discussion of the material of this section in
Storer's booklet
concerned,
(1967 A)0
whenever
The ntmubers
q = p + 2
numbers form a difference

g
whenever
q = 3P + 2
(5.49) form a difference
(Whiteman,
sets are
N = 4
particular
For
N = 4
and
is an odd square.
For
v = pq
(Whiteman,
and the next example has
1962) these
root
(Bergquist,
1963 )
the
set occurs with
v = 6,575,588,101.
(1967 B) developed further cyclotomies

succeeded in constructing
N = 6,8
for
set.
the first example of such a difference
v = pq = 901 = 17.53
Storer
1962).
set modulo
set for a suitable choice of the common primitive
these numbers never form a difference

For
as far as difference
there is:
Theorem 5.32.
N = 2
By way of summary,
along these lines and in
v,k, }~ = 133,33,8
difference
set of Hall
(1956) by these methods.

Concerning the multiplier group of these difference
sets and the multiplier
conjecture there are the following facts:
Theorem 5.33.
The multiplier
consists of the residues
Proof.
index class
(mod
v)
13g,..,g
group of any difference

d-1
and so
(j ~ 0
modulo
s ~ 0 (mod
N)
v).
given by (5.49)
and no others.
These numbers are clearly multipliers.

j
set
Suppose
was also a multiplier.

Suppose
belonging to
Then
does not divide
td -= D + s
s.
Since
142
belongs
to
power of
(mod
so does
g.
q),
Thus
-s
and since
(by 5.41)
tg I - s m 0
same index class.
belongs
for some
Thus
-1
i.
that
primitive
over
C O + s m Cj (mod
root modulo
CO .
Thus
and establishes
Theorem
difference
r,
Proof.
When
prime to
v,
of Theorem
with
p)
and
if
t
t
s.
s = q~,
every non-zero
+ qZ ~ 0 (mod
For
N = 2
given by
N = 2
it follows
N/2.
that
-s
Again since
as w e l l as
-1
is a
s ~ 0
belong to the
is, contradiction.
Then, with
(s,p) = i.
Since
occurs
as
residue modulo
for some
all divisors
i~
which
in
Cj, tD m D + s
contradicts
is a
g
ranges
C O + s ~ C.
J
'
l,g,~o.,g
are multipliers
d-i
for any
are precisely
the Jacobi symbol
to show that every divisor
law for the Jacobi
520 above.
of
(5.49).
the elements
for which
Thus it is sufficient
the reciprocity
divides
v)
q)
the theorem.
5.54.
set
p~
So
(mod
to index class
is a multiplier
Now consider the case where

implies
s ~ 0
of
those residues
[see Nageil,
n
symbol the proof proceeds
has
1951] ,
v
= +i.
is
+i.
Using
exactly like the proof
VI.
MISCELLANY
In this chapter a few facts, some important, which was not convenient to
mention earlier, are gathered.
A.
Multiple inequivalent Difference Sets

Singer (1938) showed that non-trivial difference sets with parameters
@+l_
V
exist whenever
k:
q-i
@{- 1
'
is a prime power and
of these difference sets.
qml
-------~
q
'
N > 2;
(6.1)
q-i
see section V.A. for a discussion
Singer noted that when
h = i
there seemed to be only
one equivalence class of difference sets with these parameters and he conjectured
that this was in fact the case.
This conjecture of Singer is still open.
(1956, p. 984) has verified Singer's conjecture for

27,32.
Hall
q = 2,3,4,5,7,8,9,11,13,16,25 ,
Beyond this work of Hall apparently very little has been done on this
problem.
Strangely enough the largest known class of multiple inequivalent difference
sets also have parameters given by (6.1).
composite, thus
h > i.
$ > 0,
by (6.1) for which there exist at least

k ~ i00, k < v/2,
as follows:
121, 40, 13
and
is necessarily
for
for
127, 63, 31.
For while those parameters
there exist values of
v, k, k
given
pairwise inequivalent difference sets.
the known multiple inequivalent difference sets are
for 31, 15, 7;

6
N + i
In fact (see section V.Ao for details) Gordon, Mills and
Welch (1962) have shown that for any
For
Here, though,
43, 21, i0;
for
63, 31, 15;
for
[There may well be others in this range.
v, k, h (k ~ i00)
which have associated cyclic
difference sets have been determined (see section VI.B) not much beyond the work of
Hall (1956, limited to
k ~ 50)
is known about multiple inequivalent difference
i44
sets in this range.]

