Wire Types and Sizing

(Source: http://www.buildmyowncabin.com/electrical/wire-types-and-sizing.html)
When wiring a house, there are many types wire to choose from, some copper, others aluminum, some
rated for outdoors, others indoors. In general however, there are only a couple varieties used for wiring
a residential home.

Romex Cables
Romex (shown in yellow above) is the trade name for a type of electrical conductor with non-metallic
sheathing that is commonly used as residential branch wiring. In fact, Romex will be the most common cable
you'll use in wiring a house. The following are a few basic facts about Romex wiring:

 Romex is a common type of residential wiring that is categorized by the National Electrical
Code (NEC) as underground feeder (UF) or non-metallic sheathed cable (NM and NMC).
NM and NMC conductors are composed of two or more insulated conductors contained in a nonmetallic sheath. The coating on NMC cable is non-conducting, flame-resistant and moistureresistant. Unlike other cables commonly found in homes, they are permitted in damp
environments, such as basements.
Underground feeder conductors appear similar to NM and NMC cables except that UF cables
contain a solid plastic core and cannot be rolled between fingers.
The following NEC regulations apply to Romex conductors:
They must be protected, secured and clamped to device boxes, junction boxes and fixtures.
Support devices that may damage the cables, such as bent nails and overdriven staples, are not
permitted.
NM and NMC cables should be secured at intervals that do not exceed 4 feet, and they should
be secured within 12 inches of junction boxes and panels to which they are attached. Cables that
do not comply with this rule can sag and are vulnerable to damage.
They are intended as permanent wiring in homes and should not be used as a substitute for
appliance wiring or extension cords.
Romex is used for most lighting and outlet circuits in your home. Romex will be labeled with "12-2" or
"12-3". The first number indicates the gauge of the wire. You choices are typically 10, 12, or 14
gauge. The second number indicates the number of conductors. A 12-2 Romex will have a black(hot)
and a white(neutral) wire as well as an unsheathed copper wire for ground. A 12-3 Romex will have a

black(hot), red(hot), white(neutral), and bare copper. The red on a 12-3 is used for three-way light
switches which are covered later.

12 gauge Romex is rated for 20 Amps and is commonly yellow jacketed. 14 gauge Romex is still used
in some applications and is rated for 15 Amps and is grey jacketed. 10 gauge Romex has an orange
jacket and is used for water heaters or clothes driers. For our cabin, we used 12 gauge Romex for all
of the outlets and lighting circuits. This is very common now-a-days rather than running 14 gauge. In
addition to Romex, wiring a house also requires a few larger gauge wires for high power appliances.
Your air conditioner or electric stove would fall into this category. The table below list some common
wire types and rated amperage for wiring a house.
Wire Gauge or Type
14-2 Romex
12-2 Romex
10-2 Romex
10-3 Romex
6/3 Cu Range

Rated
Amperage
15 A
20 A
30 A
30 A
50 A

Common Uses
Lighting Circuits
Lighting and Outlet Circuits, refrigerator
Electric water heater, baseboard heaters
Electric Clothes Dryer
Range, Heatpump, On-Demand Electric Water heater

Cable
2 Gauge Copper

100 A

AL 1/0 SER

100 A

AL 4/0 SER

200 A

Central Electric Heat

Aluminum 1/0-1/0-1/0-2 Service Feeder wire for 100 A breake
panel
Aluminum 4/0-4/0-4/0-2/0 Service feeder wire for 200A breaker
panel

Wire 3 way Switches and other Wiring Diagrams

Below are some of the most common wiring diagrams you will encounter in your home for outlets,
switches, and major appliances. Wiring 3 way switches seems to be the most popular topic so I've
included lots of diagrams for those. Three-way switches allow you to control lights or receptacles from
two points. These are commonly used for lighting in a stairway where you want a switch on each floor
entering the stairway. Three-way switches are also common in hallways, garages, and kitchens.
Four-way switches are very similar in design to three-ways and are used to control lights or receptacles
from three or more switch locations.
How to Wire a Light Switch

Wiring a single light switch is the simplest of all light switch configurations to wire. Two-wire Romex is
run into the light switch box where the black wires are run through the switch to close or open the
electrical circuit to the light bulb. The white or "neutral" lines are tied together with a wing nut as shown
in the diagram. That's it. Wiring a light switch is one of the most common wiring jobs for any home,
basement, or garage.

