198 0 CHAPTER 6 YX taser 63: 1et Ges connected paar rah ot maigaph) with p verte and ges, where p23, Then 953-6. 635 Prove Theorem 6.3. 638 I Letrbe the number of regions ina planar representation of G. By Euler's formula, prgtrn2 Now the sum of the degrees of the regions equals 2g by Theorem 6.1. But each region has degree 3 or more; hhence =x Thus r= 29/3, Substituting this in Euler's formula gives 2=p-qtr=p—q+2%4/3 or 2=p-4/3 “Multiplying the inequality by 3 gives 6= 3p ~q which gives us our result ‘Verify Theorem 6.3 for the connected planar graphs shown in Fig. 6-25. AG) MM. 4 Teeorem 6.3 states that ifthe numberof vertices, p,stisfesp =3, then the number of des, wil satisfy 4539-6 Therefore , bE Figure 625(a):p = 3, q~3, and 3-3-6=3=3. Figure 625(0):p = 6, q= 11, and 3-6-6 I2= 11 Figure 625(¢):p=5. g=7, and 35 6=9=7, Repeat Problem 6.36 for the connected planar graphs shown in Fig. 6-26, N Q a o © Fig. 6.26 A Determine the number of vertices, p, and the number of edges, ¢, and then verify Theorem 6.3: Figure 6-26(a); p =4, ¢=5, and3-4~6= 625. Figure 6-26(b): p = 6, q=7, and 3+6~6=12=7. Figure 6-26(): p=5, q=9, and 3-5 ~| ‘What is the maximum number of edges possible in a planar graph with eight vertices? With four vertices?69 PLANAR GRAPHS AND TREES 0 199 I From Theorem 6.3, q=3p ~6. For a planar graph with eight vertices, q=3+8-6=18 Hence the maximum number of edges possible ina planar graph with eight vertices is 18. Fora planar graph with four vertices, 9=3-4-6=6 and o the maximum numberof edges possible is six. ‘What isthe minimum number of vertices necessary fr a graph with ix edges to be planar? With eleven edges? 1 Rearranging the formula of Theorem 6.3 we obtain p = (6+ q)/3. Fora planar graph with six edges, PR6+O/3=4 ‘Hence the minimum number of vertices required for a graph with six edges to be planar is four. For a graph with eleven edges, pe(6+1/3=17/3 Since the number of vertices must be a positive integer, the minimum number of vertices required would be six, the smallest integer greater than 17/3. Let G be a finite connected planar graph with at least three vertices. Show that G has at least one vertex of degree five or less. I Letp be the numberof vertices and g the number of edges of G, and suppose de (x) = 6 for each vertex ‘of G. But 2g equals the sum of the degrees of the vertices of G, ie 2g = 6p. Therefore q23p>3p-6 ‘This contradicts Theorem 6.3. Thus some vertex of G has degree five or less. 6.4 NONPLANAR GRAPHS “The following theorem, due to Kuratowski, gives a simple test for determining whether a given graph is or is not planar. 33S Theorem 64: A graph nonplanar if and only iit contains subgraph homeomorphic 0 Ks OF Ks Remark: Recall that graphs G and H are homeomorphic if they can be obtained, respectively, from isomorphic graphs G” and H’ by dividing the edges of G’ and H with additional vertices, oat ‘Use Euler’s formula and Theorem 6.1 to show thatthe graph K;, is nonplanar. 1K, isa complete bipartite graph with p = 6 vertices and q = 9 edges and is shown in Fig. 6.27(2). Suppose the graph is planar. By Euler's formula a plana representation of this graph would have five regions. Observe that no three vertices are connected to each other; hence the degree of each region must be four or more and the sum of the degrees must be twenty or more. By Theorem 6.1, this graph must therefore have ten or more ‘edges. Since this graph has only nine edges, our assumption of the graph being planar i false. Hence we have shown that, nonplanar. # 0 Fig. 627200 0 CHAPTER 6 642 Show that the graph K; is nonplanar using Theorem 6:3. The graph K, isthe star graph shown in Fig. 6-27(b). It is a complete graph with p =5 vertices and q = 10 ‘edges. Suppose the graph is planar. By Theorem 6.3, 10=4 3p -6=3-5-6=15-6=9 which is false, Hence Ks is nonplanar 643 The graph shown in Fig. 6-28(a) has a subgraph isomorphic to K;,». Identify the subgraph, Sk By removing edge (C, F}, we obtain a graph isomorphic to K;,,. To see this clearly, transpose the locations lof vertices E and F and redraw the edges. The result is shown in Fig. 628(0).. 644 The graph shown in Fig. 6292) has a subgraph isomorphic to K. Identify the subgraph 4 2 ee er E E F a o Fig. 69 By removing the vertex A and the three edges (8, A), (C, A), and (D, A) incident on A, we obtain a raph isomorphic to K;, To see ths clearly, move the vertex D upwards above the edge connecting B and C. ‘The result is shown in Fig. 629). 