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Fuses
Winding configurations
Single-phase power systems
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Contactors
"Ladder" diagrams
Digital logic functions
Motor control circuits
Switches, hand actuated
Switches, process actuated
Switches, electrically actuated (relays)

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Worksheets AC motor control circuits

AC motor control circuits

Question 1:

Perhaps the most challenging aspect of interpreting ladder diagrams, for people more
familiar with electronic schematic diagrams, is how electromechanical relays are
represented. Compare these two equivalent diagrams:
First, the ladder diagram:

Next, the schematic diagram:

Based on your observations of these two diagrams, explain how electromechanical relays
are represented differently between ladder and schematic diagrams.
Reveal Answer
One of the most significant differences is that in ladder diagrams, relay coils and relay
contacts (the normally-open contact in this diagram shown as a capacitor-like symbol)
need not be drawn near each other.
Follow-up question: what do the two labels "L1" and "L2" represent?
Notes:
Discuss these diagrams with your students, noting any significant advantages and
disadvantages of each convention.

In reference to the challenge question, the symbols "L1" and "L2" are very common
designations for AC power conductors. Be sure your students have researched this and
know what these labels mean!
Hide Answer

Question 2:
Interpret this AC motor control circuit diagram, explaining the meaning of each symbol:

Also, explain the operation of this motor control circuit. What happens when someone
actuates the "Run" switch? What happens when they let go of the "Run" switch?
Reveal Answer
In this circuit, the motor will start once the "Run" switch is actuated. When the "Run"
switch is released, the motor continues to run.
Follow-up question: this circuit has no top" switch! What would have to be modified in
the ladder logic circuit to provide top" control?
Notes:
This circuit is known as a latching circuit, because it "latches" in the n" state after a
momentary action. The contact in parallel with the "Run" switch is often referred to as a
seal-in contact, because it eals" the momentary condition of the Run switch closure after
that switch is de-actuated.
The follow-up question of how we may make the motor stop running is a very important
one. Spend time with your students discussing this practical design problem, and
implement a solution.
Hide Answer

Question 3:
Draw the necessary wire connections to build the circuit shown in this ladder diagram:
Ladder diagram:

Illustration showing components:

Reveal Answer

Notes:
This question helps students build their spatial-relations skills, as they relate a neat, clean
diagram to a relatively "messy" real-world circuit. As usual, the circuit shown here is not
the only way it could have been built, but it is one solution.
Hide Answer

Question 4:
The simplest and least expensive style of electric motor control is the so-called acrossthe-line starter. Describe how this motor control circuit functions, and also define the
word tarter" in this context.
Reveal Answer
A tarter" is another name for the large power relay used to conduct current to the motor
lines. Starters are also known as contactors, and are usually labeled with the letter "M" in
ladder diagrams.
Notes:
Ask your students to identify any motor control circuit diagrams they've already seen as
being cross-the-line." If there are no convenient motor control circuit diagrams available
for illustration, you may want to ask a student to draw an cross-the-line" starter circuit
on the whiteboard for everyone to see.

Hide Answer

Question 5:
Although cross-the-line" motor control circuits are simple and inexpensive, they are not
preferred for starting large motors. An alternative to across-the-line motor starting is
reduced voltage starting. Identify some of the reasons across-the-line starting is
undesirable for large electric motors.
Reveal Answer
I'll let you research the answers to this question!
Notes:
The reasons for using reduced-voltage starting instead of across-the-line starting go
beyond electrical! Discuss this with your students.
Hide Answer

Question 6:
A special type of overcurrent protection device used commonly in motor control circuits
is the overload heater. These devices are connected in series with the motor conductors,
and heat up slightly under normal current conditions:

Although the "heater" elements are connected in series with the motor lines as fuses
would be, they are not fuses! In other words, it is not the purpose of an overload heater to

burn open under an overcurrent fault condition, although it is possible for them to do so.
The key to understanding the purpose of an overload heater is found by examining the
single-phase (L1 / L2) control circuit, where a normally-closed switch contact by the
same name (L") is connected in series with the motor relay coil.
How, exactly, do overload heaters protect an electric motor against "burnout" from
overcurrent conditions? How does this purpose differ from that of fuses or circuit
breakers? Does the presence of overload heaters in this circuit negate that need for a
circuit breaker or regular fuses? Explain your answers.
Reveal Answer
When the overload "heaters" become excessively warm from overcurrent, they trigger the
opening of the L" contact, thus stopping the motor. The heaters do not take the place of
regular overcurrent protection devices (circuit breakers, fuses), but serve a different
purpose entirely. It is the task of the overload heaters to protect the motor against
overcurrent by mimicking the thermal characteristics of the motor itself. Circuit breakers
and fuses, on the other hand, protect an entirely different part of the circuit!
Notes:
Ask your students to describe the information they found on overload heaters through
their research. There are different styles and variations of overload heaters, but they all
perform the same function. Also, be sure to review with your students the purpose of
fuses and circuit breakers. These devices are not intended to protect the load (motor), but
rather another important component of an electrical system!
An interesting way to explain the function of overload heaters is to refer to them as
analog models of the motor windings. They are designed such that at any given current
level, they will take as long to heat up and reach their trip point as the real motor itself
will take to heat up to a point of impending damage. Likewise, they also cool off at the
same rate as the real motor cools off when no power is applied. Overload heaters are like
small motor-models with a thermostat mechanism attached, to trip the overload contact at
the appropriate time. It is an elegant concept, and quite practical in real motor control
applications.
Hide Answer

Question 7:
The circuit shown here provides two-direction control (forward and reverse) for a threephase electric motor:

Explain how the reversal of motor direction is accomplished with two different motor
starters, M1 and M2. Also, explain why there is only one set of overload heaters instead
of two (one for forward and one for reverse). Finally, explain the purpose of the
normally-closed contacts in series with each starter coil.
Reveal Answer
Motor reversal is accomplished by reversing the phase sequence of the three-phase power
going to the motor (from ABC to ACB). The existence of only one set (three) heaters may
be adequately explained if you consider a scenario where the motor overheats after being
run in the "Forward" direction, then an immediate attempt is made to run it in "Reverse."
Finally, the NC contacts (typically called interlock contacts) prevent lots of sparks from
flying if both pushbuttons are simultaneously pressed!
Notes:
Ask your students to explain exactly why parks [would fly]" if both pushbuttons were
pressed at the same time. The name commonly given to the NC contacts is interlock,
because each one "locks out" the other starter from being energized.
Hide Answer

Question 8:

The starter and overload heater assembly for an industrial electric motor is often located
quite a distance from the motor itself, inside a room referred to as a motor control center,
or MCC:

Since it is impossible for a technician to be in two places at once, it is often necessary to

perform diagnostic checks on a malfunctioning electric motor from the MCC where the
technician has access to all the control circuitry.
One such diagnostic check is line current, to detect the presence of an open motor
winding. If a three-phase motor winding fails open, the motor will not run as it should.
This is called single-phasing. A good way to check for this condition is to use a clamp-on
(inductive) ammeter to check line current on all three lines while the starter is energized.
This may be done at any location where there is physical access to the motor power
conductors.
Suppose, though, you are working on a job site where single-phasing is suspected and
you do not have a clamp-on ammeter with you. All you have is a DMM (digital
multimeter), which does not have the ability to safely measure the motor's current. You
are about to head back to the shop to get a clamp-on ammeter when a more experienced
technician suggests an alternate test. He takes your DMM, sets it to the AC millivolt
range, then connects the test probes to either side of each overload heater element, one
heater at a time like this:

Across each overload heater element he measures about 20 mV AC with the starter
engaged. From this he determines that the motor is not single-phasing, but is drawing
approximately equal current on all three phases.
Explain how this diagnostic check works, and why this determination can be made. Also
describe what limitations this diagnostic procedure has, and how a clamp-on ammeter
really is the best way to measure motor line current.
Reveal Answer
Each overload heater element possesses a small amount of electrical resistance, which is
the key to this diagnostic procedure. Of course, the measurement obtained is strictly
qualitative, not quantitative as a clamp-on ammeter would give.
Follow-up question #1: what sort of result might occur with this diagnostic check if the
motor were indeed single-phasing due to one of the overload heaters failing open?
Follow-up question #2: what other causes could there be for a three-phase motor inglephasing" other than a motor winding failed open?
Notes:
I have used this diagnostic check more than once to troubleshooting a single-phasing
electric motor. It is amazing what sorts of diagnostic checks you can do with a highquality DMM and a sound understanding of electrical theory!
Hide Answer

Question 9:
A popular strategy for AC induction motor control is the use of variable frequency drive
units, or VFDs. Explain what varying the frequency of power to an AC induction motor
accomplishes, and why this might be advantageous.
Reveal Answer
Variable frequency drives allow for the precise and efficient control of induction motor
speed, which is not possible by other means.
Notes:
Central to the answer of this question is the principle of a rotating magnetic field and how
rotor speed is primarily a function of line frequency. While the internal details of a VFD
are quite complex, the basic operating principle (and rationale) is not.
Hide Answer

Question 10:
Shown here is a typical set of "curves" for an overload heater, such as is commonly used
to provide overcurrent protection for AC electric motors:

Why is there any time required to re-set an overload heater contact after a "trip"? Circuit
breakers can be re-closed mere moments after a trip with no problem, and fuses (of
course) can be replaced moments after blowing. Is this an intentional design feature of
overload heaters, or just an idiosyncrasy?
Also, explain why the reset curve starts to decrease for currents above 300% of the
motor's full-load rating. Why doesn't the reset time curve continue to increase with
increasing fault current magnitudes?
Reveal Answer
The reset time for an overcurrent heater is an intentional design feature. If the heater is
too hot to re-set, then the motor is too hot to re-start.
Notes:
Remind your students that the purpose of an overload heater is to provide a thermal
analogue of the electric motor itself. Ideally, the heater heats up and cools down at the
exact same rate as the motor. This explains why there is a necessary reset time after an
overload heater causes the motor control circuit to "trip."
Ask your students to share the common design features of an overload heater, from their
research. How do these devices actually function? If your students understand this, they
should have no difficulty understanding why overload heater contacts require time to
reset after a trip.
The reason for the reset time curve decreasing after about 300% full-load current is a bit
more complex to answer. This, as well, is not an idiosyncrasy, but rather a design feature

of the overload heater. Since greater levels of current will trip the heater in a shorter time,
they actually heat up the motor less during that brief n" time than a sustained
overcurrent of lesser magnitude. Therefore the motor does not need to cool down as long
prior to the next re-start.
Hide Answer

Question 11:
Protective relays are special power-sensing devices whose job it is to automatically open
or close circuit breakers in large electric power systems. Some protective relays are
designed to be used directly with large electric motors to provide sophisticated
monitoring, shut-down, and start-up control.
One of the features of these motor-oriented protective relays is start-up lockout. What
this means is the relay will prevent someone from attempting too many successive restarts of a large electric motor. If the motor is started and stopped several times over a
short period of time, the relay will prevent the person from starting it again until a
sufficient "rest" time has passed.
Explain why a large electric motor would need to "rest" after several successive start-up
events. If electric motors are perfectly capable of running continuously at full load for
years on end, why would a few start-ups be worthy of automatic lock-out?
Reveal Answer
I won't give you a direct answer here, but I will provide a big hint: inrush current.
Notes:
Inrush current is a factor with every motor type, AC or DC. It is easy to forget just how
substantially larger a typical motor's inrush current is compared to its normal full-load
current. When students consider the magnitude of the currents involved, and also the fact
that most electric motors are fan-cooled and therefore lacking in cooling during the initial
moments of a start-up, the reason for automatic lock-out after several successive start-up
events becomes obvious.
Hide Answer

Question 12:
Electromechanical relays used to start and stop high-power electric motors (called
"contactors" or tarters") must be considered a possible source of arc flash. Explain why

this is. What is it about the construction or operation of such a relay that invites this
dangerous phenomenon?
Reveal Answer
Electromechanical relays interrupt circuit current by drawing pairs of metal contacts
apart, separating them with an air gap. Because this contact motion is not instantaneous,
it is possible to generate an arc across the air gaps of such magnitude that it becomes an
arc flash.
Notes:
Arc flash is just as hazardous to electrical technicians as electric shock, yet I have seen
(and worked with) people who pay no attention to the dangers! It must be understood that
motor starters are by their very nature arc-generating devices, and that under certain
unusual conditions may generate lethal arc flashes. You might want to ask your students
what sorts of unusual conditions could lead to a contactor producing an actual arc flash
(rather than merely a few small sparks).
Hide Answer

Question 13:
There are several different methods of providing reduced-voltage starting for electric
motors. One of them is the autotransformer method. Here is a diagram showing how this
works:

"L1," "L2," and "L3" represent the three phase power supply conductors. Three sets of
contacts (R, S, and Y) serve to connect power to the motor at different times. The starting
sequence for the motor is as follows:
1.
Motor off (R open, S open, Y open)
2.
Start button pressed (S and Y contacts all close)
3.
Time delay (depending on the size of the motor)
4.
Y contacts open
5.
Time delay (depending on the size of the motor)
6.
R contacts close, S contacts open
Explain the operation of this system. How do the autotransformers serve to reduce
voltage to the electric motor during start-up?
Reveal Answer
When the "S" and "Y" contacts are all closed, the autotransformers form a three-phase
"Y" connection, with line voltage (L1, L2, and L3) applied to the "tips" of the "Y," and a

reduced motor voltage tapped off a portion of each autotransformer winding.