Wiring a Light Switch (Power into Light)

The following diagram shows how to wire a light switch when the power source runs into the light fixture
before it goes to the switch.

Wiring a Light Switch to Multiple Lights

Wiring multiple lights to a single light switch is similar to the basic light switch configuration with the
additional light bulbs attached to the first one as shown in the diagram. You can add as many lights in
this fashion as need (within the load limit of your wiring/circuit breaker)

Wiring Multiple Switches to Multiple Lights

Wiring multiple lights to multiple switches is similar to the basic light switch configuration except for the
hot and neutral power lines are split in the box to go to two or more independent lighting circuits as
shown in the diagram. You can add up to 3 or 4 switches in this fashion if you like by using a 3 or 4
gang switch box (within the load limit of your wiring/circuit breaker).

3-Way Switch (Light Between Switches, Power into Light)

This is a diagram from wiring a three-way switch where the power source is fed into the light fixture.

3-Way Switch (Multiple Lights Between Switches)

Below I've shown two variations of wiring multiple lights between 3-way switches. Option #1 is for
power into the first switch, wire to the lights, and lastly wire from the light to the other switch. This
option actually requires you to run two Romex lines between the lights. Option #2 is for power into the
first switch but then wires run separately from the first switch to the lights and from the first switch to the
second switch.

How to Wire a 4 Way Switch

You may have mastered wiring a 3 way switch but do you know how to wire a 4 way switch?
Well...it's not too bad...especially if you understand 3-way switches. Four-way switches are used to
control power to a light from three or more different locations. You must purchase switches labeled as
4-way switches rather than 3-way or normal light switches. 4-way switches can be quickly identified by
the 4 screw terminals (in addition to the green/gnd screw terminal). Two of the terminals are brass and
labeled "input", the other two are black and labeled "output". It is very important to pay attention to
these as shown in the 4-way switch diagram.
When wiring a 4 way switch circuit as shown below, you will use two 3-way switches and one 4-way
switch. If you wanted to add a fourth switch to the circuit you would need another 4-way switch wired in
the middle in the same way as the first 4-way switch. You might ask, how can I wire a 4 way switch
with regular light switches, or all 3 way switches, or all 4 ways switches? The answer is you can't. You
must have a 3 way (3 terminal) switch on each end of the series and then a 4-way (4 terminal) switch in
the center. If you don't have the right switches you need to get the right switches rather than trying for
hours to somehow make it work. I only say that because I've seen people try to figure out ways to
make it work, using the wrong switches, and they end up with switches that have to be in certain
positions for other switches to work and it's a huge mess to straighten out.

How to Wire a 4 Way Switch when Power and Light Wires Run to the Same Electrical Box

Do you know how to wire a 4 way switch when all the wires seem to go to the same electrical
box? This situation can confuse some homeowners who are faced with more complicated 4-way
wiring. Hopefully the diagram below helps illustrate how the circuit works. In this setup, a white
conductor (typically used for neutral) is taped on each end to designate the wire as a hot conductor
rather than the neutral.
Four-way switches are used to control power to a light from three or more different locations. You must
purchase switches labeled as 4-way switches rather than 3-way or normal light switches. 4-way
switches can be quickly identified by the 4 screw terminals (in addition to the green/gnd screw
terminal). Two of the terminals are brass and labeled "input", the other two are black and labeled
"output". It is very important to pay attention to these as shown in the 4-way switch diagram.
When wiring a 4 way switch circuit as shown below, you will use two 3-way switches and one 4-way
switch. If you wanted to add a fourth switch to the circuit you would need another 4-way switch wired in
the middle in the same way as the first 4-way switch. You might ask, how can I wire a 4 way switch
with regular light switches, or all 3 way switches, or all 4 ways switches? The answer is you can not.
You must have a 3 way (3 terminal) switch on each end of the series and then a 4-way (4 terminal)
switch in the center. If you don't have the right switches you need to get the right switches rather than
wasting time attempting to make it work. I only say that because I've seen people try to figure out ways
to make it work, using the wrong switches, and they end up with switches that have to be in certain
positions for other switches to work and it's a huge mess to straighten out.