Two block designs with the same parameters are considered equivalent if there
exists two permutations (generally different), one acting on the objects and the
other acting on the blocks, which take the one design into the other.
On the other
hand, equivalence of difference sets (see section I.B) is a more restrictive

relation.
Thus, it could happen that two cyclic difference sets were inequivalent
while their associated block designs were not.

this behavior.
There are no known examples of
In particular, it does not happen for the parameter sets
mentioned just above.
(k ~ 100)
In these cases, inequivalence of the associated block
designs follows from the distribution of sizes of the intersections of triples of

blocks.
For example, the distribution of intersection size for all block triples
containing a particular fixed block is 420 of size

of the
v,k,~ = 31,15,7
difference sets.
set has such block triples intersections

of size
4.
and
15 of size
Whereas the other

90 of size
2,
195
31, 15, 7
of size
for one
difference
and
150
Since the distributions of block intersection sizes must be the same
for equivalent block designs, it is clear that these designs are not equivalent.
The question of whether the multiple inequivalent difference sets of Gordon,
Mills and Welch necessarily lead to inequivalent block designs is open.
[While no examples of inequivalent cyclic difference sets generating the
same block design are known, there are examples of block designs which are generated
by more than one difference set.
these examples is non-cyclic.
Of course, at least one of the difference sets in
In fact, Bruck (1955 , p. 475) has shown that the
block design associated with a cyclic difference set with parameters

n
+ n + i, n + i, i
n ~ i
B.
modulo
(these are only known to exist for prime power
v,k, h =
n)
for
can also be generated by a non-Abelian group difference set.]
Searches
In 1956 Marshall Hall (1956) published the results of his search for difference
sets having
k < 50.
v,k,h(k ~ 50),
With but
12
exceptions, he decided, for each parameter set
whether or not a difference set existed.
When the difference set
145
was not a member of one of the families of Chapter

he listed the residues modulo
v.
(and in some other cases)
For many of the smaller parameter sets he decided
whether or not multiple inequivalent difference sets existed (see section VI.A.
above ).
Hall's twelve undecided cases were all resolved negatively.
In fact many of
the existence tests presented in section II.E. above were developed specifically
for the purpose of deciding Hall's twelve cases.
Baumert (1969) extended Hall's search to
exactly
74
parameter sets
sets existed.
These
difference sets;
74
Utilizing these powerful tests
k < i00o
v,k, h(k _~ I00)
He found that there were
for which non-trivial cyclic difference
parameter sets have associated with them
85
known
there may be more, since Baumert made no attempt to find multiple
inequivalent difference sets beyond those already known.

below contains all
85
known difference sets for which
Table 6.1 of section VI.Do

k < i00.
As reported in more detail in section IV.A., Hall (1947) checked that, for
n _~ I00,
all planar
(i.eo,
h = i)
difference sets had
a prime power.
This
conjecture, which is still outstanding, was checked further by Evans and Mann
(1951) up to
n < 1600.
Dembowski (1968, p. 209) states that V. Ho Keiser (un-
published) has checked it to
n _~ 3600.
Hadamard difference sets
(i.e., those with
have been searched for, through
v < i000.
v,k,h = 4t - i, 2t - i, t - i)
The results of these searches (Golomb,
Thoene, Baumert) are that, except for possible additional multiple inequivalent
difference sets, the only unknown Hademard difference sets possible,
have
v = 399, 495, 627, 651, 783
or
975
v < 100%
(See section IV.B. for a discussion of
the known Hadamard difference sets. )

The difference sets associated with circulant Hadamard matrices (see section
IVoC. ) have been sought.
These have parameters
v = 4N 2, n = N 2 .
Turyn (1968)
surveys the results in this area, most' of which are due to him, and shows that,
except for
v = 4,
none such exist with
v < 12,100.
lh6
C.
Some Examples
The general tenor of these examples seems to be that, at least from an alge-
braic number theoretic point of view, difference sets are no better behaved than
they absolutely have to be.
Consider the quadratic residue difference set with parameters
25.
Here
modulo
n = 26,
103
is
are minimal.
the order of
17,
i.e.,
modulo
103
251 e l, 1317 ~ 1
Furthermore, no power of
13
is
modulo
51
and the order of

103,
K({103)
defined by
the automorphism
8
~i03 -+ ~i03'
T,
P's
hand, Theorem 5.20 shows that

set.
13
~i03 -+ ~i03'
defined by
fixes both
or
and
modulo
13
in the
103.
(13) : PiP2P3PiP2P 3
where the bar denotes complex conjugation.

