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Abstract
The study concerns the evaluation and comparison of the thermal performance of building roof elements subject to periodic changes in
ambient temperature, solar radiation and nonlinear radiation exchange. A numerical model, based on the /nite-volume method and using
the implicit formulation, is developed and applied for six variants of a typical roof structure used in the construction of buildings in Saudi
Arabia. The climatic conditions of the city of Riyadh are employed for representative days for July and January. The study gives the
detailed temperature and heat 1ux variations with time and the relative importance of the various heat-transfer components as well as the
daily averaged roof heat-transfer load, dynamic R-values and the radiative heat-transfer coe2cient. The results show that the inclusion of
a 5-cm thick molded polystyrene layer reduces the roof heat-transfer load to one-third of its value in an identical roof section without
insulation. Using a polyurethane layer instead, reduces the load to less than one-quarter. A slightly better thermal performance is achieved
by locating the insulation layer closer to the inside surface of the roof structure but this exposes the water proo/ng membrane layer to
c 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
larger temperature 1uctuations.
Keywords: Thermal insulation; Building roofs; Heat transmission; R-value; Finite-volume method
1. Introduction
The use of thermal insulation and special types of building materials has increased signi/cantly in recent years in
both hot and cold climates. This was due to the increasing
demand on the thermal comfort of people inside residential,
commercial and governmental buildings besides the ever
increasing cost of energy. The thermal design of buildings
depends on the indoor conditions required, the outdoor
prevailing climatic conditions, and the choice of building
construction materials and insulation. Accurate methods
of analysis to predict the thermal performance of a whole
building envelope or an element are, therefore, sought.
A whole building thermal analysis is quite involved since
all mechanisms of heat transfer are present and the building
components are composite of many layers of di9erent materials. The analysis is often time dependent since the outside
ambient temperature, wind speed and solar radiation vary
with time. Also, the heat gains due to occupants, equipment,
lighting, and solar radiation transmission through fenestration, besides the ventilation and in/ltration of the outside
air will have to be accounted for. Therefore, various methods with di9erent levels of simpli/cation exist for building
energy calculations such as the transfer function, the degree
day and bin methods [1]. Computer codes are also available
to perform complicated building load analysis. Mathews
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Nomenclature
Ao
Bi
c
Fo
h
Is
k
L
N
q
Q
Re
Rn
t
T
Tf; i
Tf; o
Tf; o; mean
Tsky
v
x
variation ( C)
Biot number = hHx=k
speci/c heat (J=kg K)
Fourier number = Ht=(Hx)2
heat-transfer coe2cient (W=m2 K)
solar radiation 1ux (W=m2 )
thermal conductivity (W=m K)
layer thickness (m)
number of layers
heat 1ux (W=m2 )
daily total heat 1ux (MJ=m2 day)
e9ective resistance (m2 K=W )
nominal resistance (m2 K=W )
time (s)
temperature ( C or K)
Greek letters
Hx
Ht
'
(
)
*
+
!
Subscripts
c
convi
convo
i
o
r
s
st
1; 2
convection
inside convection
outside convection
inside surface or nodal point
outside surface
radiation exchange
solar radiation
storage
layer number or nodal point.
2. Mathematical formulation
The geometrical con/guration is depicted in Fig. 1. The
roof section consists of a number of layers with di9erent
thicknesses and physical properties. The outside surface
is exposed to solar radiation (Is ), convection heat transfer
(qc; o ) and radiation exchange with the sky (qr; o ). The inside
surface is subject to combined convection and radiation heat
transfer (qi ) which relates directly to the air-conditioning
load required to maintain the inside design temperature
(Tf ; i ). The mathematical model is formulated using the
following assumptions.
667
where hi is the inside-surface combined heat-transfer coef/cient; from the ASHRAE handbook of fundamentals [1]:
hi = 9:26 W=m2 K for upward direction of heat 1ow;
and
@ Tj
1 @Tj
;
=
@x2
j @t
(1)
in W=m2 K
0:25 v
if
v 2 m=s;
0:50 v
if
v 2 m=s:
(4)
(5)
(6)
668
t+Ht
t+Ht
(kj =Hxj )Ti1
+ (kj+1 =Hxj+1 )Ti+1
+ BTit
;
kj =Hxj + kj+1 =Hxj+1 + B
(9)
where
B = ()j cj Hxj + )j+1 cj+1 Hxj+1 )=2Ht:
(iv) The boundary node on the outside surface:
Tnt+Ht
=
t+Ht
+Bio Tft+Ht
+ (HxN =kN )((Ist+Ht +qr; o )]+Tnt
2Foo [Tn1
;o
;
2Foo (Bio +1)+1
(10)
where
Foo = N Ht=(HxN )2 ;
and
t+tH 4
qr; o = '*[(Tsky
) (Tnt+Ht )4 ]:
The resulting /nite-volume equations, using the implicit formulation, are summarized as follows:
(i) The boundary node on the inside surface:
T1t+Ht =
(7)
The set of the /nite-volume equations is solved iteratively by using the GaussSeidel method. The iterative process within each time step continues until the di9erences
between the new and old nodal temperatures are within a
predetermined small tolerance value. The solution is carried
through a number of cycles until a steady periodic state is
fully obtained. It is noted that the nonlinear radiation e9ects
are handled within the process of the iterative solution; the
temperature at the outside roof surface, which appears on
both the left- and right-hand sides of Eq. (10), is calculated
using qr; o evaluated from the temperature value at the previous iteration.
