1.2.

3 ELECTRONIC CONTROL EQUIPMENT

Defines the following electronic control equipment and states briefly their control
mechanism relay circuit unit
1. Digital sequential control devices
2. Integrated Automation Control and Monitoring System(IACMS)
3. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
-

A PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC) is an industrial computer

control system that continuously monitors the state of input devices and
makes decisions based upon a custom program to control the state of output
devices. Almost any production line, machine function, or process can be
greatly enhanced using this type of control system. However, the biggest
benefit in using a PLC is the ability to change and replicate the operation or
process while collecting and communicating vital information. Another
advantage of a PLC system is that it is modular. That is, you can mix and
match the types of Input and Output devices to best suit your application.

There are four basic steps in the operation of all PLCs; Input Scan, Program
Scan, Output Scan, and Housekeeping. These steps continually take place in
a repeating loop.

Four Steps In The PLC Operations

a.) Input Scan Detects the state of all input devices that are connected to
the PLC
b.) Program Scan Executes the user created program logic
c.) Output Scan Energizes or de-energize all output devices that are
connected to the PLC
d.) Housekeeping this step includes communications with programming

terminals, internal diagnostics, etc

4. Analogue/digital/computer PID Controller
5. Computer programmable controller
- Electronic computers that are used for the control of machines and manufact
uring processes through the implementation ofspecific functions such as logic
, sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic. They are also known as progra
mmable logiccontrollers (PLCs). Historically, process control of a single or a fe
w related devices has been implemented through the useof banks of relays a
nd relay logic for both the control of actuators and their sequencing. The adv
ent of small, inexpensivemicroprocessors and single-chip computers, or micro
controller units, brought process control from the age of simple relaycontrol t

o one of electronic digital control while neither losing traditional design meth
ods such as relay ladder diagrams norrestricting their programming to that si
ngle paradigm. The computational power of programmable controllers and th
eirintegration into networks has led to capabilities approaching those of distri
buted control systems, and plantwide control isnow a mixture of distributed c
ontrol systems and programmable controllers. Applications for programmable
controllers rangefrom small-scale, local process applications in which as few a
s 10 simple feedback control loops are implemented, up tolarge-scale, remote
supervisory process applications in which 50 or more process control loops sp
read across the facilityare implemented. Typical applications include batch pr
ocess control and materials handling in the chemical industry,machining and
test-stand control and data acquisition in the manufacturing industry, wood c
utting and chip handling in thelumber industry, filling and packaging in food i
ndustries, and furnace and rolling-mill controls in the metal industry.
States how control equipment cited above are utilized for main engine
control, CPP, generator control, boiler control and auxiliaries control in
terms of the following:
1. Main engine; start/stop, revolution, various injection timing control,
electronic governor and the others (auto-load, crash astern,
automatic shut down, slow down, etc)
2. Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP); autoload/blade angle control
generator; generator automatic control (GAC) (auto-synchro, load
sharing, etc) primary mover start/stop sequence
3. Boiler; Automatic Combustion Control (ACC), burner control, Feed
Water Control (FWC), Steam Temperature Control (STC),
4. Auxiliarty machinery; purifier automatic control (automatic sludge
discharge) temperature, level, pressure and viscosity control
1.2.4 FLOWCHART FOR AUTOMATIC AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
Explains symbol marks used in flow charts such as terminal, processing,
determination, input/out, etc
Terminal
- The terminal symbol, as the name implies, is used to indicate the
starting (BEGIN), stopping (END), and pause (HALT) in the program logic flow. It is
the first symbol and the last symbol in the program logic. In addition, if the program
logic calls for a pause in the program, that also is indicated with a terminal symbol.
A pause is normally used in the program logic under some error conditions or in
case the forms had to be changed in the computers line printer during the
processing of that program.
Input/Output
-The input/output symbol is used to denote any function of an
input/output device in the program. If there is a program instruction to input data
from a disk, tape, card reader, terminal, or any other type of input device, that step

will be indicated in the flowchart with an input/output symbol. Similarly, all output
instructions, whether it is output on a printer, magnetic tape, magnetic disk,
terminal screen, or any output device, are indicated in the flowchart with an
input/output symbol.
Processing -A processing symbol is used in a flowchart to represent arithmetic and
data movement instructions. Thus, all arithmetic processes such as adding,
subtracting, multiplying and dividing are shown by a processing symbol. The logical
process of moving data from one location of the main memory to another is also
denoted by this symbol. When more than one arithmetic and data movement
instructions are to be executed consecutively, they are normally placed in the same
processing box and they are assumed to be executed in the order of their
appearance.
Flow lines -Flowlines with arrowheads are used to indicate the flow of operation,
that is, the exact sequence in which the instructions are to be executed. The normal
flow of flowchart is from top to bottom and left to right. Arrowheads are required
only when the normal top to bottom flow is not to be followed. However, as a good
practice and in order to avoid confusion, flow lines are usually drawn with an
arrowhead at the point of entry to a symbol. Good practice also dictates that flow
lines should not cross each other and that such intersections should be avoided
whenever possible.Flowlines with arrowheads are used to indicate the flow of
operation, that is, the exact sequence in which the instructions are to be executed.
The normal flow of flowchart is from top to bottom and left to right. Arrowheads are
required only when the normal top to bottom flow is not to be followed. However, as
a good practice and in order to avoid confusion, flow lines are usually drawn with an
arrowhead at the point of entry to a symbol. Good practice also dictates that flow
lines should not cross each other and that such intersections should be avoided
whenever possible.