~,
as:
(2) : ~ ,
automorphism
13
where the exponents
is congruent to
Thus Theorem 2.19 gives the prime ideal factorizations of

cyclotomic field
v,k, ~ = 103,51,
and
2
Q's,
13
248 -= 13
it follows that the
fixes all these prime ideals;
2
4103,
~i03
and
Since
since
fixes only the
Q's.
1316 ~ 8 (mod 103).
But
whereas
T 3,
i.eo,
On the other
are both multipliers of this difference
So, without loss of generality, the prime ideal decomposition of the ideal
(G(~I03))
is
(e(~lO3)) = QP~P33
where the action of the multiplier

according to
the multiplier
PI ~ P2 ~ P3 ~ PI"
2,
permutes the prime ideal divisors of
That is, while the ideal
(0(~I03))
13
is fixed by
its individual prime ideal divisors are not.
Consider the planar difference set whose parameters are

consists of the residues
i, 6, 7, 9, 19, 38, 42, 49
notation of section III.D.,
modulo
v,k, h = 57,8,1.
57.
Using the
It
i~7
@[57](x) : x + X 6 + x 7 + x 9 + x !9 + x 38 + x 42 + x 49
e[19](x ) = 2 + x + x 4 + x 6 + x 7 + x 9 + x II
and the prime ideal divisors of
are (see Theorem 2.19):
(@(~19))
A : (7, ~ 9 + 6~I 9 + 3~19 + 6)

2
+ 5~i 9 + 6)
C = (7, ~ 9
while
A, B, C
ideals over
divide
K({57).
which lie above
(@(~i~)).
Let
and
al, a 2
B
2
+ 4~i 9 + 4~i 9 + 6)
Each of these six ideals splits into two prime

and
bl, b 2
respectively.
be the prime ideals of
Then
(e(~7)) ~ ala2hlb2ClC 2
where
2 + 2~57 + 6)
a I = (7, ~ 57 + ~57
~2 = (7, ~ 7
2
+ 6~57 + 5~57 + 6)
b I = (7, ~7 + 3 ~57
2 + 6~57 + 6)
2
~2 = (7, ~ 7
+ 2~57 + 2~57
c I = (7, ~ 7
+ ~57 + 6)
c 2 = (7, ~ 7
+ 4~57 + 6).
+ 6)
K({57)
148
Thus, the tempting assumption that the fact that
divides the ideal
(e(~19))
implies that one of
2
2
al, a2, ala 2
(e(~57))
Besides certain theoretical implications, this complicates the
is wrong.
necessarily divides the corresponding ideal
application of the constructive existence test of section III.D.

Consider the planar difference set
v, k, h
K(~73 )
are
73, 9, l;
n = 8.
[1,2,4,8,16,32,37,55,64)
whose parameters
Now one of the prime ideal divisors of
(2) in
is
6
2
A = (2, ~ 3 + ~73 + ~ 3 + ~73 + I)
and
A~
divides
(e(~73)).
Thus, the simplifying assumption, that one and only
one of a complex conjugate pair of prime ideal divisors of
divides
(e(~))
is
not correct in general
D.
A Table of Difference Sets

Table 6.1 below contains all
85
known difference sets for which
k ~ i00.
As pointed out earlier, there well may be others; for the question of the existence
of multiple inequivalent difference sets has not been solved for all of the
parameter sets
v,k, ~ (k ~ i00)
has been shown that these
74
having associated difference sets.
74
However, it
parameter sets are the only ones that need be
considered.
Each difference set is identified by
are the prime divisors of
n)
v, k, h, n, pl , P2' P3
(where the
Pi
and by a class indicator which indicates the family
or sub-family to which it belongs.
These are:
SN
Hyperplanes in projective
Quadratic Residues (Theorem 5.15)
Biquadratic Residues (Theorem 5.16)
BO
Biquadratic Residues and
0ctic Residues (Theorem 5.18)
Hall's Sets (Theorem 5.23)
space (Theorem 5.1)
(Theorem 5.8)
149
TP
GMW
Twin Prime Sets (Theor~n 5.27)