64S The graph shown in Fig. 6:30(a) has a subgraph homeomorphic to Ki». Identify the subgraph. fi 4 6 po E ro G @ o Fig. 6:30 I By deleting edges (B, D). (D, F), (C, E), and (E, G), we obtain a graph homeomarphic to K. This subgraph is shown in Fig. 6-30(0).6.46 649 PLANAR GRAPHS AND TREES 0 201 ‘The graph shown in Fig. 6-31(a) has a subgraph homeomorphic to K,. Identify the subgraph. 2 2 : ey re A 6 ¥ © Fig. 631 1 by deleting vertex H, the edges, (F, H) and (G, H), incident on it, and the edge (A, C), we obtain a graph thomeomogphic to K. This subgraph can be easily identified by transposing the location of vertices A and D, and C and E. The subgraph is shown in Fig. 6310). Identify which of the graphs shown in Fig. 6-32 are nonplanar, ie., identify which graphs have a subgraph homeomorphic to K,, or Ks SEAYD Fig. 632 I Graphs (a), (c), and (d) are nonplanar. Graph (a) has a subgraph isomorphic to K,, graph (c) itself is homeomorphic to K,., and graph (d) itself is isomorphic to Ks.y. [entity which of the graphs shown in Fig. 6-33 are nonplanar. game Vv Fig. 633 1 Graphs (6) and (c) are nonplanar. Graph (b) itself is homeomorphic 9K, and graph (c) has «subgraph isomorphic to Ks [entity which ofthe graphs shown in Fig. 6-34 are nonplanar. Graphs (a), (c), and (¢) are nonplanar. Graph (a) has a subgraph homeomorphic to K;,s, graph (c) is Ky ‘and has subgraphs isomorphic to both Ks and Ks, and graph () itself is homeomorphic to Ks65 COLORED GRAPHS 60 Define a vertex coloring, or simply a coloring, ofa graph G, and the chromatic number of G, denoted by x(G). (xis the Greek letter chi.) 1 A coloring ofa graph Gis an assignment of colors tothe vertices of G such that adjacent verties have {ifferent colors. We say that G is n-colorable if there exists a coloring of G which uses n colors. (Since the word “color” is used both as a noun and a verb, we will sometimes use the word “paint” rather than "sol, wire the act of assigning colors tothe vertices of a map.) The minimum number of colors needed to pant > calles the chromatic number of G. Determine the chromatic number of the complete graphs K,, Ky, and, in general, K,. I Te would take six colors to color a Ks graph since every vertex is adjacent to every other verter, and we ould therefore need a different color for every one. Similary, it would take ten colors to colo ihe graph Ky and n colors to color the graph K,. Accordingly, x(Ke)= 6, x(Kyq) = 10, and, in general, x(K,) = n. Describe the Welch-Powell algorithm for painting a graph G. may have the same degree.) Then use one color to paint the first vertex and to paint, in sequential order, cach ‘ertex onthe ls that i not adjacent to vertex previously painted with this color. Start again atthe top cf the lst and repeat the process painting previously unpainted vertices using a second color. Continue repeatin, » th ‘additional colors until all the vertices have been painted. Remark: |The Welch Powell algorithm isan efficient way to pant a graph G. We emphasize that the algorithm only ives an upper bound for x(G), that is, thatthe algorithm does not always give the minimum numberof colon wbac is ‘needed to paint G. In fact, finding x(G) may be extremely dificult except in simple cases as thove illustrated in tes following problems, 6s ‘Sonsider the graph G in Fig. 6-35. (a) Use the Welch-Powell algorithm to paint G (referring to colors simply as “a, “b", ete.). (b) Find the chromatic number of G. we » Fig. 635 4 (@) List the vertices of G in order of decreasing degrees as shown below. Assign color a to the first vertex, vs. The next vertex on the list not adjacent to Ui vy: assign color a to vy, Now move to color b Assign color to the fst unpainted vertex, v4. The next unpainted vertex not adjacent to o> ‘assign color b tou. Since all remaining unpainted vertices are adjacent to vy of Us, move to'colos* PLANAR GRAPHS AND TREES 0 203 Repeat this nrocess with additional colors until all vertices are painted. The completed assignment is listed as folluws. Vertex Uy Us Ue UU Degree 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 Clr a 6 ¢ c¢ b d @ () The vertices v,, vy, vs, and vg are connected to each other and hence must be painted different colors. ‘Thus at least four colors are required to paint G. Since (a) uses only four colors to paint G, x(G) = 4 654 Repeat Problem 6.53 using the graph Hin Fig. 636. SS SC. I (a) Following the steps as in Problem 6.53 yields the following data: Vertex uy Uy ty Us Us Depee 4 4 4 4 3 3 Glo og bc a be (8). The vertices vy, vs, and v, are connected to each other, so at least three colors are needed to color #7 Since (a) uses three colors, x(#) =3. 