Q) Calculate the total radiation at an inclined surface south, tilted at 30o with horizontal in

Warangal on 4th September, 2015 at 12:00 Noon (Solar time). The reflection coefficient of
the ground can be taken as 0.2. Calculate Rb, Rd, Rr and R.
The longitude and latitude for Warangal 79.58oE and 18oN. The standard longitude is
82.5oE.

 Measurement of Global radiation: Pyranometer

Measurement of beam radiation: Pyrheliometer
Measurement of sunshine hours in a day: Sunshine recorder

Pyranometer:
Measures accurately the total power in the incident spectrum
Contains a thermopile whose sensitive surface consists of circular junctions
Hot junctions are exposed to sun and cold junctions
are completely shaded
Temperature difference between the hot and cold
junctions is the function of radiation falling on the
sensitive surfaces

 Sensing element is covered by two concentric

hemispherical glass domes to shield it from
wind and rain
A radiation shield surrounding the outer dome
and coplanar with the sensing element prevents
direct solar radiation from heating the base of
the instrument
Instrument has an voltage output of
9V/W/m2 (approx)
Output impedance of 650

Pyranometer using a shaded ring

Diffused radiation

Pyrheliometer:
A pyrheliometer is an instrument for measurement of direct beam solar irradiance
Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed onto a thermopile
which converts heat to an electrical signal that can be recorded.
Thermopile having a sensitivity of 8V/W/m2
Output impedance of 200
Tube is sealed with dry air to eliminate the absorption of beam radiation
OR

Sunshine recorder

Measures the duration in hours of bright sunshine

Consists of a glass sphere (about 10 cm dia)
Mounted on its axis parallel to the earth
The card is prepared from a special paper bearing the time scale

Solar Thermal Systems

Concentration Ratio
The term "concentration ratio" is used to describe the amount of light energy concentration
achieved by a given collector.
Two different definitions of concentration ratio are in general use. They are defined briefly here
so that the terms may be used.

Geometric Concentration Ratio (CRg). The area of the collector aperture Aa divided by the
surface area of the receiver Ar
Optical Concentration Ratio (CRo). The averaged irradiance (radiant flux) (Ir ) integrated over the
receiver area (Ar), divided by the insolation incident on the collector aperture.

Optical concentration ratio relates directly to lens or reflector quality; however, in many
collectors the surface area of the receiver is larger than the concentrated solar image.
Collector efficiency : Ratio of energy actually absorbed by the collector to the energy incident
on the collector.

Types of Collectors
Motion

Collector type

Flat plate collector (FPC)

Stationary Evacuated tube collector (ETC)

Singleaxis
tracking
Two-axes
tracking

Absorber
type

Concentration
ratio

Indicative
temperature
range (C)

Flat

30-80

Flat

50-200

1-5

60-240

5-15

60-300

Compound parabolic collector (CPC)

Tubular

Linear Fresnel reflector (LFR)

Tubular

10-40

60-250

Parabolic trough collector (PTC)

Tubular

15-45

60-300

Cylindrical trough collector (CTC)

Tubular

10-50

60-300

Parabolic dish reflector (PDR)

Point

100-1000

100-500

Heliostat field collector (HFC)

Point

100-1500

150-2000

Note: Concentration ratio is defined as the aperture area divided by the receiver/absorber area of the
collector.

Ref.:Soteris A. Kalogirou

Flat-plate Collectors

Types of flat-plate collectors - Water systems

Glazing
Riser
Absorbing plate

Insulation

Glazing
Riser
Absorbing plate

Insulation

Glazing
Riser
Absorbing plate

Glazing
Riser
Absorbing plate

Insulation

Insulation

Flat-plate Collectors

Liquid flat plate collector

Consists of a flat surface with high absorptivity for solar radiation
Metal plate usually made of copper, steel or aluminium with tubing of copper in thermal
contact with plates
Absorber plate = 1 2 mm
Tubes = 1 1.5 cm (soldered, brazed or clamped to the bottom of the absorber plate with
pitch ranging from 5 15 cm)
Header tube = 2.5 cm dia
Insulation (mineral wool or glass wool or fiber glass) = 5 10 cm
Glass covers : 1 or 2 covers with 1.5 3 cm, thickness = 3- 4 mm
Two glass covers may reflect 15% of the solar radiation
The reflection losses can reduced by coating with thin films of certain substances
(eg.Magnesium fluoride or by gentle etching with a solution of hydrofluoric acid)
Black chrome is a promising selecting coating with 0.15 2 m thick

Specifications of the flat plate collector

Basics of Heat Transfer

What is Heat transfer ?
Heat Transfer (or heat) is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature difference.
Whenever there exists a temperature difference Heat Transfer MUST exist.

Difference between thermodynamics and Heat transfer ?