When the "Y" contacts open, the three autotransformers now function merely as seriesconnected inductors, limiting current with their inductive reactance.
When the "R" contacts close, the motor receives direct power from L1, L2, and L3.
Follow-up question: how do the overload heaters function in this circuit? They aren't
connected in series with the motor conductors as is typical with smaller motors!
Notes:
For each step of the start-up sequence, it is possible to re-draw the circuit feeding power
to the motor, in order to make its function more apparent. Do not create these re-drawings
yourself, but have your students draw an equivalent circuit for each step in the start-up
sequence.
The follow-up question is a good review of current transformers (CT), as well as an
introduction to the use of overload heaters in high-current electrical systems.
Hide Answer

Question 14:
Identify at least three independent faults that could cause this motor not to start:

For each of the proposed faults, explain why they would prevent the motor from starting.
Reveal Answer

Here are some possible faults (not an exhaustive list by any means!):

Any fuse blown

Contactor coil failed open

Any transformer winding failed open

Broken jumper between H3 and H2 on the transformer

Corroded wire connection at terminal A1 or A2

Motor winding failed shorted

Follow-up question: there will be a difference in operation between the L1 fuse blowing
and either the L2 or L3 fuse blowing. Explain what this difference is, and why it might
serve as a clue to what was wrong.
Notes:
Identifying multiple faults should be quite easy in this circuit. The real value of this
question is the opportunity for explanation and discussion that it generates for your
students as they share their answers with each other.
Hide Answer

Question 15:
There is something wrong in this motor control circuit. When the start button is pressed,
the contactor energizes but the motor itself does not run:

Identify a good place to check with your multimeter to diagnose the nature of the fault,
and explain your reasoning.
Reveal Answer
Try checking for line voltages at the "line" (source) side of the contactor, between
terminals 1 and 2, 2 and 3, and 1 and 3, with the contactor energized (motor is supposed
to be running). I'll leave it to you to explain why this is a good place to check first.
Notes:
Discuss with your students the various options they have in diagnostic steps, and what
they think of the step proposed in the answer. Troubleshooting scenarios such as this as
excellent for stimulating active class discussions, so take advantage of it!
Hide Answer

Question 16:

Interpret this AC motor control circuit diagram, explaining the meaning of each symbol:

Also, explain the operation of this motor control circuit. What happens when someone
actuates the "Run" switch? What happens when they let go of the "Run" switch?
Reveal Answer
The "Run" switch is a normally-open pushbutton. Relay coil "M1" is energized by this
switch, and actuates three normally-open contacts (also labeled "M1") to send threephase power to the motor. Note that the details of the power supply are not shown in
these diagrams. This is a common omission, done for the sake of simplicity.
Notes:
Discuss with your students the sources of electrical power for both circuits here: the relay
control circuit and the motor itself. Challenge your students to explore this concept by
asking them the following questions:

Are the two sources necessarily the same?

How does the convention of linking relay coils with contacts by name (rather than
by dashed lines and proximity) in ladder diagrams benefit multiple-source circuits
such as this one?

Do these circuits even have to be drawn on the same page?

Hide Answer

Question 17:

Identify at least one fault that would cause the motor to turn off immediately once the
"Start" pushbutton switch was released, instead of "latch" in the run mode as it should:

For each of your proposed faults, explain why it will cause the described problem.
Reveal Answer

M1 control contact failed open.

Wire(s) between M1 control contact and control circuit broken open.

Notes:
This form of motor control circuit is very popular in industry. It is well worth your
students' time to study it and understand both how and why it works.
Hide Answer

Question 18:
A very common form of latch circuit is the simple tart-stop" relay circuit used for motor
controls, whereby a pair of momentary-contact pushbutton switches control the operation
of an electric motor. In this particular case, I show a low-voltage control circuit and a 3phase, higher voltage motor:

Explain the operation of this circuit, from the time the "Start" switch is actuated to the
time the "Stop" switch is actuated. The normally-open M1 contact shown in the lowvoltage control circuit is commonly called a seal-in contact. Explain what this contact
does, and why it might be called a eal-in" contact.
Reveal Answer
Even though the "Start" and "Stop" switches are momentary, the eal-in" contact makes
the circuit latch in one of two states: either motor energized or motor de-energized.
Notes:
Motor tart-stop" circuits are very common in industry, and apply to applications beyond
electric motors. Ask your students if they can think of any application for a circuit such as
this.
Hide Answer

Question 19:
An alternative to the conventional schematic diagram in AC power control systems is the
ladder diagram. In this convention, the "hot" and "neutral" power conductors are drawn
as vertical lines near the edges of the page, with all loads and switch contacts drawn
between those lines like rungs on a ladder:

As you can see, the symbolism in ladder diagrams is not always the same as in electrical
schematic diagrams. While some symbols are identical (the toggle switch, for instance),
other symbols are not (the solenoid coil, for instance).
Re-draw this ladder diagram as a schematic diagram, translating all the symbols into
those correct for schematic diagrams.
Reveal Answer

Notes:
While ladder diagrams have their own unique elegance, it may be frustrating for some
students to have to learn a new diagram convention. Since ladder diagrams are so
common in industry, your students really have no choice.
Hide Answer

Question 20:
Draw the necessary wire connections to build the circuit shown in this ladder diagram:
Ladder diagram:

Illustration showing components:

Yes, the "Run" switch shown in the diagram is a SPST, but the switch shown in the
illustration is a SPDT. This is a realistic scenario, where the only type of switch you have
available is a SPDT, but the wiring diagram calls for something different. It is your job to
improvise a solution!

Reveal Answer

Challenge question: which switch position (handle to the left or handle to the right) turns
the motor on?
Notes:
This question helps students build their spatial-relations skills, as they relate a neat, clean
diagram to a relatively "messy" real-world circuit. As usual, the circuit shown here is not
the only way it could have been built, but it is one solution.
In reference to the challenge question, the particular style of SPDT switch shown is very
common, and the terminal connections on the bottom might not be what you would
expect from looking at its schematic symbol.
Hide Answer

Question 21:
Examine this three-phase motor control circuit, where fuses protect against overcurrent
and a three-pole relay (called a contactor) turns power on and off to the motor:

After years of faithful service, one day this motor refuses to start. It makes a "humming"
sound when the contactor is energized (relay contacts close), but it does not turn. A
mechanic checks it out and determines that the shaft is not seized, but is free to turn. The
problem must be electrical in nature!
You are called to investigate. Using a clamp-on ammeter, you measure the current
through each of the lines (immediately after each fuse) as another start is once again
attempted. You then record the three current measurements:

Line

Current

52.7 amps

51.9 amps

0 amps

Determine at least two possible faults which could account for the motor's refusal to start
and the three current measurements taken. Then, decide what your next measurement(s)
will be to isolate the exact location and nature of the fault.
Reveal Answer
Here are some possibilities:

Fuse #3 blown open

Third relay contact damaged (failed open) inside the contactor

One winding failed open inside the motor (assuming a "Y" winding
configuration)
There are several valid "next steps" you could take from this point. Discuss alternatives
with your classmates.
Notes:
This is a practical scenario which you and your students should have some fun exploring.
If they have never heard of a "contactor" before, this question is a good opportunity to
introduce the component. Bring one with you to discussion if you have the opportunity!
Hide Answer