Gordon, Mills, Welch (Section V.A)
Whiteman Set (Theorem 5.31)
not one of the above .
Where multiple inequivalent sets are known, they are distinguished by

etc., which is added to the parameter
v,k,k = 31,15~7
respectively.
v.
Thus the two inequivalent
difference sets are designated
31A, 15, 7
and
31B~ 15, 7
The table is sorted in order of increasing values of
k.
A, B, C
150
{.0
I,.F~
CO
,,< II
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U ~
II
OJ
U)
O_
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{'~J oO [vJ 0"~ OJ -.'t~ ~
OJ ..i~ ('~, (Y~, f,') -,,-r .-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,~r-.,. ~ } .--i <i- C.j t-. r . . [.D ~
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553
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43A
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315
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6
5
88
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5
521
7
75
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10
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2
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14
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15
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21
183
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8
17
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4
17
3
19
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11
3
78
12
3
42
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529
19
16
92
25
25
535
21
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2
80
23
90
548
19
19
95
5
42
561
3
2
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2
4
11
9
3
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2
9
3
16
11
13
10
2
4
2
5
PI
9
3
13
3
8
3
8
4
81
71
625
7
2~
97
108
3
6
10
96
37
16
26
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89
107
633
25
120
11
118
50
3~
39
I5
97
125
31
152
1~
13
11
15!
55
64
11
12
43
I4
16
105
201
36
163
16
14
12
153
76
91
12
10
15
6!
15
21
210
37
173
12
17
15
16
176
98
117
13
1~
16
tO9
18
22
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52
17~
1~,
23
t6
19
20~
117
128
1~
16
17
121
~0
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354
56
186
16
27
17
20
240
1~9
137
16
18
23
130
25
133
26
BO
$2
355
B
56
$~
~23
1,7
27
357
58
232
18
3~
S3
28
L
23
290
157
195
21
20
27
14t
35
21
-~1
S~
~56
17
S2
~82
S2
TP
S~7
$
136
S~,~
2~
L
19
CLASS
35
387
68
272
2~
34
24
27
296
189
205
27
25
29
155
38
399
71
359
2~
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25
32
300
199
23~
28
28
30
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412
78
~07
25
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31
33
307
222
239
29
~8
434
79
41~
27
5~
35
35
337
293
256
33
~9
462
80
431
2~
5~
36
37
361
299
63
468
81
~38
32
56
38
39
366
66
473
8~
5! 2
34
66
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369
79
1107
71
1057
38
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608
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15
3
4
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45
1
29
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29
689
696
15
16
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2
35
36
15
16
1
2
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36
6
25
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5
119
122
1
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1
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618
711
16
17
4
6
39
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8
25
4
5
93
95
%
32
2
~
556
598
17
18
2
3
36
37
I
37
I
37
65~ 655
19
20
36
91
33
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35
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38
*0
644
39
33
63~
31
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33
156
31
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118
993
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606
67
33
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37
133
33
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519
59
29
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36
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30
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683
63A 31
*0
757
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3
5
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29
69
716
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38
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3
40
5
tl
123
31
31
713
17
9
47
5
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98
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8
678
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38
37
63
711
2
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6
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5
45
25
127
66
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54
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13
125
60
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10
49
16
100
44
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731
5
45
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844
6
43
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703
167
819
151
731
16
698
3
5
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9
49
660
27
653
5
7
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10
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289
854
8
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55
755
20
105
15
55
77
841
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6
46
7
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8~0
12
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81
11
%9
302
924
9
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64
793
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106
16
56
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867
39
140
8
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49
934
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15
53
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50
128
906
38
123
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60
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91~
55
1~3
10
54
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54
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841
17
220
15
54
139
9~5
54
125
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6~
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961
58
1~7
1~
58
13
56
295
t9
13
50
16
51
18
5~
31~ 316 3~I