Selecting and applying wiring devices.

Receptacles, switches, plates, and cord connector bodies are available in a wide range of sizes, ratings, and styles with specific
features and characteristics to meet most design/application requirements.
Grades of wiring devices
Manufacturer's catalogs use a variety of terms to indicate the quality or grade of wiring devices offered. For example, the term
"economy," "competitive," "intermediate," or "residential" are sometimes used to indicate that the device is economically priced
or designed for light-duty applications. Terms such as "specification" or "super-specification" would indicate devices that are of
better quality, designed for greater reliability and usually higher priced. However, none of these terms has an official status with
standardizing agencies such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Factory-Mutual (FM), Electrical Testing Laboratories (ETL), or
the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA).
Presently, UL lists wiring devices for only two grades, standard and hospital grade. All devices, whether termed intermediate,
economy, or specification must meet identical UL requirements (although as mentioned above, specification grade devices are
of better quality construction).
Hospital-grade devices, intended for use in hospitals (in other than hazardous areas), may be used in other locations where high
reliability is desired. These devices must pass UL tests that are more severe than those required for standard grade devices; they
are identified by the marking "Hospital Only" or "Hospital Grade" and by a green dot on the device.
Switches
There are two basic types of snap switches - "AC General Use" and "AC-DC General Use." A "T"-rated AC-DC is also available
for 125V, tungsten filament lamp loads.

The AC-DC type is designed with a quick-make/quick-break action requiring rugged springs and components to assure
dependable operation. If T-rated, its contacts are designed to handle the high inrush current of incandescent lamps. The AConly type has a somewhat slower make/break action.
Additional information concerning these switches is provided in the UL Electrical Construction Materials List (Green Book),
including tables listing current ratings. For example, AC-DC general-use switches are rated 3A, 5A, 5A or 6A, 10A, 20A, 30A
and 40A, and 60A at 125V; AC general-use switches are rated 15A, 20A, and 30A at 120V. Ratings for other voltages are also
provided.
The NEC has a great deal of information that is helpful in the selection of wiring devices. For example, Article 100, Definitions
and Article 380, Switches, provides the following data:
General-Use Snap Switch. A form of general-use switch so constructed that it can be installed in flush device boxes or on outlet
box covers, or otherwise used in conjunction with wiring systems recognized by this Code.
AC general-use snap switch. A form of general use switch suitable only for use on alternating circuits for controlling the
following:
(1) Resistive and inductive loads, including electric discharge lamps not exceeding the ampere rating at the voltage involved.
(2) Tungsten filament lamp loads not exceeding the ampere rating at 120 volts.
(3) Motor loads not exceeding 80% of the ampere rating of the switches at the rated voltage.
AC-DC General-Use Snap Switch. A form of general-use snap switch suitable for use on either ac or dc circuits for controlling
the following:
(1) Resistive loads not exceeding the ampere rating of the switch at the voltage involved.

(2) Inductive loads not exceeding 50 percent of the ampere rating of the switch at the applied voltage.
(3) Tungsten-filament lamp loads not exceeding the ampere rating of the switch at the applied voltage if "T" rated.
All AC general-use switches are marked AC in addition to their electrical rating. AC-DC general-use switches usually are not
marked AC-DC, but are always marked with their electrical rating.
Mercury switches have an AC rating of 125V, 15A or 20A, but they are also T-rated at 10A, 125VDC.
Flush snap switches are available in the following types: single-pole; double-pole; 3-way; 4-way; 2-circuit; maintained contact,
SPDT, DPDT; and momentary contact SPDT, DPDT; SP normally open, SP normally closed; DP normally open and normally
closed; and 3-way. Most of these switches can be obtained with key-lock design, and ratings vary among manufacturers.
Line terminals of 15A and 20A switches marked "CO/ALR" are for use with aluminum, copper, and copper-clad aluminum
conductors. Terminals of switches rated 30A and above marked "AL/CU" also are suitable for aluminum, copper, and copperclad aluminum conductors. Also, switches furnished only with screwless pressure terminal connectors are acceptable for use
with copper and copper-clad aluminum conductors but are not suitable for use with aluminum conductors.
Switches provided with "push-in" screwless pressure terminal connectors have a particular advantage when they are ganged in
the same box. Sec. 380-8(b) of the NE Code prohibits ganged snap switches with exposed live parts if the voltage between
adjacent switches is over 300V. Because switches with pressure-type terminals have no exposed live parts, they can be used to
satisfy this Code rule.
Combination switches serve particular design needs. They are available as two switches, a switch and receptacle, a switch and
pilot light, and similar configurations. The units are integral assemblies and have separate or common terminals, as desired.
Other specialty types of switches include quiet operation, locking feature type, door switches, ceiling pull switches, and pedestal
switches.