Question 22:
Working on a job site with an experienced technician, you are tasked with trying to
determine whether the line currents going to a three-phase electric motor are balanced. If
everything is okay with the motor and the power circuitry, of course, the three line
currents should be precisely equal to each other.
The problem is, neither of you brought a clamp-on ammeter for measuring the line
currents. Your multimeters are much too small to measure the large currents in this
circuit, and connecting an ammeter in series with such a large motor could be dangerous
anyway. So, the experienced technician decides to try something different - he uses his
multimeter as an AC milli-voltmeter to measure the small voltage drop across each fuse,
using the fuses as crude shunt resistors:

He obtains the following measurements:

Line

Fuse voltage drop

24.3 mV

37.9 mV

15.4 mV

Do these voltage drop measurements suggest imbalanced motor line currents? Why or
why not?
Reveal Answer
The results are inconclusive, because resistance for the whole fuse and holder assembly is
not a reliably stable quantity. Corrosion between one of the fuse ends and the fuse holder
clip, for example, would increase resistance between the points where millivoltage is
shown measured.
Follow-up question: just because the results of these millivoltage measurements are
inconclusive in this scenario does not necessarily mean the principle of using fuses as
current-indicating shunt resistors is useless. Describe one application where using a fuse

as a current-indicating shunt would yield trustworthy information about the current.

Challenge question: determine where you could measure millivoltage, that might be more
reliable in terms of quantitatively indicating line current.
Notes:
While measuring millivoltage across a fuse may seem like a strange diagnostic technique,
it is one I have gainfully applied for years. The "catch" is you have to know what it is
good for and what it is not. It is not a precise, quantitative technique by any means!
Hide Answer

Question 23:
One method of achieving reduced-voltage starting for large electric motors is to insert
series resistances into each of the motor's power conductors. When starting, all power
must go through the resistors. After the motor has had time to speed up, another set of
tarter" contacts bypass line power around the resistors, directly to the motor windings.
Draw a diagram showing how this could be done for a single-phase electric motor, using
two starter contacts: "R" for "run" and "S" for tart". Hint: you only need two contacts
and one resistor!
Reveal Answer
None of the control circuitry (start switch, overload contact, starter coil, etc.) is shown in
this diagram:

Notes:
If students have studied the autotransformer method of reduced-voltage starting, ask them
to compare this method against that. Certainly, the resistive method is simpler, but does
the autotransformer method have its own advantage(s)?

Hide Answer
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Table of Contents:
"Ladder" diagrams
Digital logic functions
Permissive and interlock circuits
Motor control circuits
Fail-safe design
Programmable logic controllers
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Volume IV - Digital LADDER LOGIC

Permissive and interlock circuits

A practical application of switch and relay logic is in control systems where
several process conditions have to be met before a piece of equipment is allowed to start.
A good example of this is burner control for large combustion furnaces. In order for the
burners in a large furnace to be started safely, the control system requests "permission"
from several process switches, including high and low fuel pressure, air fan flow check,
exhaust stack damper position, access door position, etc. Each process condition is called
a permissive, and each permissive switch contact is wired in series, so that if any one of
them detects an unsafe condition, the circuit will be opened:

If all permissive conditions are met, CR1 will energize and the green lamp will be lit. In
real life, more than just a green lamp would be energized: usually a control relay or fuel
valve solenoid would be placed in that rung of the circuit to be energized when all the
permissive contacts were "good:" that is, all closed. If any one of the permissive
conditions are not met, the series string of switch contacts will be broken, CR2 will deenergize, and the red lamp will light.

Note that the high fuel pressure contact is normally-closed. This is because we want the
switch contact to open if the fuel pressure gets too high. Since the "normal" condition of
any pressure switch is when zero (low) pressure is being applied to it, and we want this
switch to open with excessive (high) pressure, we must choose a switch that is closed in
its normal state.
Another practical application of relay logic is in control systems where we want to ensure
two incompatible events cannot occur at the same time. An example of this is in
reversible motor control, where two motor contactors are wired to switch polarity (or
phase sequence) to an electric motor, and we don't want the forward and reverse
contactors energized simultaneously:

When contactor M1 is energized, the 3 phases (A, B, and C) are connected directly to
terminals 1, 2, and 3 of the motor, respectively. However, when contactor M2 is
energized, phases A and B are reversed, A going to motor terminal 2 and B going to
motor terminal 1. This reversal of phase wires results in the motor spinning the opposite
direction. Let's examine the control circuit for these two contactors:

Take note of the normally-closed "OL" contact, which is the thermal overload contact
activated by the "heater" elements wired in series with each phase of the AC motor. If the
heaters get too hot, the contact will change from its normal (closed) state to being open,
which will prevent either contactor from energizing.
This control system will work fine, so long as no one pushes both buttons at the same
time. If someone were to do that, phases A and B would be short-circuited together by
virtue of the fact that contactor M1 sends phases A and B straight to the motor and
contactor M2 reverses them; phase A would be shorted to phase B and vice versa.
Obviously, this is a bad control system design!
To prevent this occurrence from happening, we can design the circuit so that the
energization of one contactor prevents the energization of the other. This is called
interlocking, and it is accomplished through the use of auxiliary contacts on each
contactor, as such:

Now, when M1 is energized, the normally-closed auxiliary contact on the second rung
will be open, thus preventing M2 from being energized, even if the "Reverse" pushbutton
is actuated. Likewise, M1's energization is prevented when M2 is energized. Note, as well,
how additional wire numbers (4 and 5) were added to reflect the wiring changes.
It should be noted that this is not the only way to interlock contactors to prevent a shortcircuit condition. Some contactors come equipped with the option of a mechanical
interlock: a lever joining the armatures of two contactors together so that they are

physically prevented from simultaneous closure. For additional safety, electrical

interlocks may still be used, and due to the simplicity of the circuit there is no good
reason not to employ them in addition to mechanical interlocks.

REVIEW:
Switch contacts installed in a rung of ladder logic designed to interrupt a circuit if
certain physical conditions are not met are called permissive contacts, because the
system requires permission from these inputs to activate.
Switch contacts designed to prevent a control system from taking two
incompatible actions at once (such as powering an electric motor forward and
backward simultaneously) are called interlocks.
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Table of Contents:
"Ladder" diagrams
Digital logic functions
Permissive and interlock circuits
Motor control circuits
Fail-safe design
Programmable logic controllers
Contributors

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Volume IV - Digital LADDER LOGIC

Motor control circuits

The interlock contacts installed in the previous section's motor control circuit
work fine, but the motor will run only as long as each pushbutton switch is held down. If
we wanted to keep the motor running even after the operator takes his or her hand off the
control switch(es), we could change the circuit in a couple of different ways: we could
replace the pushbutton switches with toggle switches, or we could add some more relay
logic to "latch" the control circuit with a single, momentary actuation of either switch.
Let's see how the second approach is implemented, since it is commonly used in industry:

When the "Forward" pushbutton is actuated, M1 will energize, closing the normally-open
auxiliary contact in parallel with that switch. When the pushbutton is released, the closed
M1 auxiliary contact will maintain current to the coil of M1, thus latching the "Forward"
circuit in the "on" state. The same sort of thing will happen when the "Reverse"
pushbutton is pressed. These parallel auxiliary contacts are sometimes referred to as sealin contacts, the word "seal" meaning essentially the same thing as the word latch.
However, this creates a new problem: how to stop the motor! As the circuit exists right
now, the motor will run either forward or backward once the corresponding pushbutton
switch is pressed, and will continue to run as long as there is power. To stop either circuit
(forward or backward), we require some means for the operator to interrupt power to the
motor contactors. We'll call this new switch, Stop:

Now, if either forward or reverse circuits are latched, they may be "unlatched" by
momentarily pressing the "Stop" pushbutton, which will open either forward or reverse
circuit, de-energizing the energized contactor, and returning the seal-in contact to its
normal (open) state. The "Stop" switch, having normally-closed contacts, will conduct
power to either forward or reverse circuits when released.
So far, so good. Let's consider another practical aspect of our motor control scheme
before we quit adding to it. If our hypothetical motor turned a mechanical load with a lot
of momentum, such as a large air fan, the motor might continue to coast for a substantial
amount of time after the stop button had been pressed. This could be problematic if an
operator were to try to reverse the motor direction without waiting for the fan to stop
turning. If the fan was still coasting forward and the "Reverse" pushbutton was pressed,
the motor would struggle to overcome that inertia of the large fan as it tried to begin
turning in reverse, drawing excessive current and potentially reducing the life of the
motor, drive mechanisms, and fan. What we might like to have is some kind of a timedelay function in this motor control system to prevent such a premature startup from
happening.
Let's begin by adding a couple of time-delay relay coils, one in parallel with each motor
contactor coil. If we use contacts that delay returning to their normal state, these relays
will provide us a "memory" of which direction the motor was last powered to turn. What
we want each time-delay contact to do is to open the starting-switch leg of the opposite
rotation circuit for several seconds, while the fan coasts to a halt.

If the motor has been running in the forward direction, both M1 and TD1 will have been
energized. This being the case, the normally-closed, timed-closed contact of TD1 between
wires 8 and 5 will have immediately opened the moment TD1 was energized. When the
stop button is pressed, contact TD1 waits for the specified amount of time before
returning to its normally-closed state, thus holding the reverse pushbutton circuit open for
the duration so M2 can't be energized. When TD1 times out, the contact will close and the
circuit will allow M2 to be energized, if the reverse pushbutton is pressed. In like manner,
TD2 will prevent the "Forward" pushbutton from energizing M1 until the prescribed time
delay after M2 (and TD2) have been de-energized.
The careful observer will notice that the time-interlocking functions of TD1 and TD2
render the M1 and M2 interlocking contacts redundant. We can get rid of auxiliary
contacts M1 and M2 for interlocks and just use TD1 and TD2's contacts, since they
immediately open when their respective relay coils are energized, thus "locking out" one
contactor if the other is energized. Each time delay relay will serve a dual purpose:
preventing the other contactor from energizing while the motor is running, and preventing
the same contactor from energizing until a prescribed time after motor shutdown. The
resulting circuit has the advantage of being simpler than the previous example:

REVIEW:
Motor contactor (or "starter") coils are typically designated by the letter "M" in
ladder logic diagrams.
Continuous motor operation with a momentary "start" switch is possible if a
normally-open "seal-in" contact from the contactor is connected in parallel with
the start switch, so that once the contactor is energized it maintains power to itself
and keeps itself "latched" on.
Time delay relays are commonly used in large motor control circuits to prevent
the motor from being started (or reversed) until a certain amount of time has
elapsed from an event.
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Table of Contents:
Wires and connections
Power sources
Resistors
Capacitors
Inductors
Mutual inductors
Switches, hand actuated
Switches, process actuated
Switches, electrically actuated (relays)
Connectors
Diodes
Transistors, bipolar
Transistors, junction field-effect (JFET)
Transistors, insulated-gate field-effect (IGFET or MOSFET)
Transistors, hybrid
Thyristors
Integrated circuits
Electron tubes
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Volume V - Reference CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS

Switches, hand actuated

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Table of Contents:
Wires and connections
Power sources
Resistors
Capacitors
Inductors
Mutual inductors
Switches, hand actuated
Switches, process actuated
Switches, electrically actuated (relays)
Connectors
Diodes
Transistors, bipolar
Transistors, junction field-effect (JFET)
Transistors, insulated-gate field-effect (IGFET or MOSFET)
Transistors, hybrid
Thyristors
Integrated circuits
Electron tubes
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Volume V - Reference CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS

Wires and connections

Older electrical schematics showed connecting wires crossing, while non-connecting

wires "jumped" over each other with little half-circle marks. Newer electrical schematics
show connecting wires joining with a dot, while non-connecting wires cross with no dot.
However, some people still use the older convention of connecting wires crossing with no
dot, which may create confusion.
For this reason, I opt to use a hybrid convention, with connecting wires unambiguously
connected by a dot, and non-connecting wires unambiguously "jumping" over one
another with a half-circle mark. While this may be frowned upon by some, it leaves no
room for interpretational error: in each case, the intent is clear and unmistakable:

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Worksheets Ohm's Law

Ohm's Law
Question 1:
For a given amount of water pressure, which will flow a greater rate of water: a small
(restrictive) nozzle or a large (unrestrictive) nozzle? Explain how this relates to the study
of voltage, current, and resistance in a simple electric circuit.

Reveal Answer

Question 2:
Suppose you were to build this circuit and take measurements of current through the
resistor and voltage across the resistor:

Recording these numerical values in a table, the results look something like this:
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXX
Current
Voltage
0.22 A
0.66 V
0.47 A
1.42 V
0.85 A
2.54 V
1.05 A
3.16 V
1.50 A
4.51 V

1.80 A
2.00 A
2.51 A

5.41 V
5.99 V
7.49 V

Plot these figures on the following graph:

What mathematical relationship do you see between voltage and current in this simple
circuit?
Reveal Answer

Question 3:
Explain, step by step, how to calculate the amount of current (I) that will go through the
resistor in this circuit:

Reveal Answer

Resistor current = 0.02553 amps, or 25.53 milliamps (mA).

Notes:
Just a simple Ohm's Law calculation here - no tricks! The point of this question, however,
is to get students to think about the steps they follow in doing the calculation. Many
students simply wish to memorize procedures rather than learn why to do what they need
to do to answer such questions. It is your task as the instructor to challenge them beyond
memorization, and through to understanding.
Hide Answer

Question 4:

f(x) dx Calculus alert!

Plot the relationships between voltage and current for resistors of three different values (1
, 2 , and 3 ), all on the same graph:

What pattern do you see represented by your three plots? What relationship is there
between the amount of resistance and the nature of the voltage/current function as it
appears on the graph?
Advanced question: in calculus, the instantaneous rate-of-change of an (x,y) function is
expressed through the use of the derivative notation: [dy/dx]. How would the derivative
for each of these three plots be properly expressed using calculus notation? Explain how
the derivatives of these functions relate to real electrical quantities.