981 1098 112~
10
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110
880
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11~
17
59
87
89~
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9
53
9
5~
259
831
16
57
173
74
18
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22
76
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19
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25
86
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543
26
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27
91
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599
28
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331
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56
57
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70
76
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126 131
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299
339
3~9 4~0
991 I0~4
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16
18
19
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57
58
60
6~
$3
3&2 111 ~20 ~36 465 %69 486
1153 1187 1330 1348 1316 1335 1369
L
19
30
21
23
33
35
36
55
62
6%
65
67
73
73
6~
33
65
16
55
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17
329
$2
3~1
8MW
16
21
20
CLASS
31
76
550
~9
~53
83
35
515
111
~9
~8
645
29
32
6~I
30
512
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36
590
117
32
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35
ix.)
103
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197
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1893
1723
83
121D
1~1C
121B
V
21A
81
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761
1681
44
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1779
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49
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76
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50
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51
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76
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25
2
34
79
43
5
777
1849
47
102
1136
19~2
37
23
85
178
49
7
1!77
2208
26
4
36
81
773
27
4
51
27
4
7~
27
4
67
21
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38
13
3
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13
3
71
13
3
63
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3
37
36
71
70
68
40
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46
40
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70
40
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58
41
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43
43
780
1886
47
136
120#
2057
37
24
88
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7
49
1t90
2269
2
7
38
82
41
99
775
5
64
3
7
75
3
5
68
3
7
40
75
3
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164
85~
187
897
10
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9
79
9
81
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69
81
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51
15
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89
15
81
85
17
59
17
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25
92
16
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21
61
21
96
26
94
17
85
27
I00
L
23
63
27
95
22
86
S~3
99
CLASS
25
6~
32
103
34
97
23
88
3~
102
~6
65
36
106
36
102
27
92
36
103
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68
38
107
40
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32
96
39
104
28
69
108
43
108
34
102
44
108
29
70
~5
114
49
112
36
108
55
109
30
75
46
115
63
113
39
109
63
115
31
77
51
116
64
118
~2
110
64
117
33
78
53
119
68
120
45
117
67
119
$2
271 313 345 361 421 508 594 613 618 638 672 679 710
996 1011 1017 1063 1067 I194 1207 1216 1243 1271 1542 1579 1612
12
~9
14
81
21
83
14
77
83
27
92
$2
215 284 308 356 375 ~39 457 459 537 627 642 655 715 721
981 I104 1230 1262 1338 1359 1373 1468 1507 1592 1647 1663 1673 1704
232
988
11
48
12
80
1~
82
13
71
82
25
89
S~
149 163 232 2~3 263 ~80 353 572 622 792 8#8 890 918 994 999 1037
1289 132~ 1342 1375 1429 I#81 I~87 1578 1702 1710 17#2 1813 1875 1876 1878 1885
2135 2150 2179 2209
B
28
29
34
36
37
40
~2
~9
51
53
5~
59
60
61
63
70
90 I00 101 104 105 I I ~
132 133 135 142 150 154 156 158 16~ 171
187 188 190 191 193
S~
170 223 267 343 34~ 382 491 508 68~ 750 828 886 89~ 977 986 989
~300 1304 1356 156! !634 1716 1745 17~7 177~ 1849 1869 1892 1937 2000 20~1 ~101
2346 ~365 2401 ~411 2425 2~36
13
L
~
9
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
23
25
26
28
~9
30
32
41
46
~9
50
52
55
56
58
59
60
61
63
64
66
68
72
83
9~
92
93
97
98 I00
147
807
152
879
7
76
7
9
41
8
78
9
66
80
P2
39
83
1
21
999
2060
8
7
I#8
330
1
59
96~
2396
1
1
1205
2319
3759
31
2
36
74
122
31
2
38
80
125
31
34
79
122
31
2
32
73
122
*~
37
8[
2863
54
"1
966
1845
400
57
"I
141
325
60
3541
-1
938
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3783
62
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1107
P307
37##
127A 63
"1
35
73
121
~27B 63
.1
33
77
123
&7C 63
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32
78
121
[27D 63
1
31
7
121
V
107
PI
36
83
124
32
3
34
76
124
3
#
37
76
124
32
3
40
87
126
32
13
A8
92
14
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99
16
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53
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52
i75
358
54
187
363
62
200
36~
66
211
365
68
225
367
75
236
373
47
89
6
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2
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5
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92
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48
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6
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42
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8
47
87
51
96
7
50
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13
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9
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89
54
97
8
51
96
15
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87
12
50
94
56
99
12
10
54
97
16
49
88
13
51
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58
tO2
1#
12
56
100
[7
50
94
14
52
97
60
103
~5
14
57
101
18
52
98
239 246 268 314 400 570 572

