210 0 CHAPTER 6 Four Color Theorem 6.79 Explain the Four Color Theorem, Theorem 6.6, known since the last century, states that every mapisScolorable, The conjecture, that only {our colors ate needed, was finally proven in 1976 by Appel and Haken who used computers to ansiyze alment 2000 graphs involving millions of cases. We now formally state this result, known as the Four Cals > Four Color Theorem 6.1(2): Ifthe regions of a map M are colored so that adjacent regions hove viene, colors, then no more than four colors are required Four Color Theorem 6.7(6): Every planar graph is (vertex) 4colorable 6.7 TREES A graph G without cycles is suid to be acyclic or ecle free. A tree Tis a connected graph without cycles. A forest Fis a ‘gph without cycles; hence the connected components of F are trees. The tree consisting ofa single vertex with no edges is called the degenerate tree. ‘The following theorems give equivalent ways of defining trees and important related properties. (Theorems 6.8 and 6.9 ‘are proved in Problems 6.90 and 6.91 respectively.) Theorem 6.8: Let G be a graph with more than one vertex. Then the following are equivalent: () Gisauee. (ii) Each pair of vertices is connected by exactly one simple path. Gi) Gis connected, but if any edge is deleted then the resulting graph is not connected. (i) Gis eycie-fre, but if any edge is added to the graph then the resulting graph has exactly one eyele. ‘Theorem 6.9: Let G be a finite graph with n> 1 vertices. Then the following are equivalent: () Gisatee, Gi) Gis cycle-tree and has n — 1 edges. (ii) Gis connected and has n — 1 edges.PLANAR GRAPHS AND TREES J 211 ‘Theorem 6.10; Trees (and hence forests) are 2-colorable. oa ‘Suppose T's a tree with six vertices. How many edges does T have? I By Theorem 6.9, Twill have 6~ 1=5 edges. ‘Verify Theorem 6.8 for the graph A in Fig. 657. Fig. 657 I. The following hold for the graph A (i) Aisa tree since it is connected and has no cycles. Select any two vertices in A and they will be connected by only one simple path. ) Thany edge is removed, A is no longer connected. (iv) [any edge is added to A, then A has exactly one cycle Hence Theorem 6.8 is verified for the graph A. ‘Verify Theorem 6.9 for'the graph A in Fig. 657. I The following hold for the graph A: (i) Aisa tree since itis connected and has no cycles. j) Ais eycle-free and has nine vertices and eight edges. (ii) A is connected and has nine vertices and eight edges. Hence Theorem 6.9 is verified for the graph A. Consider the tee Tin Fig. 658. (a) Which vertices, any, are cut points of 7? (b) Which edges, any, are bridges of 7? 1 (a) Each vertex of degree more than of i cut point ina tree; hence cr, a, w, andy are cut points of 7. ® Fie cine ern wr ce ema fey evs ene Ce Soon Find a 2-coloring of the tree Tin Fig. 6-59. I To find a 2-cotoring of any tree, asign the first color to any vertex. Then assign the second color to all ‘vertices adjacent to that first vertex. Next assign the first color to all vertices adjacent to the vertices that have been assigned the second color. Repeat this process uni all vertices are colored. In tree 7, for example, assign the color red to vertex vs. Then assign the color green to vertices, v., and v. Then assign red to vertices v> ‘and vy, Continuing in this fashion yields the assignment Red: arty: Bre tay Green Wy, U4, Us, Was Be212 0 CHAPTER 6 685 Find a 2-coloring of the tree T'in Fig. 6-60. I Using colors red and green, assign red tov, and proceed asin Problem 6.84. The following coloring of T obtains Red: vs, te, ty, Green: Wy, Bs, Ba Hy, ty sa 7 Fig. 660 yelp 66 686 Find a 2-coloring of the tree T'in Fig. 6-61, Proceeding as in Problem 6.85 yields the following coloring of T: Red: vy, Ua ts, Yer Green: Ws, Us, Uy Ue Yes tho 687 Consider the complete bipartite graph K,, . Show that K,,, is not a tree when m and n exceed one. 4H Letu and u’ be vertices in the first set and w and v’ vertices inthe second set. Then (u, v, u’, v',u)is a cycle. Hence Kn is not a tree for m, n> 1. 688 Consider the complete graph K,. Show that Kis not a tree when n>2. Leta, v, and w be vertices in K,. Then (u, v, w, u) is eycle in K,, Hence K, is not a tee for n> 2. 