Thermodynamics - allows calculation of total heat transferred (Q) during a process
in which system goes from one equilibrium state to another (i.e., the big picture)

Heat Transfer - provides important physical laws that allow calculation of

instantaneous heat rate, length of time required for process to occur, and
temperature distribution within material at any time (i.e., the details required for
design)

Heat Transfer Methods

Heat transfers in three ways:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Conduction: is the flow of heat in a substance due to the
exchange of energy between molecules having more energy
and molecules having less energy
Solids: metalsmotion of free electrons; lattice vibrations
Liquids: collision of molecules due to random motion (but not macroscopic)

Heat Transfer Modes - Conduction

Heat transfer rate per unit area is proportional to normal temperature
gradient

Rate equation is known as Fouriers law for 1-D conduction,

dT
qx kA
dx

or

dT
qx k
dx

where qx = heat rate in x-direction (W)

qx = heat flux in x-direction (W/m2)
T = temperature (C or K)
A = area normal to heat flow (m2)
k = thermal conductivity of material (W/m-K)

Convection Heat Transfer

Rate equation (Newton, 1700) is known as Newtons law of cooling:

q h(Ts T )

or

q hAs (Ts T )

where q = heat flux normal to surface

q = heat rate from or to surface As
Ts = surface temperature
T = freestream fluid temperature
As = surface area exposed to fluid
h = convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K)

 The convection heat transfer coefficient (h)

is not a material property
is a complicated function of the many parameters that influence
convection such as fluid velocity, fluid properties, and surface
geometry
is often determined by experiment rather than theory
Types of Convection
Forced convection: flow caused by an external source such as a
fan, pump, or atmospheric wind
Free (or natural) convection: flow induced by buoyancy forces
such as that from a heated plate
Phase change convection: flow and latent heat exchange
associated with boiling or condensation

Typical values for heat transfer coefficient (h) W/m2 K

Natural convection gases: 2 - 25

Natural convection liquid: 50 300
Forced convection gases: 15 - 250
Forced convection liquids: 50 - 20,000
Boiling/Condensation : 2500 - 100,000

Radiation
Rate equation is the Stefan-Boltzmann law which gives the energy flux due to
thermal radiation that is emitted from a surface; for a black body:

For non-black bodies,

Eb Ts4
E Ts4

Where

E = emissive power (W/m2)

= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67x10-8 W/m2-K4
= emissivity (0< <1) of surface
Ts = surface temperature in absolute units (K)

 Radiation incident upon an object may be reflected, transmitted, or

absorbed:

where
G = irradiation (incident radiation)
= reflectivity (fraction of G that is reflected)
= transmissivity (fraction of G that is transmitted
= absorptivity (fraction of G that is absorbed)
= emissivity (fraction of black body emission)

1-D Heat Conduction (Temperature distribution)

x
T T1T2 T1
L

dT
qx kA
dx

T1 T2

kA
L

OHMs LAW :R = V/I

I = V/R

Thermal Analogy to Ohms Law

With composite systems it is often convenient to work with overall heat transfer coefficient U,
which is defined by an expression analogous to Newtons law of cooling

Q.) Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient of a composite slab. The layer order from
internal to external is plaster (1.5cm), brick (30cm), plaster (1.5cm). Conduction coefficients are:
plaster 0.81W/(mK), brick 0.64 W/(mK). Internal temperature is 20C, external temperature is
-2C. Internal surface convection coefficient is 8W/(m2K), external surface convection coefficient
is 24W/(m2K). Calculate the heat loss of one square meter, and the temperature distribution (C).

Contact Resistance
In composite systems the temperature drop across the interface between materials may be
appreciable, this temperature change is attributed to what is known as the thermal contact
resistance.

The existence of a finite contact resistance is due to surface roughness effects

Heat transfer is due to conduction across the actual the actual contact areas and to
conduction and/or radiation across the gaps.
The contact resistance may be reduced by : Increasing the join pressure (or) by reducing the
roughness of the mating surfaces (or) by selecting an interfacial fluid of large thermal
conductivity.

Composite cylindrical wall

Radial conduction through spherical wall

Fully Developed Flow

Laminar Flow in a Circular Tube:
Uniform Surface Heat Flux ( q: s )
NuD hD 4.36
k
Uniform Surface Temperature (T:s )
NuD hD 3.66
k

Turbulent Flow in a Circular Tube:

For a smooth surface and fully turbulent conditions, the Dittus Boelter equation may be
used as a first approximation:
n 0.3 Ts Tm
Nu D 0.023Re 4D/ 5 Pr n
n 0.4 Ts Tm

Smooth surface:
f 0.790 1n Re D 1.64

Noncircular Tubes:

Use of hydraulic diameter as characteristic length:

4A
Dh c
P
Since the local convection coefficient varies around the periphery of a tube, approaching
zero at its corners, correlations for the fully developed region are associated with
convection coefficients averaged over the periphery of the tube.

Q) As shown in the figure a tube is placed at the focal point of the parabolic concentrator to collect the solar energy. This
arrangement may be considered as uniform heating with constant heat flux condition along the circumference and axis of
the tube. On a sunny day if a constant heat flux of 2000 W/m2 is observed for a tube diameter of 60 mm.