Timer switches serve as energy-saving devices in small, infrequently used rooms or spaces. In addition to controlling room
lighting, typical applications are the operation of heat lamps and exhaust fans, generally in bathrooms.
Wall-mounted occupancy sensors can replace standard wall switches, and many of these models incorporate a switch
mechanism for override capability. The area they can cover depends on several factors, including the mounting location and
height, room configuration, furniture, the sensors' sensitivity setting, and type of motion detection. They are suited to small
infrequently used rooms, conference rooms, private offices, and storage rooms.
Electronic enhanced switches provide a number of features that are increasingly being used in residential and institutional
occupancies. For example, fully automated lighting controls allow any indoor or outdoor light to be remotely controlled from
virtually any point within the system, which consists of controllers and receivers. Configured as wall switches and receptacles,
the receivers accept command signals sent through the existing AC branch circuits. In addition, a wall-mounted programmer
can be used or a pocket-sized, handheld controller (a wireless transmitter) can be carried by a homeowner.
The handheld controller sends radio frequency signals to a plug-in transceiver that injects the controller's signals into the AC
wiring. Because it is battery-powered, the controller/transmitter can be carried or mounted near the bedside, or on the arm of a
wheelchair. The signals, which travel through walls and floors, can be received up to 50 ft away.
Another example is a three-function security wall switch with standard on/off operation and a special illuminated button
marked FLASH. When the FLASH button is activated, the "911 switch" causes the front door and exterior lights to flash on and
off at one-sec intervals, alerting neighbors and helping emergency vehicles to locate the house quickly.
These specialized wiring devices help young children, older people, and people with a wide variety of disabilities to perform
everyday activities in the home and to maintain a greater sense of security
Low-voltage, remote control switching uses solenoid relays to operate lighting circuits. The standard switching device, generally
a SPDT switch wired into a Class 2 remote control circuit takes the place of a standard flush switch. The operating portion of the

circuit is a single-pole relay that provides on/offcontrol for a complete lighting branch circuit or an individual luminaire
(fixture). The relay contacts are normally rated for a 20A filament load and are mechanically latching. Only a momentary 24V
(rectified AC) switch circuit pulse is needed to open or close the contacts of the branch circuit ungrounded (or phase)
conductor.
While remote control relays may be inserted through one-half-in. knockouts of standard wiring boxes, the use of a relay center
box is a preferred method.
Receptacles
Receptacle ratings range from 10A to 400A, with some sizes available at 125, 250, 277, 480, and 600V. Most popular are the
15A and 20A flush type, rated at 125V and 250V. These are available with several different slot configurations in grounding and
nongrounding type. NE Code rules require that receptacles installed for the attachment of portable cords shall be rated at not
less than 15A, 125V or 10A 250V. Sec. 210-7 states that the receptacles on 15A or 20A branch circuits must be of the grounding
type.
Receptacles located outdoors but protected from direct contact with rain by a roof or overhang are considered to be damp areas.
These receptacles must be protected by a closable cover when the plug cap is not being used.
In wet areas, the receptacles must be protected by a cover that will not be affected by rain when the plug cap is installed. Any
cover acceptable for use in wet locations (outdoors without protection of roof or cover) also is acceptable in damp areas.
NEMA has developed standard configurations for all common ratings of straight-blade and locking-type receptacle and plug
caps. Each current and voltage rating has a single noninterchangable configuration so that differently rated devices cannot fit
together. This data, presented in a convenient chart, is useful when selecting receptacles.