Reveal Answer

Question 5:
What is the value of this resistor, in ohms ()?

Reveal Answer
Resistor value = 2700 , or 2.7 k.
One format of component value expression popular in Europe is to replace the decimal
point with the metric prefix, so 2.7 k would be represented as 2k7 . Not only is this
notation simpler, but it also transcends the interpretational difficulties experienced
between Europeans and Americans with their opposite usages of commas and decimal
points.
Notes:
Some students might not realize that in Europe, commas are used as decimal points and
visa-versa. Thus, two thousand seven hundred would be written as 2,700 in America and
2.700 in Europe. Conversely, the number would be written as 3.141593 in America but
3,141593 in Europe. Confusing? Yes!!
Hide Answer

Question 6:
A common saying about electricity is that t always takes the path of least resistance."
Explain how this proverb relates to the following circuit, where electric current from the
battery encounters two alternate paths, one being less resistive than the other:

Reveal Answer
The 250 resistor will experience a current of 40 mA, while the 800 resistor will
experience a current of 12.5 mA.
Notes:
As an instructor, I was very surprised to hear many beginning students claim that all
current would go through the lesser resistor, and none through the greater resistor! The
proverb about "takes the path of least resistance" really should be understood as
"proportionately taking paths of lesser resistance." People new to the study of electricity
often misunderstand such basic principles, their errors usually based on folk wisdom like
this. It is imperative to break through these myths with hard fact. In this case, Ohm's Law
serves as a mathematical tool we can use to dispel false ideas.
Of course, a circuit as simple as this may be readily assembled and tested in class, so that
all may see the truth for themselves.
Hide Answer

Question 7:
One style of light bulb, very different from the ncandescent" design which works on the
principle of a super-heated wire filament emitting light, is called a gas discharge tube. In
this design of light bulb, light is produced by the direct xcitation" of gas molecules as
electric current passes between two electrodes:

Both types of light bulbs have interesting voltage/current plots, neither one being
identical to the voltage/current plot of a resistor. First, the voltage/current plot for an
incandescent light bulb:

Next, the voltage/current plot for a gas-discharge light bulb:

Based on these two graphs, what can you say about the electrical resistance of each bulb
type over its operating range?
Reveal Answer
Unlike a resistor, which offers a relatively fixed (unchanging) amount of resistance to the
motion of electrons over a wide range of operating conditions, the electrical resistance of
light bulbs typically change dramatically over their respective operating ranges.
From the graphs, determine where the resistance for each type of light bulb is at its
maximum, and where the resistance is at its minimum.
Notes:
Many types of electrical and electronic components experience changes in electrical
resistance over their operating ranges of current and voltage. Resistors, while simple to
study, do not exhibit the behavior of most electronic components. It is important for
students to understand that the real world of electricity and electronics is much more
complex than what Ohm's Law might suggest (with an implicit assumption of fixed
resistance). This is one concept that graphs really help to illustrate.
Hide Answer

Question 8:
Draw the schematic diagram for an experimental circuit to gather data necessary to plot
the voltage/current graph of a gas discharge lamp.
Reveal Answer

Question 9:
What is negative resistance?
Reveal Answer
"Negative resistance" is where an electrical component passes less current as the voltage
dropped across it increases.
Notes:
Not only do many gas-discharge devices exhibit negative resistance over certain portions
of their operating range, but many semiconductor devices do as well.
Hide Answer

Question 10:
What would happen if a wire having no resistance at all (0 ) were connected directly
across the terminals of a 6-volt battery? How much current would result, according to
Ohm's Law?

Suppose we were to short-circuit a 6-volt battery in the manner just described and
measure 8 amps of current. Why don't the calculated figures from the previous paragraph
agree with the actual measurement?
Reveal Answer
Ohm's Law would suggest an infinite current (current = voltage divided by zero
resistance). Yet, the experiment described yields only a modest amount of current.
If you think that the wire used in the experiment is not resistance-less (i.e. it does have
resistance), and that this accounts for the disparity between the predicted and measured
amounts of current, you are partially correct. Realistically, a small piece of wire such as

that used in the experiment will have a few tenths of an ohm of resistance. However, if
you re-calculate current with a wire resistance of 0.1 , you will still find a large
disparity between your prediction and the actual measured current in this short-circuit.
Follow-up question #1: explain why wire resistance alone does not explain the modest
short-circuit current.
Follow-up question #2: identify at least one safety hazard associated with a real
experiment such as this.
Notes:
Remind students that short-circuit testing of electrical power sources can be dangerous. A
student of mine once stuffed a 6-volt "lantern" battery in his tool pouch, only to have it
discharge smoke an hour later, after the battery terminals had been shorted together by a
wrench handle!
No, Ohm's Law is not being cheated here: shorting a voltage source with a 0 conductor
will not result in infinite current, because there are other sources of resistance in such a
circuit. The task here is to determine where those sources might be, and how they could
be located.
Hide Answer

Question 11:
Shunt resistors are often used as current-measuring devices, in that they are designed to
drop very precise amounts of voltage as large electric currents pass through them. By
measuring the amount of voltage dropped by a shunt resistor, you will be able to
determine the amount of current going through it:

Suppose that a shunt resistance is labeled with the following rating: 150 A , 50 mV. What

is the resistance of this shunt, in ohms? Express your answer in metric notation, scientific
notation, and plain decimal notation.
Reveal Answer
Metric notation: 333.3
Scientific notation: 3.333 104
Plain decimal notation: 0.0003333
Notes:
Ask your students how they think a resistor could be made with such a low resistance (a
tiny fraction of an ohm!). What do they think a shunt resistor would look like in real life?
If you happen to have a shunt resistor available in your classroom, show it to your
students after they express their opinions on its construction.
Hide Answer

Question 12:
Don't just sit there! Build something!!
Learning to mathematically analyze circuits requires much study and practice. Typically,
students practice by working through lots of sample problems and checking their answers
against those provided by the textbook or the instructor. While this is good, there is a
much better way.
You will learn much more by actually building and analyzing real circuits, letting your
test equipment provide the nswers" instead of a book or another person. For successful
circuit-building exercises, follow these steps:
1.
Carefully measure and record all component values prior to circuit construction.
2.
Draw the schematic diagram for the circuit to be analyzed.
3.
Carefully build this circuit on a breadboard or other convenient medium.
4.
Check the accuracy of the circuit's construction, following each wire to each
connection point, and verifying these elements one-by-one on the diagram.
5.
Mathematically analyze the circuit, solving for all values of voltage, current, etc.
6.
Carefully measure those quantities, to verify the accuracy of your analysis.