1313 1347 1404 1488 !492 1628 1681
2490 2522 2724 3034 3199 3216 3230
2
4
#6
89
12
47
90
102 135 176 ~66 3~8 366 373

[211 1379 1421 1530 1557 1607 1701
2477 2523 2728 ~747 2827 2875 2920
49
I70
3#3
9
41
81
11
44
89
19
60
99
16
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100
$6
16
61
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16
61
102
17
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62
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100
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451 ~73
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27!8 2729
S3
76 103
238 2~6
375 378
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37# 376
1713 1745
3198 3236
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613 641
1702 1820
3243 3346
CLASS
189 225 292 34~ 386 #17 443

1113 1161 1199 ~234 ~2#6 13~7 1368
2165 2233 2416 2~43 2527 2639 2679
I0
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2
8
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85
86
53
53
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72
1103 1107
2076 210 ~
49
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25
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155 !69
339 342
59
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2407 2471
61
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1216 1271
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109
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281
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310
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108
20
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23
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24
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27
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27
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1~7
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122
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650 720 723 756 84~ 950 1042

1836 1871 2071 2161 2206 2289 2299
34# I 3#90 3495 3607 3657 3663 3721
#6~ 595 608 629 761 820 883

1850 1919 ~187 2227 2244 23~2 342
3251 3265 3302 3338 3450 3#59 3481
106
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561 566 575 64# 904 9~9 953

1413 1428 1487 1510 1700 1729 1838
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1179 1361 1502 !668 1707 1732 1885

2704 2803 2856 2869 2931 2950 3065
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30
66
112
29
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107
544 600 615 665 820 858 897

2153 2207 2548 2629 2658 2762 2774
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oo
REFERENCES
Generally speaking a survey such as this is expected to contain a fairly

exhaustive bibliography.
However, since the book of Dembowski (1968) contains
an excellent 49 page bibliography covering this subject, the listing here may be,
and is, restricted to items explicitly mentioned in this report.
Alanen, J. D., and D. E. Knuth

1964
"Tables of Finite Fields", Sankhy~ 26, 305-328.
Albert, A. A~
1953
"Rational Normal Matrices Satisfying the Incidence Equation", Proc.

Amer. Math Soe. 4, 554-559.
Albert, A. A., and R. Sandler

1968
An Introduction to Finite Projective Planes, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,

New York
Barker, R. H.
1953
"Group Synchronizing of Binary Digital Systems", in Cormutuuication Theory,

W. Jackson, Editor, London, 273-287.
Baumert, L. Do
1969
"Difference Sets", SIAM J. Appl. Math. 17, 826-833.
Baumert, L. D., and H~ Fredricksen

1967
"The Cyclotomic Numbers of Order Eighteen with Applications to Difference

Sets", Math. Comp. 21, 204-219.
Belevitch, V.
1968
"Conference Networks and Hadamard Matrices", Ann. Soc. Sci. Bruxelles

Set. 1 82, 13-32.
Bergquist, J. W.
1963
"Difference Sets and Congruences Modulo a Product of Primes",

Dissertation,
University of Southern California.
160
Brauer, A.
!953
"On a New Class of Hadamard Determinants",
Math. Z. 58, 219-225.
Brualdi, R.Ao
1965
"A Note on Multipliers of Difference Sets", J. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards

Sect. B 69B , 87-89.
Bruck, R. Ho
1955
"Difference Sets in a Finite Group", Trans. Amer. Math Soc. 78, 464-481.
Bruck, R. H., and H. J. Ryser

1949
"The Nonexistence of Certain Finite Projective Planes", Canad. Jo Math.

l, 88-93.
Carlitz, L., and A. L. Whiteman

1964
"The Number of Solutions of Some Congruences Modulo a Product of Primes",

Trans. Amer. Math. SOc. ll2, 536-552.
Chowla, S.
1944
"A Property of Biquadratic Residues", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. India,

Sect. A 14, 45-46.
1945
"Contributions to the Theory of the Construction of Balanced Incomplete

Block Designs", Math. Student 12, 82-85.
Chowla, S., and H. J. Ryser

1950
"Combinatorial Problems",
Canad. J. Math. 2, 95-99.
Dembowski, P.
1968
Finite Geometries,
Springer-Verlag,
New York.
Dickson, Lo E.
1935A
"Cyelotomy, Higher Congruences and Waring's Problem",
Amer. J. Math.
57, 391-424 and 463-474.