4. Roof structures, thermal properties and climatic data
The details of six roof structures; namely, R1R6 are
shown schematically in Figs. 35. Structures R1 and R2
represent uninsulated roofs with di9erent foam concrete
types (I and II, respectively). Structures R3, R4 and R5
represent insulated roofs with di9erent insulation materials
as follows: molded polystyrene, extruded polystyrene and
polyurethane, respectively. Structure R6 di9ers from R3
only with respect to the location of the insulation layer. The
thicknesses of the various layers are: paving tiles = 25 mm,
where
Foi = 1 Ht=(Hx1 )2
and
t+Ht
t+Ht
Foj (Ti1
+ Ti+1
) + Tit
;
2Foj + 1
where
Foj = j Ht=(Hxj )2 :
(8)
Fig. 3. Schematic of roof structures R1 and R2; (1) tiles, (2) mortar bed,
(3) sand /ll, (4) membrane, (5) foam concrete, (6) reinforced concrete,
and (7) cement plaster.
669
Tf ; o; mean = 34:7 C;
Tf ; o; mean = 12:3 C;
Ao = 7:8 C
Ao = 4:5 C
for July;
for January;
and
+ = 0:8333:
Fig. 4. Schematic of roof structures R3, R4 and R5; (1) tiles, (2) mortar
bed, (3) sand /ll, (4) thermal insulation, (5) membrane, (6) foam concrete,
(7) reinforced concrete, and (8) cement plaster.
The daily average wind speed is 4:1 m=s for July and
2:6 m=s for January. The solar radiation 1ux on horizontal
roofs Is is calculated from the direct and di9use components
based on the ASHRAE clear-sky model [1]. The latitude,
longitude and the standard meridian of the local time zone
pertinent to the city of Riyadh are speci/c input to the model.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Introduction
Fig. 5. Schematic of roof structure R6; (1) tiles, (2) mortar bed,
(3) sand /ll, (4) membrane, (5) foam concrete, (6) reinforced concrete,
(7) thermal insulation, and (8) cement plaster.
Table 1
Thermal properties
Material
k (W=m K)
) (kg=m3 )
c (J=kg K)
Paving tile
Mortar bed
Sand /ll
Molded polystyrene
Extruded polystyrene
Polyurethane
Water proo/ng membrane
Leveling foam concrete (I)
Leveling foam concrete (II)
Reinforced concrete
Cement plaster
1.73
0.72
0.33
0.036
0.029
0.022
0.19
0.52
0.08
1.73
0.72
2243
1858
1515
24
35
32
1121
1600
300
2243
1858
920
837
800
1213
1213
1590
1675
837
837
920
837
The thermal performance of the six roof structures is determined through the time of day; the day represents an average of all days in a month. The months of July and January
are chosen to represent typical summer and winter condi
tions. The indoor temperature (Tf ; i ) is controlled at 25 C for
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Fig. 8. Components and net heat-transfer rate variations with time for
structure R1 in July.
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Table 2
Summary of total and daily-averaged thermal values
Code
number
Rn
(m2 K=W)
Re
(m2 K=W)
R1JUL
R2JUL
R3JUL
R4JUL
R5JUL
R6JUL
0.670
1.463
2.059
2.394
2.943
2.059
0.529
1.156
1.626
1.891
2.323
1.626
R1JAN
R2JAN
R3JAN
R4JAN
R5JAN
R6JAN
0.628
1.421
2.017
2.352
2.900
2.017
0.735
1.664
2.362
2.755
3.398
2.359
Qc; o
(MJ=m2 day)
Qs
(MJ=m2 day)
Qr
(MJ=m2 day)
hQr
(W=m2 K)
1.584
0.725
0.515
0.443
0.361
0.515
3:031
3:677
3:831
3:886
3:948
3:841
11.480
11.480
11.480
11.480
11.480
11.480
6:866
7:079
7:135
7:153
7:173
7:125
5.67
5.68
5.68
5.68
5.69
5.68
1:261
0:557
0:392
0:336
0:273
0:393
2:884
2:355
2:230
2:188
2:140
2:233
7.260
7.260
7.260
7.260
7.260
7.260
5:638
5:461
5:423
5:408
5:392
5:417
4.51
4.50
4.50
4.50
4.49
4.50
Qi
(MJ=m2 day)
Fig. 10. Temperature variations across the roof thickness at di9erent times
for structure R3 in July.