Determine the
(i) length of the tube if the required exit temperature of water is 80 oC for a mass flow rate of 0.01 kg/s and mean
inlet temperature of 20oC
(ii) surface temperature at the outlet of the tube
The following properties may be taken for water
Specific heat = 4181 J/kg; thermal conductivity = 0.67 W/m.K; Dynamic viscosity=35210-6 N.s/m2; Prandtl
number = 2.2
Also the following Nusselt number correlations may be taken

Nu 4.36

(Laminar flow)

Nu 0.023Re0.8 Pr 0.4

(Turbulent flow)

Evacuated tube collector

Stationary collectors
Concentrating

Flat plate collector with flat reflectors

(Modified flat plate collector)

Sun rays

Flat plate collector

Flat reflector

Schematic diagram of a CPC collector

Sun tracking collectors

Concentrating

Schematic of a parabolic trough collector

Sun rays
Parabola

Tracking
mechanism

Receiver

Parabolic trough collectors

TEI Patra: 3-18 July 2006

Fixed mirror solar concentrator

Fresnel type parabolic trough collector

Sun rays

Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR)

Schematic of a parabolic dish collector

Sun rays
Receiver

Parabola
Two-axes
tracking
mechanis
m

 Can have concentration ratio ranging

from 10 to few thousands
Can attain a temperature up to
3000oC
6-7 m in diameter dish are
commercially manufactured

Schematic of central receiver system

 Can have concentration ratio of

about 3000
Suitable for driving turbines for
power generation

solar water heater

Solar passive space heating and cooling

South facing thick wall called trombe wall
(made of concrete , adobe, stone or
composites of brick blocks to store thermal
energy)
Air gap 10-15 cms

Located in Southwestern Colorado, the Mesa Verde National Park cliff dwellings highlight the
southern-facing cliff villages that were formerly inhabited by the ancient Anasazi culture.

Solar industrial heating system

Drying of tea leaves using solar energy

Solar Power Generation

Solar thermal Power Generation

Solar reactor of ETH-Zurich

concentrated
solar power

window purging nozzle

reactants inlet
reactor insulation
reactor cavity
reactor liner
products outlet

vortex flow
aperture
frustum
quartz window

101

5kW prototype reactor at ETH-Zurich

120 m2 sun-tracking heliostat
8.5 m-diameter concentrator

102

Refrigeration cycle

Solar air conditioning

Solar air conditioning

Ammonia Water solar air conditioning system

solar cooker
Box type solar cooker

Cost 2500 Rs

External dimensions 60 6020 cm

An insulated box of blackened aluminum contains the utensils
Max air temp. inside the box 140 160oC
Capable of cooking 2 kg of food and can save 3-4 LPG cylinder fuel /year

Parabolic dish type solar cooker

The reflector is periodically adjusted to track the sun

Can attain fairly high temperatures 450oC
Can cook for 10-15 persons
Can save up to 10 LPG cylinder fuel /year
Cooking time 20-30 mins
Approximate cost = 5000 Rs.

Community Solar Cooker for Indoor Cooking

Possible to cook using solar energy
within the kitchen itself
The 7 m. sq. large reflector standing
outside the kitchen reflects the solar rays
into the kitchen through an opening in its
North wall

A secondary reflector further

concentrates the rays on to the bottom of
the pot / frying pan painted black
Temperature attained is so high (400oC)
that the food could be cooked in a shorter
time unlike box solar cooker

Cooking for about 40 to 50 persons is possible with 7 sq. m,. Size dish
cooker

 One cooker can serve for 50 people

Can save around 35 to 40 LPG cylinders/ year on full use in community
kitchens

Advanced solar cookers

Disadvantages of box type, parabolic dish, community
solar cookers
Outdoor unit: Parabolic cylindrical reflector (3 20.5 m)
Indoor unit: insulated box (0.4 0.41.2 m)
Temperature : top of the reservoir
Sunny days: 150oC
During nights : 100oC
Largest solar cooker in the world:
Tirumala Tirupathi Devasthanam : cooking
food to 15,000 devotees daily

 106 automatic solar concentration collectors each 9.2 m2

Producing 4000 kg steam daily @ 180oC and 10 kg/cm2 for steam cooking

Solar Desalination

Potable or fresh water : water with less than 500 ppm salt content
Water is kept about 5 10 cm
Indian climatic conditions : 5.31 /m2 day (summer) ; 0.91 /m2 day (winter)

Solar Pond

Large area brine pond 1m deep

Bottom layers of brine reach 70 80oC while top remains 25 oC
A 2000 m2 solar pond equipped with a 20 kW turbine has been constructed
in Australia

Performance Analysis of a solar flat plate collector

Performance Analysis

Transmissivity of cover system

= r a
r= transmissivity obtained by considering only reflection and refraction
a= transmissivity obtained by considering only absorption