7.
If there are any substantial errors (greater than a few percent), carefully check
your circuit's construction against the diagram, then carefully re-calculate the
values and re-measure.
Avoid very high and very low resistor values, to avoid measurement errors caused by
meter "loading". I recommend resistors between 1 k and 100 k, unless, of course, the
purpose of the circuit is to illustrate the effects of meter loading!
One way you can save time and reduce the possibility of error is to begin with a very
simple circuit and incrementally add components to increase its complexity after each
analysis, rather than building a whole new circuit for each practice problem. Another
time-saving technique is to re-use the same components in a variety of different circuit
configurations. This way, you won't have to measure any component's value more than
once.
Reveal Answer
Let the electrons themselves give you the answers to your own "practice problems"!
Notes:
It has been my experience that students require much practice with circuit analysis to
become proficient. To this end, instructors usually provide their students with lots of
practice problems to work through, and provide answers for students to check their work
against. While this approach makes students proficient in circuit theory, it fails to fully
educate them.
Students don't just need mathematical practice. They also need real, hands-on practice
building circuits and using test equipment. So, I suggest the following alternative
approach: students should build their own "practice problems" with real components, and
try to mathematically predict the various voltage and current values. This way, the
mathematical theory "comes alive," and students gain practical proficiency they wouldn't
gain merely by solving equations.
Another reason for following this method of practice is to teach students scientific
method: the process of testing a hypothesis (in this case, mathematical predictions) by
performing a real experiment. Students will also develop real troubleshooting skills as
they occasionally make circuit construction errors.
Spend a few moments of time with your class to review some of the "rules" for building
circuits before they begin. Discuss these issues with your students in the same Socratic
manner you would normally discuss the worksheet questions, rather than simply telling
them what they should and should not do. I never cease to be amazed at how poorly
students grasp instructions when presented in a typical lecture (instructor monologue)
format!
A note to those instructors who may complain about the "wasted" time required to have
students build real circuits instead of just mathematically analyzing theoretical circuits:
What is the purpose of students taking your course?
If your students will be working with real circuits, then they should learn on real circuits
whenever possible. If your goal is to educate theoretical physicists, then stick with

abstract analysis, by all means! But most of us plan for our students to do something in
the real world with the education we give them. The "wasted" time spent building real
circuits will pay huge dividends when it comes time for them to apply their knowledge to
practical problems.
Furthermore, having students build their own practice problems teaches them how to
perform primary research, thus empowering them to continue their electrical/electronics
education autonomously.
In most sciences, realistic experiments are much more difficult and expensive to set up
than electrical circuits. Nuclear physics, biology, geology, and chemistry professors
would just love to be able to have their students apply advanced mathematics to real
experiments posing no safety hazard and costing less than a textbook. They can't, but you
can. Exploit the convenience inherent to your science, and get those students of yours
practicing their math on lots of real circuits!
Hide Answer

Question 13:
One of the fundamental equations used in electricity and electronics is Ohm's Law: the
relationship between voltage (E or V, measured in units of volts), current (I, measured in
units of amperes), and resistance (R, measured in units of ohms):

E
E = IR

I=

E
R=

Where,
E = Voltage in units of volts (V)
I = Current in units of amps (A)
R = Resistance in units of ohms ()
Solve for the unknown quantity (E, I, or R) given the other two, and express your answer
in both scientific and metric notations:
I = 20 mA, R = 5 k;
E=
I = 150 A, R = 47 k;
E=
E = 24 V, R = 3.3 M;
I=
E = 7.2 kV, R = 900 ;
I=
E = 1.02 mV, I = 40 A;
R=
E = 3.5 GV, I = 0.76 kA;
R=
I = 0.00035 A, R = 5350 ; E =
I = 1,710,000 A, R = 0.002 ; E =
E = 477 V, R = 0.00500 ;
I=
E = 0.02 V, R = 992,000 ;
I=

E = 150,000 V, I = 233 A; R =
E = 0.0000084 V, I = 0.011 A;
R=
Reveal Answer
I = 20 mA, R = 5 k;
E = 100 V = 1 102 V
I = 150 A, R = 47 k;
E = 7.1 V = 7.1 100 V
E = 24 V, R = 3.3 M;
I = 7.3 A = 7.3 106 A
E = 7.2 kV, R = 900 ;
I = 8.0 A = 8.0 100 A
E = 1.02 mV, I = 40 A;
R = 26 = 2.6 101
E = 3.5 GV, I = 0.76 kA;
R = 4.6 M = 4.6 106
I = 0.00035 A, R = 5350 ; E = 1.9 V = 1.9 100 V
I = 1,710,000 A, R = 0.002 ; E = 3.42 kV = 3.42 103 V
E = 477 V, R = 0.00500 ;
I = 95.4 kA = 9.54 104 A
E = 0.02 V, R = 992,000 ;
I = 20 nA = 2 108 A
E = 150,000 V, I = 233 A; R = 640 = 6.4 102
E = 0.0000084 V, I = 0.011 A;
R = 760 = 7.6 104
Notes:
In calculating the answers, I held to proper numbers of significant digits. This question is
little more than drill for students learning how to express quantities in scientific and
metric notations.
Hide Answer

Question 14:
A quantity often useful in electric circuit analysis is conductance, defined as the
reciprocal of resistance:

1
G=
R
The unit of conductance is the siemens, symbolized by the capital letter "S". Convert the
following resistance values into conductance values, expressing your answers in both
scientific and metric notations:
R=5k;G=
R = 47 ; G =
R = 500 M ; G =
R = 18.2 ; G =
Now, algebraically manipulate the given equation to solve for R in terms of G, then use

this new equation to work "backwards" through above calculations to see if you arrive at
the original values of R starting with your previously calculated values of G.
Reveal Answer
R = 5 k ; G = 200 S = 2 104 S
R = 47 ; G = 21 mS = 2.1 102 S
R = 500 M ; G = 2 nS = 2 109 S
R = 18.2 ; G = 55 kS = 5.5 104 S
Solving for R in terms of G:

1
R=
G

Notes:
Ask your students to show you exactly how they manipulated the equation to solve for R.
The last instruction given in the question - working backwards through the five
calculations to see if you get the original (given) figures in degrees Celsius - is actually a
very useful way for students to check their algebraic work. Be sure to make note of this in
class!
Hide Answer

Question 15:
Suppose an electric current of 1.5 microamps (1.5 A) were to go through a resistance of
2.3 mega-ohms (2.3 M). How much voltage would be "dropped" across this resistance?
Show your work in calculating the answer.
Reveal Answer
1.5 106 amps of current through a resistance of 2.3 106 will produce a voltage
"drop" equal to 3.45 volts.
Notes:
It is important for students to understand that metric prefixes are nothing more than
horthand" forms of scientific notation, with each prefix corresponding to a specific
power-of-ten.