Grounding-type receptacles are available with special grounding means designed into their box-attachment screws that
automatically ground the grounding terminal to the box when the receptacle is installed.
The grounded terminal of a grounding-type receptacle must be identified by a green hex-headed screw or nut, a green pressure
wire connection device or something similar green connection device in the case of an adapter.
Split-bus receptacles are available in flush duplex types with ratings of 15A or 20A, 125V or 250V. Typical units consist of
duplex assemblies with one parallel-blade receptacle (125V) and one tandem blade receptacle (250V), or two parallel-blade
receptacles. Split bus receptacles make it possible to wire separate circuits or controls to each set of line terminals.
Many standard parallel-blade duplex receptacles contain a break-off feature that permits the regular connection of both
receptacles on a singe circuit, or a jumper can be removed on the line terminal bus to permit two-circuit operation.
Locking-type receptacles are available for applications where it is important that cord attachment caps be firmly held in place.
Flush or surface receptacles are made in 3- or 4-pole types with ratings of 30, 50 or 60A. Three-pole 30 and 50A receptacles are
commonly used for residential electric dryers and ranges where the grounded neutral of 230/115V circuits can be used to
ground such appliances. Four-pole receptacles are designed for commercial and industrial applications to supply 3-phase or
230/115V equipment.
Heavy-duty receptacles are mounted in integral cast-metal (or plastic) assemblies. Combination units of this type have conduit
hubs and receptacle sizes ranging up to 400A at 250V and 200A at 600V. The enclosures are available in general-purpose or
raintight types. Other receptacle and enclosure assemblies are designed for use in corrosive or hazardous locations.
These heavy-duty receptacles are available with a variety of features that enhance safety and satisfy OSHA lockout requirements
at industrial facilities. For example, one safety enclosure integrates a receptacle, a switch with padlockable handle and a hinged

liftcover in a low-profile nonmetallic housing. This locking plug design encourages industrial users to deenergize the switch
before disconnecting the plug and receptacle to prevent possible arcing.
Receptacle-type ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCI) can, in many instances, be used in place of circuit-breaker type GFCIs
to provide protection from shock hazard. A receptacle-type GFCI may be wired as a terminal device or as a feed-through unit to
protect additional downstream receptacles. Such receptacles are designed to provide protection against the shock hazard of
low-level, line-to-ground faults. When properly installed, the device automatically shuts off power when it detects current
leakage to ground in milliamperes, preventing serious injury or electrocution.
These GFCI devices are available with a number of installer-friendly features. For example, one manufacturer offers a device
with two backwire holes per termination to allow for a multiple of wiring options without having to pigtail and use wire
connectors. It also has easy-to-read Line/Load markings.
The NE Code specifies those areas where GFCIs are required. However, GFCI protection should be provided for any type of
circuit where there is a danger to personnel from ground faults. Installers must be particularly careful to wire these devices
correctly.
Isolated grounding receptacles are for use where electronic equipment can be adversely affected by pickup of transient signals
present on the equipment grounding pathway that causes malfunction in the sensitive circuits. This is especially true of medical
and communication equipment that may receive undesired currents of very low magnitude commonly present in conventional
grounding systems.
Rather than relying on a mechanical ground path through the metallic housing of the raceway system, these devices use an
insulated grounding conductor in the raceway to provide a separate "pure" grounding path. This separate grounding conductor
is run with the circuit conductors in the same raceway and is connected with the normal equipment grounding circuit only at
the service equipment ground terminal.