6.55 Repeat Problem 6.53 using the graph G in Fig. 637. ” " % Fig. 637 1 (@) Following the steps asin Problem 6.53, we have Vertex tt: ty tye Deree 3 3 3 3 2 3 Glor a b b a b a (b) The vertices v, and v are connected to each other, so at least two colors are needed to color G. From (a), (6) =2. 6.56 Repeat Problem 6.53 using the graph Hin Fig. 638, I (@) Following the steps as in Problem 6.53, we have Vertex Uo tt | Degree 4 4 3 3 2 2 Color 2 b b ec © a204 0 CHAPTER 6 6s7 % Fig. 6.38 (6) The vertices v,, vs, and vs are connected to each other, so atleast three colors are needed to color H. From (a), x(H)=3. Use the Welch—Powell algorithm to paint the graph in Fig. 6-39, and find the chromatic number n of the graph. 4 iH D Fig. 6.39 I First order the vertices according to decreasing degrees to obtain the sequence HA, D, FBC EG Proceeding sequentially, we use the frst color to paint the vertices H, B and then G, (We cannot paint A, D, or F the first color since each is connected to H, and we eannot paint C or E the first color since each is connected to either H or B.) Proceeding sequentially with the unpainted vertices, we use the second color to paint the ‘vertices A and D. The remaining vertices F, C and E must be painted with the third color. Thus the chromatic ‘number 1 cannot be greater than 3. However, in any coloring, H, D and E must be painted different colors since they are connected to each other. Hence n = 3, ‘Use the Welch-Powell algorithm to paint the graph G in Fig, 6-40, and find the chromatic number n of the graph. A Ordering the vertices according to decreasing degrees we obtain the sequence Ay As, Ans Bis Aix Aus Aas Ay ‘The first color is used to paint the vertices A, and A. The second color is used to paint the vertices Ay, As, and ‘Ax. The third color is used to paint the vertices A;, Az, and Ay. Thus G is 3colorable. Note that G is not 2eolorable since A,, Az, and A, must be painted different colors. Accordingly, n= z(G) —3.PLANAR GRAPHS AND TREES 0 205 659 Determine those connected graphs G, if any, which are one-colorable, 1166 hasan edge ¢ connecting vertices vand v', then v and v' must be painted different colors. Thus G can only be the graph with one vertex and no edges. Bipartite Graphs and Colorings 6.60 Find the chromatic numberof the bipartite graphs Ky. and Ka. 1A tiarite graph isa graph whose verties can be divided into two subsets where the vrtioes of each subset ea einad tral the verdces of the oer subset and not to any vertices nits own subset sce Problem eet vertex in connected to anyother vertex inthe same ssc, all the vertices of given subset can 5.2 She same coor ince the two subsets are connected then cach subset must be painted diferent be asiened th sto ane required to color any bipartite graph. Accordingly 2(K,,)= 2 and x(K,)=2, This ‘ation is formalized and extended in Theorem 65. ‘Theorem 6.5: The following are equivalent for graph G: () Gis2- 5 and te theorem holds for graph wth iew than pverecs By Romer nar Seolrabe such that deg (v) =. By induction, the subgraph @ — v Assume one such coloring. Ifthe Remtices adjacent to v use less than the five colors, then we simply paint v with one ot an tilfereat colors. Say the vertices, moving counterclockwise about v, are by the colors c,,..., ¢s. (See Fig. 6-43.) ‘Consider now the subgraph Hf of G generated by the vertices painted c, and ey Note Hf includes v, and vs. If i ‘colors ¢, and c; in the component fain nb. mthout destroying the coloring of G ~ v, Then v, and vs are painted 6) en c,een Se are inthe same component of H. ‘Ten there isa path P from v, to us whose vertices are painted either c, orc, ‘The path P together with the tine rtees nat frm acyl C which encloses ether ty or, Conder mow the sobpeeh eed i Since C encloses us or v,, but aot both, the vertices v, and v, belong te digerent components of K. Thus we can interchange the colors cy and csin the component. ‘containing v, without ‘and we can choose c; to paint v and obtain a 66 COLORS AND MAPS 6.66 Define adjacent regions of a map M. I Two regions ofa planar muligraph are sid to be adjacent i they have an ede in ‘common. Consider, for srample, the map shown in Fig 6-48. Regions rand rare adjacent but regions s sedan oePLANAR GRAPHS AND TREES 0 207 © pou 6.61 Consider the map N in Fig. 6-45. Identify the regions of N that are adjacent to the regions: (a) r,,(B) r, and. On Those regions which share an edge with r, are adjacent to r,. Hence (a) ry, 5, and ri; (b) r, and ra; (e) only re is adjacent tor. 6.68 Find the number of regions adjacent to each region of the map R shown in Fig. 6-46. The number of regions adjacent to a given region is found by counting the number of re pion least one edge with that region. Hence the four regions 7, r, 15, and 7 of R have 2, 1, 3, sn! respectively. 