Hide Answer

Question 16:
One of the fundamental equations used in electricity and electronics is Ohm's Law: the
relationship between voltage (E or V, measured in units of volts), current (I, measured in
units of amperes), and resistance (R, measured in units of ohms):

E
E = IR

I=

E
R=

Where,
E = Voltage in units of volts (V)
I = Current in units of amps (A)
R = Resistance in units of ohms ()
Solve for the unknown quantity (E, I, or R) given the other two, and express your answer
in both scientific and metric notations:
I = 45 mA, R = 3.0 k;
E=
I = 10 kA, R = 0.5 m;
E=
E = 45 V, R = 4.7 k;
I=
E = 13.8 kV, R = 8.1 k;
I=
E = 500 V, I = 36 nA;
R=
E = 14 V, I = 110 A;
R=
I = 0.001 A, R = 922 ; E =
I = 825 A, R = 15.0 m;
E=
E = 1.2 kV, R = 30 M;
I=
E = 750 mV, R = 86 ;
I=
E = 30.0 V, I = 0.0025 A; R =
E = 0.00071 V, I = 3389 A; R =
Reveal Answer
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What is alternating current (AC)?
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Worksheets DC motor control circuits

DC motor control circuits

Question 1:
How is it possible to electrically measure the torque output by a permanent-magnet DC
motor? Hint: it is very simple, and for large electric motors it involves the use of a shunt
resistor. Modify this circuit diagram to include a meter that provides indirect indication

of motor torque:

Reveal Answer

Notes:
If some of your students think the "V" symbol in the meter means it is measuring motor
voltage, they need to review the purpose and function of a shunt resistor!
This method of measuring motor torque is accurate, so long as the motor is in good
condition. Ask your students what they think the meter would indicate if the motor began
to develop a low-resistance fault due to carbon dust buildup from the brushes shorting
some of the armature current. Would the meter indicate falsely low, falsely high, or would
it still accurately register motor torque?
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Question 2:
What will happen to the stall torque of this DC motor if the "field control" resistor value
is suddenly decreased? Explain your answer.

Reveal Answer
The motor's stall torque will increase.
Notes:
Your students will most likely have to research the meaning of the phrase tall torque"
before they can answer this question. That is a good thing, though! Begin your discussion
on this question with a survey of definitions found for this phrase.
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Question 3:
What will happen to the counter-EMF of this DC motor if the "field control" resistor
value is suddenly decreased (while it is running)?

What effect will this change in field excitation do to the operating speed of the motor?
Reveal Answer
The counter-EMF will increase, and the motor will slow down.

Notes:
In case your students have never heard the word xcitation" used in this context, it would
be a good idea to explain it now. The electrical power used to energize a circuit in which
a particular output is expected is sometimes referred to as xcitation." Bridge circuit
power supplies are another example of an xcitation" source.
This is a very important, but often misunderstood, aspect of DC motor control. While it
seems paradoxical that an increase in power applied to the field winding will cause the
motor to slow down, it is indeed true. Ask your students to explain what will happen to
the motor speed if the field excitation is weakened.
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Question 4:
Series-wound DC motors have very different operating characteristics than either shuntwound or permanent magnet DC motors. Describe what happens in a series-wound motor
when a mechanical load is placed on the motor, causing it to slow down and the counterEMF to decrease:

Contrast this behavior against that of a permanent magnet DC motor under the same
conditions (increased mechanical load, causing counter-EMF to decrease).
Reveal Answer
As a series-wound motor is slowed down by a mechanical load, its field strength
increases, causing the torque to increase dramatically.
Notes:
Ask your students to contrast this motor behavior against that of a permanent magnet or
shunt-wound motor. What happens to the stationary magnetic field strengths in those
motor types when mechanically loaded? Ask your students what applications might be

best for series motors, and what applications might be best for shunt or permanent
magnet motors.
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Question 5:
Describe what a compound-wound DC electric motor is, and how it compares with the
other motor types you've learned about so far.
Reveal Answer
"Compound" electric motors have both a series and a shunt field winding, giving it a
hybrid operating characteristic.
Notes:
Ask your students to draw the schematic diagram of a compound DC motor, showing
both field winding sets. Also, ask them if there is any substantial difference between the
construction of the two field windings (shunt versus series). One is definitely different
from the other, and with good reason!
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Question 6:
This motor-start circuit reduces the amount of nrush" current when starting by inserting a
resistance in series with the motor for a few seconds, then removing that resistance after
the time delay to allow full speed operation. A time-delay relay provides the reducedspeed control.

The relay labeled "M1" is a large "contactor" designed to shunt the motor's current
around the start-up resistor. It requires at least a few amps of current through its coil to
energize.
The relay labeled "CR1" is a much smaller "control relay," and its turn-on time is
controlled by the charging of an electrolytic capacitor.
What could be adjusted in this circuit to make it switch to full-speed operation sooner
after start-up?
Reveal Answer
The potentiometer could be adjusted to provide less resistance, in order to hasten the
switch to "full-speed" mode after startup.
Challenge question: what else could be changed in this circuit to provide a shorter
"reduced speed" time period?
Notes:
This general principle is useful for the start-up of many different electric motors
(including most AC motors). Circuits like this are sometimes referred to as soft start
controls.
Ask your students to describe which way the potentiometer wiper needs to be moved in
order to accommodate the resistance change.
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Question 7:
There is more than one way to electrically "brake" (slow down) an electric motor. Three
methods in common use are:

Dynamic braking

Regenerative braking

Plugging
Describe how each of these methods work.
Reveal Answer

Dynamic braking is re-connecting the motor as a generator, and dissipating the generated
power into a resistive load. Regenerative braking is an extension of dynamic braking,
using the generated power to do something useful. Plugging is the temporary application
of reverse polarity to the motor to forcefully stop it.
Notes:
All three methods of motor braking are used in industry, each with its own benefits.
Discuss the relative merits of each method with your students, with regard to simplicity,
braking power, power consumption, etc.
Be sure to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of electrical braking over
mechanical braking. What advantage(s) does electrical braking (using the motor as a
brake) have over mechanical braking (using a separate brake mechanism attached to the
motor shaft)? Which type of braking do you think might be more reliable?
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Question 8:
Identify the method of electrical braking used in this motor control circuit:

Reveal Answer
This circuit provides dynamic braking.
Notes:
It is apparent from the schematic diagram that the motor's field winding continues to
receive power when the switch is in the "brake" position. Ask the students why this is
necessary for dynamic braking to work. Ask them what would happen if the field winding
were de-energized as well as the armature, as the switch moved to the "brake" position.
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Question 9:
Suppose someone wires a DPDT switch to an electric motor like this, hoping to achieve
forward/reverse control:

Unfortunately, this switch arrangement will not reverse the motor!

Explain why the motor will not reverse, and determine a correction to the circuit that will
allow the switch to function as a forward/reverse control.
Reveal Answer
This switching circuit will not reverse the motor, because it reverses polarity on both the
armature and the field.
Follow-up question: what does this fact tell us about the motor's ability to operate on
alternating current (AC)?
Notes:
There is more than one solution for the reversing problem. Discuss your students'
solutions, and encourage the submission of multiple ideas! One thing you might want to
mention is that the field winding of a shunt-wound DC motor like this typically draws far
less current than the armature winding (especially under full load). Ask your students
how this fact might influence their decision on how to re-design the switch circuit.
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