22:30 and a net heat dissipation outside this period. The total amount of heat storage must equal the total amount of
heat dissipation over a complete cycle (one day). Similar
behavior is obtained for other layers but with di9erent rates
and time lag.
5.3. Roof structure R3
This represents a typical insulated roof with a 5-cm layer
of molded polystyrene placed above the water proo/ng
membrane; except for the insulation layer, this structure is
identical to R1. Fig. 10 shows the variations of temperature
across the roof thickness for July and are to be compared
with the results in Fig. 6. It is seen that the presence of the
insulation has a marked e9ect in which sharp changes in the
temperature slopes are calculated across the interfaces with
the insulation layer. Also, the bulk of the temperature drop
through the roof takes place across the insulation leaving
672
Fig. 11. Temperature variations across the roof thickness at di9erent times
for structure R6 in July.
the layers on the inside having a relatively very small temperature drop and also much smaller variations with time.
This has two advantages; /rstly, the transmission load is
reduced in magnitude and, secondly, the amplitude of load
1uctuation is reduced in size. It is noted that the variation of
during the whole day and is only 1 C higher than the inside
room temperature of 25 C. These characteristics are superior when compared to those obtained for roof structure R1.
With regard to the large temperature variations across the
outer layers, a strong resemblance is seen with those for R1.
5.4. Roof structure R6
This represents a typical insulated roof with the thermal
insulation placed close to the inside surface; except for the
location of the insulation layer, this structure is identical to
R3. Fig. 11 displays the variations of temperature across the
roof thickness for di9erent times of day. It is seen that the
results are similar to those in Fig. 10 for the three layers that
lie close to the outside surface. Starting from the membrane
layer and moving inwards, the results in Fig. 11 are distinguished by higher temperature levels and larger 1uctuations.
The membrane layer is now exposed to a higher temperature and a greater temperature variation with time which are
unfavorable since they can cause cracks and property deterioration after a certain period of use. The insulation layer
gives rise to a substantial temperature drop across its thickness and acts to reduce the daily temperature 1uctuation signi/cantly. It is seen that the e9ect on the inside surface is
quite similar to that for R3, i.e. an inside surface temperature
of about 26 C (1 C higher than the inside room temperature) and with a very small variation throughout the day.
It may be concluded, therefore, that the two structures, R3
and R6, behave similarly with respect to their e9ect on the
mean cooling load, further details are given in the next sec-
Fig. 12. Inside-surface heat 1ux variations with time for all roof structures
in July.
673
Fig. 13. Energy storage variations with time of the reinforced concrete
slab for all roof structures in July.
Fig. 14. Daily total heat-transfer loads per square meter for all roof
structures in July and January.
Fig. 15. Total nominal thermal resistances for all roof structures in July
and January.
674
Fig. 16. Total e9ective thermal resistances for all roof structures in July
and January.
tion code number, the second column gives the roof nominal
thermal resistance (Rn ), while the third column gives the effective thermal resistance (Re ). Columns four to seven give
the daily total quantities of heat-transfer per square meter
of roof: Qi for the inside-surface heat transfer (+ve relates
to cooling load and ve relates to heating load), Qc; o for
the outside-surface heat convection (ve means loss from
roof to outside ambient), Qs for the absorbed solar radiation
(+ve means gain; the absorptivity is 0.4), and Qr for the
radiation exchange between outside-surface and sky (ve
means loss from roof to sky; the emissivity is 0.9). Finally,
the last column gives the daily mean outside-surface radiative heat-transfer coe2cient. From an overall energy balance for the roof section over 24 h, Qc; o + Qs + Qr must
equal to Qi under steady periodic conditions. It is interesting
to note that the largest daily total heat-transfer component
at the roof outside surface is the absorbed solar radiation
which acts adversely in July and favorably in January. It is
also noted that the daily contribution of the radiation exchange at the outside surface can be more than twice that
of the convection. This is due to the relative magnitudes of
the radiative and convective heat-transfer coe2cients and to
partial cancellation of the convective 1ux when integrated
over the whole day, as can be seen for example in Fig. 8.
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