6.89 Suppose there are two distinct simple paths, say P, and P., from a vertex w to a vertex v in a graph G. Prove that G contains a cycle. # Letw be a vertex on P, and P, such thatthe next vertices on P, and Pare distinct, Let w’ be the fist vertex following w which lies on both F, and F,. (See Fig 662.) Then the subpaths of P, and P, between w and w" have no vertices in common except w and w"; hence these two subpaths form a cycle Fig. 6-62 690 Prove Theorem 6.8. 4 Gi) implies (i). Letu and v be two vertices in G. Since G isa tree, G is connected so there is at leat one path between u and v. Moreover, there can only be one path between u and v, otherwise G will contain a cycle (Problem 6.8). i implies (ii). Suppose we delete an edge e = (u,v) from G. Note eis a path from u tov. Suppose the resulting graph G ~e has a path P from wo v. Then P and e are two distinct paths from u to, which contradicts the hypothesis. Thus there is no path between w and v in G—, 30 G ~e is disconnected. (Gi) implies (jv). Suppose G contains a cycle C which contains an edge ¢ = {u, v). By hypothesis, Gis ; connected but G' = G ~ eis disconnected, with w and v belonging to different components of G” (Problem : 5.32). This contradicts the fact that w and v are connected by the path P= C —e which lies in G'..Hence Gis cyele-free. Now letx and y be vertices of G and let # be the graph obtained by adjoining the edge e = (x) t0 G. Since Gis connected, there isa path Pfrom.x toy in G; hence C = Pe forms a cycle in #7 SupposePLANAR GRAPHS AND TREES J 213 P F Fig. 6-63 ‘contains another cycle C’. Since Gis eycle-free, C’ must contain the edge ¢, say C’ = Pe. Then P and P* are two paths in G from x to y. (See Fig. 6-63.) Accordingly (Problem 6.89), G contains a cycle, which contradicts the fact that G is cycle-free. Hence H contains only one eyce. iv) implies (i). Since adding any edge e = (x, y) to G produces a cycle, the vertices x and y must already be ‘connected in G, Hence G is connected and by hypothesis G is cycle-free; that i, Gis tree. Prove Theorem 6.9. The proofis by induction on the number n of vertices of G. Suppose n = 1, i.e., G has only one vertex. Then Ghas 0 1~ 1 edges and so G is connected and cyce-free. Thus the theorem holds for n = 1. ‘Suppose n > 1, Le, G has more than one vertex. We show that (i), (i), and (ji) are equivalent for G where ‘we assume they are equivalent forall graphs with less than vertices. (G) implies (i). Suppose G isa tree. Then Gis cyele-fee, so we only need to show that G has n ~ 1 edges. By Problem 5.137, G has a vertex of degree 1. Deleting this vertex and its edge, we obtain a tree T which has n ~1 vertices. The theorem holds for T, so Thas n ~2 edges. Hence G has n ~1 edges. {Gi) implies (ii). Suppose G is cycle-fee and has n ~ 1 edges. We only need show that Gis connected. Suppose G is disconnected and has k components, T..., Tj, which are tees since each is connected and cyeletree, Sey 7 has n, vertices. Noten, 1 components. Hence G is connected. ‘Gi) implies (i). Suppose G is connected and has n ~ 1 edges. We only need to show that G is cycie-free ‘Suppose G has a eycle containing an edge e. Deleting e we obtain the graph H = G ~e which is also connected. But HY has n vertices and n ~ 2 edges, and must therefore be unconnected. Thus G is eycle-free and hence itis a tree. Spanning Trees Explain what is meant by a spanning tre. IA subgraph T of « graph G is called a spanning tree of G if Tis a tree and Tincludes all the vertices of G. Find two spanning trees for the graph G shown in Fig. 6-64. a ee I A spanning tree of Gis a subgraph of G that isa tree and includes all the vertices of G. Two possible spanning trees ate shown in Fig. 6-65.214 0 CHAPTER 6 aig cme ae VVVNW Fig. 6.66 6.94 Find all spanning trees ofthe graph G shown in Fig. 6-66. I See Fig. 667. Note that ll are isomorphic to either (i) or ( 698 Find all spanning trees ofthe graph H shown in Fig. 6-68. I Sce Fig, 6-69. Again all are isomorphic to either (i) or (i) of Fig. 6-67. COOUNA RM NZUNNZ 6.96 Consider d finite connected graph’G. Must all the spanning trees Tof G have the same number of edges? A Yes. Infact, if G has n vertices, then any spanning tree Tof G must have n ~ 1 edges. Minimal Spanning Trees 697 Suppose G isa graph whose edges are assigned lengths, that is, are labeled with positive numbers. Define & ‘minimal spanning tree Tof G. 4 Ansong all spanning trees of G, T has the smallest length-sum. 4 6.98 The labeled graph G in Fig. 6-70 has three spanning tees. (a) Find the spanning trees of G and their lengths if () Which is the minimal spanning tree of G? 4 3 ia1.. aa 4 (a) Te three spanning tees are shown in Fig. 671. The length ofeach spanning tee is the sum of the ; aoPLANAR GRAPHS AND TREES 0 215 (®) Tis the minimal spanning tree since it has the shortest length among the spanning trees. 