1935B
"Cyclotomy and Trinomial Congruences",
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 37,
363-380.
1935C
"Cyclotomy When E is Composite",
Trans. Amero Math. Soc. 38, 187-200.
Evans, T. A., and H. B. Mann

1951
"On Simple Difference Sets", Sankhy~ ll, 357-364.
161
Gillies, D. B.
1964
"Three New Mersenne Primes and a Statistical Theory", Math. Comp. 18,
93-95.
Goethals, J. M., and J. J. Seidel

1967
"0rthogonal Matrices with Zero Diagonal", Canado J. Math. 19, 1001-1010.
Goldhaber, J. K.
1960
"Integral P-Adic Normal Matrices Satisfying the Incidence Equation",

Canad. J. Math. 12, 126-133o
Goldstein, R. M.
1964
"Venus Characteristics by Earth-Based Radar", Astronom. J. 69, 12-18.
Golomb, S. W. et al.
1964
Digital Communications with Space Applications, Prentice-Hall, Englewood

Cliffs, New Jersey.
Gordon, B., W. H. Mills and L. R. Welch

1962
"Some New Difference Sets", Canad. Jo Math. 14, 614-625.
Gruner, W.
1939
"Einlagerung des Regularen N-Simplex in ~en N-Dimensionalen Wurfel",

Comment. Math. Helv. 12, 149-152.
Halberstam, H., and R. R. Laxton

1964
"Perfect Difference Sets", Proc. Glasgow Math. Assoc. 6, 177-184.
Hall, M. Jr.
1947
1956
1965
"Cyclic Projective Planes", Duke Math. J. 14, 1079-1090.

" A Survey of Difference Sets", Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 7, 975-986.
"Characters and Cyclotomy", Proc. Sym. in Pure Math., Amer. Math. Soc.
8, 3t-43.
1967
Combinatorial Theory, Blaisdell, Waltham, Massachusetts.
Hall, M. Jr., and H. J. Ryser

1951
"cyclic Incidence Matrices", Canad. J. Math. 3, 495-502.
1954
"Normal Completions of Incidence Matrices", Amer. J. Math. 76, 581-589.
Hayashi, H. S.
1965
"Computer Investigation of Difference Sets", Math. Comp. 19, 73-78.
162
H~Ighes, D. R.
1957
"Regular Co!lineation Groups", Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 8~ 165-168.
Johnsen, E. C.
1964
"The Inverse Multiplier for Abelian Group D~fference Sets", Canad. J.

Math. 16, 787-796 .
1965
"Matrix Rational Completions Satisfying Generalized Incidence Equations",

Canado Jo Math. 17, 1-12.
1966A
"Integral Solutions to the Incidence Equation for Finite Projective

Plane Cases of Orders
1966B
N -= 2 (mod 4)", Pacific J0 Math. 17, 97-120.
"Skew-Hadamard Abelian Group Difference Sets", J. Algebra, 588-402.
Jones, B. W.
1950
The Arithmetic Theory of Quadratic Forms, Carus Math. Mono. i0, Wiley,
New York.
Kesav8 Menon, P.
1962
"Certain Hadamard Designs", Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 15, 524-531.
Lebesgue, A. U.
1850
"Sur L'!mpossibilite,
en Nombres Entiers, de L'Equation
xm = y
I.
+ 1 ,
Nouve!!es Ann. Math. 9, 178-181.

Lehmer, Eo
1953
"On Residue Difference Sets", Canad. J. Math 5, 425-432.
i955A
"Period Equations Applied to Difference Sets", Proc. Amer. Math. Soc.