Flat wiring systems, an alternative method of wiring in office space, use specialized receptacles. A flat wiring system is
composed of several main components: transition boxes, tap and splice assemblies, and outlets. The outlet, which is also called
a service fitting, a pedestal, or a monument, encloses the receptacle. There are two basic methods of connecting a duplex
receptacle to a flat cable. In the first, a transition connector pierces the flat cables insulating jacket and contacts the conductors;
then connectors (round conductors or pigtails leads) are attached to the receptacle, as in conventional wiring. The second
method eliminates the pigtail wiring by having a receptacle device pierce the insulation of the flat cable and make direct contact
with the conductors.
Layout of wiring devices
Sec. 210-25(b) requires receptacles in rooms to be installed so that no point along the floor line in any wall space 2 or more ft
wide is more than 6 ft, measured horizontally, from an outlet.
In residential occupancies the receptacles preferably should be located near the end of wall space rather than near the center,
reducing the likelihood of being concealed behind large pieces of furniture. Generally, outlets are located 12-in. above the floor
line.
Also, in residential occupancies, wall switches should normally be located at the latch side of doors or at the traffic side of
arches and within the room or area to which control is applicable. Some exceptions to this practice are the control of exterior
lights from indoors, the control of stairway lights from adjoining areas, when stairs are closed off by doors at head or foot and
the control of lights from the access space adjoining infrequently used storage areas. Wall switches are normally mounted at a
48-in. height.

Switch Types
Chapter 4 - Switches
Source: http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/digital/chpt-4/switch-types/
An electrical switch is any device used to interrupt the flow of electrons in a circuit. Switches are essentially binary
devices: they are either completely on (closed) or completely off (open). There are many different types of switches,
and we will explore some of these types in this chapter.
Though it may seem strange to cover this elementary electrical topic at such a late stage in this book series, I do so
because the chapters that follow explore an older realm of digital technology based on mechanical switch contacts
rather than solid-state gate circuits, and a thorough understanding of switch types is necessary for the undertaking.
Learning the function of switch-based circuits at the same time that you learn about solid-state logic gates makes both
topics easier to grasp, and sets the stage for an enhanced learning experience in Boolean algebra, the mathematics
behind digital logic circuits.

The simplest type of switch is one where two electrical conductors are brought in contact with each other by the motion
of an actuating mechanism. Other switches are more complex, containing electronic circuits able to turn on or off
depending on some physical stimulus (such as light or magnetic field) sensed. In any case, the final output of any switch
will be (at least) a pair of wire-connection terminals that will either be connected together by the switchs internal contact
mechanism (closed), or not connected together (open).
Any switch designed to be operated by a person is generally called a hand switch, and they are manufactured in several
varieties:

Toggle switches are actuated by a lever angled in one of two or more positions. The common light switch used in
household wiring is an example of a toggle switch. Most toggle switches will come to rest in any of their lever positions,
while others have an internal spring mechanism returning the lever to a certain normal position, allowing for what is
called momentary operation.

Pushbutton switches are two-position devices actuated with a button that is pressed and released. Most pushbutton
switches have an internal spring mechanism returning the button to its out, or unpressed, position, for momentary
operation. Some pushbutton switches will latch alternately on or off with every push of the button. Other pushbutton
switches will stay in their in, or pressed, position until the button is pulled back out. This last type of pushbutton
switches usually have a mushroom-shaped button for easy push-pull action.

Selector switches are actuated with a rotary knob or lever of some sort to select one of two or more positions. Like the
toggle switch, selector switches can either rest in any of their positions or contain spring-return mechanisms for
momentary operation.

A joystick switch is actuated by a lever free to move in more than one axis of motion. One or more of several switch
contact mechanisms are actuated depending on which way the lever is pushed, and sometimes by how far it is pushed.
The circle-and-dot notation on the switch symbol represents the direction of joystick lever motion required to actuate the
contact. Joystick hand switches are commonly used for crane and robot control.

Some switches are specifically designed to be operated by the motion of a machine rather than by the hand of a human
operator. These motion-operated switches are commonly called limit switches, because they are often used to limit the
motion of a machine by turning off the actuating power to a component if it moves too far. As with hand switches, limit
switches come in several varieties:

These limit switches closely resemble rugged toggle or selector hand switches fitted with a lever pushed by the machine
part. Often, the levers are tipped with a small roller bearing, preventing the lever from being worn off by repeated contact
with the machine part.