6.69 Explain what is meant by coloring of a map M. Fy coloring of a map M we mean an assignment of colors tothe regions of M such that adjacent regions have different colors. A map is n-colorableif there exists a coloring of M which uses n colors. The map in Fig. {6-44 is 3-colorable since its regions could be painted as follows: blue, rm white, 1 blue, r white, 7, blue, r green 6.70 Consider the map P in Fig. 6-47. (a) Find a 4-coloring of P. (b) Is P 3-colorable? F(a) A 4colring of map P assigns four colors tothe regions of Psuch that adjacent regions are asigned dierent colors. One possible 4-oloring i sfllows: Red: randy, Blue: andy, Green: rrandr,, Yellow: ry (®) No, we cannot paint P with three colors, Note that regions nr, r, and rare all adjacent to each ‘other and must therefore be painted different colors. Hence, atleast four colors are needed to paint P. Na. Dt pe en ENT ee 6.71 Consider the map Q in Fig. 6-48. (a) Find a 4-coloring of Q. (6) Is Q 3-colorable? 1 (@)_ One possible 4-coloring is as follows: Red: randys, Blue: ny, Green: and n, Yellow:the following is a 3-coloring of Q: Red: andr, Blue: rand ,, Green: r, and ry 6.72 Paint the map M in Fig. 649 with a minimum number of colors. Name the colors simply as Only two colors are required to paint map M. One such coloring is as follows: Color arte C0108 B: Pay Pa as Fo 6:73 Repeat Problem 6.7 using the map N in Fig 6-50. 1 Three colors are requied to color map M. One such coloring is as fllows Colores rst COO: ry Clare “Thxee colors are needed since rr, andr ae adjacent to eachother, ‘Dual Map 6.74 Define the (Whitney) dual of a map M with an example. I Consider a map M. In each region of Mf choose a point. If two regions have an edge in common, then the ‘corresponding points can be connected by line through the common edge. These curves can be drawn so they are noncrossing. Thus we obtain a new map M*, called the dual of M, such that each vertex of M* corresponds to exactly one region of M. Figure 6-51(b) shows the dual of the map in Fig. 6-51(a). We ean prove that each region of M* will include exactly one vertex of M and that each edge of M"* will intersect exactly one edge of M and vice versa. Thus M will be the dual of the map M*, © Fig. 651 6.75 Explain how the dual map relates the coloring of graphs (i.e, vertices) with the coloring of maps (i.e., regions). Observe that any coloring ofthe regions of map M will correspond to a coloring of the vertices of the dual map M*. In other words, a map M is n-colorable if and only ifthe planat graph of the dual map M"* is n-colorable. Theorem 6.6 can therefore be restated as follows. ‘Theorem 6.6 (Alternate): Every planar map M is S-colorable. 6.76 Draw the map which is dual to each map in Fig. 6-52.PLANAR GRAPHS AND TREES 0 209 A©®®D «@ Fig. 652 I Choose a vertex (point) in each region, and connect two vertices ifthe corresponding regions have an edge {in common. We emphasize that a map and its dual must have the same number of edges. The corresponding ‘results are shown in Fig. 653. Observe that there are two loops in Fig. 6-53(b), which correspond to the two ‘edges inthe original map that are entirely contained inthe “outside” region. © o © Fig. 653, 6.71 Draw the map which is dual to each map in MOS. 1 start by placing a vertex (point in each region of each map M, and then connect two vertices ifthe correspoidng pions have an edge in common. In this manner, we obtain the corresponding dual maps Min Fig. 655. 6.78 Consider the map M in Fig. 6-S6(a). (a) How many regions has M? (b) Draw the map M* which is dual to M. (©) Determine how many vertices are in M*. (d) Draw the map which is dual to M*. 4 (@)_Mhas six bounded regions and one unbounded region. (®) The dual map M* appears in Fig. 6-56(b). (©) -M" has seven vertices, one for each region in M. (4) The original map M in Fig. 6-56(a) is the dual of the map M* in Fig. 6-56(6).