699 Give two algorithms to find a minimal spanning tree of a finite connected labeled graph G. FF Algorithm 6.1: The input is a graph G with m vertices. Step 1. Order the edges of G by decreasing lengths. Step 2. Proceeding sequentially, delete each edge which does not disconnect the graph until m ~1 edges ‘Step 3. Output the remaining edges (as they form a minimal spanning tree T of G). ‘Algorithm 6.2: The input is a graph G with m vertices. Step 1. Order the edges of G by increasing lengths. Step 2 Proceeding sequentially, add one edge at atime to the m vertices of G such that no cycle is formed until m ~ 1 edges are added. Step 3. Output the m-— 1 edges that were added (as they form a minimal spanning tree T of G). {6.100 Apply Algorithm 6.1 of Problem 6,99 tothe labeled connected graph in Fig. 6-72() to find a minimal spanning tre of Q. @ Fig. 6-72 Graph Q has six verties; hence any spanning tree of Q will hae five edges. By Algorithm ordered by decreasing lengths and are successively deleted (without disconnecting Q) until This yields the following data: . Edges = AF BC AC BE CE BF AE DF BD Length 99 8 7 7 6 S 4 4 3 Delete? Y Y Y N ON ¥ ‘Thus the minimal spanning tree of O contains the edges (BE, CE, AE, DF, BD) “This spanning tree has length 24 and itis shown in Fig. 6-72(b).. 6.101 Apply Algorithm 6.2 of Problem 6.99 tothe graph @ in Fig. 6-72(e). Again, any spanning tee of @ will have five edges. By Algorithm 6.2, the edges are ordered by increasing lengths and are successively added (without forming any cycles) until five edges are included. This yields the following data: Edges © BD AE DF BF CE AC BE BC AF Legh 893 4 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 Add? Y ¥ Y N ¥Y NY ‘The minimal spanning tree of @ therefore contains the edges (BD, AE, DF, CE, BE) ‘This spanning tre isthe same as the one obtained in Problem 6.100 where Algorithm 6.1 was used. 6.102 Apply Algorithm 6.1 to the labeled connected graph R in Fig. 6-73(a) to find « minimal spanning tree of R. 1 Graph R has seven vertices; hence any spanning tree of R will have six edges. Applying Algorithm 6.1 (as in Problem 6.100) yields the following data: Edges AC EG AB BD DE BC BE FG DF CD CF DG Legh 99 9 8 & 7 6 6 6 S$ 4 4 4 Delete? Y Y N Y Y oN ON ¥ ¥@ o Fig. 6-73 ‘The minimal spanning tree of R therefore contains the edges {AB, BC, BE, CD, CF, DG) ‘This spanning tree has length 32 and itis shown in Fig. 6-73(). 6.103 Apply Algorithm 6.2 to the graph R in Fig. 6-73(a), 1 Again, any spanning toe ofR wil contain six edges. Applying Algorithm 6.2 (asin Problem 6.101) yells the folowing data: Edges CD CF DG DF BC BE FG DE AB BD AC EG Legh 94 4 4 5 6 6 6 7 8 8 9 9 Add? YoY Y N ¥ Y NN YN ‘The minimal spanning tree Of R therefore contains the edges, (CD, CF, DG, BC, BE, AB) ‘This spanning tre isthe same as the one obtained in Problem 6.102 where Algorithm 6.1 was used. 6.104 Find two distinct minimal spanning trees ofthe labeled graph G in Fig. 6-74(a). (Thus minal spss need not be unique.) Ag BA BoA 5 LX [x L Db Bob t @ ” ° Fig. 674 I Applying Algorithm 6.1, we first delete edges AB and BE. Then we have the choice of deleting either edge CE ot DE which have the same length. Deleting one or the other produces the two minimal spanning tees shown in Figs. 6-74(6) and (c).. a 2 As cp © pb < e FG om FG Wt 3 4 ‘ : : « co) 0 Fig. 6.75 6.105 Find two distinet minimal spanning trees of the labeled graph in Fig. 6-75(a) using Algorithm 6.2.PLANAR GRAPHS AND TREES J 217 I Proceeding as outlined in Problem 6.100 yields the following data: Edges AB CE.-«FG «EM «DH AC BD DE BC CF EG GH AF Length 4 4 4 $ 6 7 7 7 8 8 9 0 BD Add? y Y¥ ¥ ¥ Y ¥ N NW ¥ ‘This produces the spanning tree shown in Fig. 6-75(b) with edges (AB, CE, FG, EH, DH, AC, CF) Note that either edge AC or BD could have been added since both have length 7 and neither would have produced a cyele. Thus a second minimal spanning tree, shown in Fig. 6-75(c), has edges {AB, CE, FG, EH, DH, BD, CF)