Proximity switches sense the approach of a metallic machine part either by a magnetic or high-frequency
electromagnetic field. Simple proximity switches use a permanent magnet to actuate a sealed switch mechanism
whenever the machine part gets close (typically 1 inch or less). More complex proximity switches work like a metal
detector, energizing a coil of wire with a high-frequency current, and electronically monitoring the magnitude of that
current. If a metallic part (not necessarily magnetic) gets close enough to the coil, the current will increase, and trip the
monitoring circuit. The symbol shown here for the proximity switch is of the electronic variety, as indicated by the
diamond-shaped box surrounding the switch. A non-electronic proximity switch would use the same symbol as the leveractuated limit switch.

Another form of proximity switch is the optical switch, comprised of a light source and photocell. Machine position is
detected by either the interruption or reflection of a light beam. Optical switches are also useful in safety applications,
where beams of light can be used to detect personnel entry into a dangerous area.

In many industrial processes, it is necessary to monitor various physical quantities with switches. Such switches can be
used to sound alarms, indicating that a process variable has exceeded normal parameters, or they can be used to shut
down processes or equipment if those variables have reached dangerous or destructive levels. There are many different
types of process switches:

These switches sense the rotary speed of a shaft either by a centrifugal weight mechanism mounted on the shaft, or by
some kind of non-contact detection of shaft motion such as optical or magnetic.

Gas or liquid pressure can be used to actuate a switch mechanism if that pressure is applied to a piston, diaphragm, or
bellows, which converts pressure to mechanical force.

An inexpensive temperature-sensing mechanism is the bimetallic strip: a thin strip of two metals, joined back-to-back,
each metal having a different rate of thermal expansion. When the strip heats or cools, differing rates of thermal
expansion between the two metals causes it to bend. The bending of the strip can then be used to actuate a switch
contact mechanism. Other temperature switches use a brass bulb filled with either a liquid or gas, with a tiny tube
connecting the bulb to a pressure-sensing switch. As the bulb is heated, the gas or liquid expands, generating a
pressure increase which then actuates the switch mechanism.

A floating object can be used to actuate a switch mechanism when the liquid level in an tank rises past a certain point. If
the liquid is electrically conductive, the liquid itself can be used as a conductor to bridge between two metal probes
inserted into the tank at the required depth. The conductivity technique is usually implemented with a special design of

relay triggered by a small amount of current through the conductive liquid. In most cases it is impractical and dangerous
to switch the full load current of the circuit through a liquid.

Level switches can also be designed to detect the level of solid materials such as wood chips, grain, coal, or animal feed
in a storage silo, bin, or hopper. A common design for this application is a small paddle wheel, inserted into the bin at
the desired height, which is slowly turned by a small electric motor. When the solid material fills the bin to that height,
the material prevents the paddle wheel from turning. The torque response of the small motor than trips the switch
mechanism. Another design uses a tuning fork shaped metal prong, inserted into the bin from the outside at the
desired height. The fork is vibrated at its resonant frequency by an electronic circuit and magnet/electromagnet coil
assembly. When the bin fills to that height, the solid material dampens the vibration of the fork, the change in vibration
amplitude and/or frequency detected by the electronic circuit.

Inserted into a pipe, a flow switch will detect any gas or liquid flow rate in excess of a certain threshold, usually with a
small paddle or vane which is pushed by the flow. Other flow switches are constructed as differential pressure switches,
measuring the pressure drop across a restriction built into the pipe.

Another type of level switch, suitable for liquid or solid material detection, is the nuclear switch. Composed of a
radioactive source material and a radiation detector, the two are mounted across the diameter of a storage vessel for
either solid or liquid material. Any height of material beyond the level of the source/detector arrangement will attenuate
the strength of radiation reaching the detector. This decrease in radiation at the detector can be used to trigger a relay
mechanism to provide a switch contact for measurement, alarm point, or even control of the vessel level.

Both source and detector are outside of the vessel, with no intrusion at all except the radiation flux itself. The radioactive
sources used are fairly weak and pose no immediate health threat to operations or maintenance personnel.

As usual, there is usually more than one way to implement a switch to monitor a physical process or serve as an
operator control. There is usually no single perfect switch for any application, although some obviously exhibit certain
advantages over others. Switches must be intelligently matched to the task for efficient and reliable operation.