6, 453-442.
1955B
"On the Number of Solutions of
u k + D -= w 2 (rood p)", Pacific J. Math.
5, 103-118.
Magnus, W.
1937
"Uber die Anzahl der in Einem Geschlecht Enthaltenen Klassen yon

Positiv Definiten Q~adratischen Formen", Math. Ann. 114, 465-475.
Mann, H. B.
1952
"Some Theorems on Difference Sets", Canad. J. Math. 4, 222-226.
1955
Introduction to Algebraic Number Theory, Ohio State Univ. Press,

Columbus, Ohio.
163
Mann, H. B.
1964
"Balanced Incomplete Block Designs and Abelian Difference Sets",

lllinois J. Math. 8, 252-261.
1965
Addition Theorems, The Addition Theorems of Group Theory and Number

Theory, Interscience,
1967
New York.
"Recent Advances in Difference Sets", Amer. Math. Monthly 74, 229-235.
Mann, H. B., and S. K. Zaremba

!969
"On Multipliers of Difference Sets", Illinois J. Math. 13, 378-382.
McFarland, R., and H. B. Mann

1965
"On Multipliers of Difference Sets", Canad. J. Math. 17, 541-542.
Muskat, J. B.
1966
"The Cyolotomic Numbers of Order Fourteen", Acta Arith. Ii, 263-279.
Nagell, T.
1951
Introduction to Number Theory, Wiley, New York.
Neumann, H.
1955
"On Some Finite Non-Desarguesi~1 Planes", Arch. Math. 6, 36-40.
Newman, M.
1963
"Multipliers of Difference Sets", Canad. J. Math. 15, 121-124.
0'Meara, 0. T.
1963
Introduction to Quadratic Forms, Springer-Verlag, New York.
Ostrom, T. G.
1953
"Concerning Difference Sets", Canad. J. Math. 5, 421-424.
Paley, R. E. A. Co
1933
"On Orthogonal Matrices", Jo Math. and Phys. 12, 311-320.
Rankin, R. A.
1964
Reuschle,
1875
"Difference Sets", Acta Arith. 9, 161-168.

C. G.
Tafeln Complexer Primzahlen,
Welche aus Wurzeln der Einheit Gebildet
Sind, Berlin.
Roth, R.
1964
"Collineation Groups of Finite Projective Planes", Math. Z. 83, 409-421.
164
Ryser, H. J.
1950
"A Note on a Combinatorial Problem", Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. l, 422-424.
1952
"Matrices with Integer Elements in Combinatorial Investigations",
Amer.
J. Math. 74, 769-773.

1963
Combinatorial Mathematics,
Schutzenberger,
1949
Carus Math Mono. 14, Wiley, New York.
M. P.
"A Non-Existence Theorem for an Infinite Family of Symmetrical Block

Designs", Ann. Eugenics 14, 286-287.
Shrikhande,
1950
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Lecture Notes in

Cyclic Difference Sets

CYCLIC DIFFERENCE SETS

A fairly comprehensive survey of the general theory of cyclic difference sets

The aim of ~his survey is to provide a cohesive presentation of

the known facts as well as an introduction to some of the outstanding problems.

a certain familiarity with the contents of Chapter I is presupposed elsewhere.

coupled with the aim of making the

and a great deal more, were presupposed in earlier sections.

In addition to the specific references inserted in the text, the books of

1965, and of Ho J. Ryser,

Carus Mathematical Monograph No. 14, 1963, may be used

as general references for a large part of this material

California Institute of Technology, under Contract No.

NAS 7-100, sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

and its Autocorrelation

The Main Existence

The Theorem of Hall and Ryser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Turyn and Yamamoto

Sets Fixed by a Multiplier

Singer Sets and Their Generalizations.

SETS OF SPECIAL TYPE

Sets and Cyclotomy

Cyclotomy and Difference

such that for an~ residue

difference set, cyclic difference set and

v, k, h - difference set are inter-

As an Lv~ediate consequence of this definition one has that the relation

k(k- 1): ~(v- i)

necessarily holds among the parameters

there are certain obvious difference sets

D = [0,i ..... i - I, i + i, .... v - i]

treated only as limiting cases.

the additional parameter

that these trivial difference

Note that the parameters

sets arise if and only if

which is often made implicitly,

for these difference

(1.2) above shows

serves to exclude all the

D 4 = ~i, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, Ii, 16, 17]

Here the parameters

Given the difference

called a shift (or cyclic shift) of the original set

set with the same parameters

For any particular

(This result is discussed

for any integers

(1o2) there may

In fact, Gordon, Mills and

are two difference

there exist values of

set (up to equivalence)

sets having these parameters.

that there are at least

Again, given any integer

are said to be equivalent

sets, a single difference

Welch (1962) have shown that given any

then for any integer

sets with these para-

Among the examples given in I. A. above note that