Decision
-The decision
symbol is used in a flowchart
to indicate a point at which a
decision has to be made and a
branch to one of two or more
alternative points is possible.
Figure 1.2 shows three
different ways in which a
decision symbol can be used. It
may be noted from these
examples that the criterion for
making the decision should be
indicated clearly within the
decision box. Moreover, the
condition upon which each of
the possible exit paths will be
executed, should be identified
and all the possible paths
should be accounted for.
During execution, the
appropriate path is followed
depending upon the result of
the decision.
Connector -If a flowchart
becomes very long, the flow
lines start crisscrossing at many places that causes confusion and reduces the
clarity of the flowchart. Moreover, there are instances when a flowchart becomes
too long to fit in a single page and the use of flow lines becomes impossible. Thus,
whenever a flowchart becomes too complex that the number and direction of flow
lines is confusing or it spreads over more than one page, it is useful to utilize the
connector symbol as a substitute for flow lines. This symbol represents an entry
from, or an exit to another part of the flowchart.

States what is understood with flow charts

-

A flowchart is a graphical representation of the sequence of operations in an

information system or program. Program flowcharts show the sequence of
instructions in a single program or subroutine. Flowchart uses boxes of
different shapes to denote different types of instructions. The actual
instructions are written within these boxes using clear and concise
statements. These boxes are connected by solid lines having arrow marks to
indicate the flow of operation, that is, the exact sequence in which the

instructions are to be executed. Since a flowchart shows the flow of

operations in pictorial form, any error in the logic of the procedure can be
detected easily. Once the flowchart is ready, the programmer can forget
about the logic and can concentrate only on coding the operations in each
box of the flowchart in terms of the statements of the programming
language. This will normally ensure an error-free program. A flowchart is
basically the plan to be followed when the program is written. It acts like a
road map for a programmer and 1 2 Flowcharting Concepts and Algorithms
guides him in proceeding from the starting point to the final point while
writing a computer program. For a beginner it is strongly recommended that
a flowchart be drawn first in order to reduce the number of errors and
omissions in the program. Moreover, it is a good practice to have a flowchart
along with a computer program as it is very helpful during the testing of the
program and also in incorporating any modifications in the program.
Explains flow charts indicating automatic control system for main engine,
generator control system and others taking some of them as examples
Describes briefly the major components in relation to the function found
in flow charts
1.3.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Defines an automatic control and states its purpose
Automatic Control
in technology, an aggregate of operations aimed at sustaining or improving the func
tioning of a controlled object withoutdirect human participation and in accord with a
prescribed control objective.
Automatic control is widely employed in many technological and biological systems
to perform operations not feasible for aman because of the necessity of processing
a large amount of data in a limited time; it is also used to increase theproductivity o
f labor and the quality and accuracy of regulation and to free men from controlling s
ystems that operate underconditions which are relatively inaccessible or hazardous
to health.
The objective of control in one form or another has to do with the temporal variation
of the regulated (controlled) quantity
the output variable of the controlled object. In order to accomplish the control objec
tive while taking into account thepeculiarities of controlled objects that have various
characteristics and the specific features of individual classes ofsystems, one organiz
es an action (the control action) on the objects control units. This action is also desi
gned tocompensate for the effects of external disturbances that tend to interfere wit
h the required behavior of the controlledquantity. The control effect is produced by a
control device (CD). The totality of interactions between the control device andthe c
ontrolled object constitutes an automatic control system.

Automatic control system. An automatic control system (ACS) sustains or improv

es the functioning of a controlled object.In a number of cases the auxiliary operation
s for the ACSstarting, stopping, monitoring, adjusting, and so oncan also beauto
mated. An ACS functions mainly as a member of a production or some other comple
x.
The history of technology contains many early examples of designs that have all the
distinguishing features of an ACS
forexample, a shaker to regulate the flow of grain in a mill, and the means of regu
lating the water level in the steam boiler of aPolzunov machine (1765). The first clos
ed ACS, which has been widely used in technology, was the automatic regulationsys
tem with a centrifugal governor for a steam engine, developed by Watt in 1784. As s
team engines, turbines, and internalcombustion engines were improved, various me
chanical regulating systems, which had developed considerably by the turnof the 20
th century, were employed more and more extensively.
This new stage in automatic control was characterized by the introduction of electro
nic elements and devices for automationand remote control. Electronic advances we
re responsible for the appearance of highly accurate tracking and guidancesystems,
remote control and telemetering, and automatic monitoring and correcting systems.
The 1950s were notable forthe appearance of complex control systems for producti
on processes and industrial complexes based on electronic controlcomputers.
ACSs are classified mainly according to the control objectives, the type of control ci
rcuit, and the method of transmittingthe signals. Initially, the problem that faced AC
Ss was the maintenance of specified relationships for time-related changesin the co
ntrolled quantities. In this class of systems we distinguish automatic regulation syst
ems (ARS), whose task is tokeep a controlled quantity constant; program control sys
tems, where the controlled quantity is varied in accord with aspecified program; and
servomechanisms, for which the control program is not known beforehand. Subsequ
ently theobjective of the control became associated directly with particular complex
indexes of quality that characterized a systemaccording to its productivity, the accu
racy of reproduction, and so on; requirements can be placed on the quality index to
attain maximum or minimum limits, and for this purpose adaptive, or self-adapting,
systems were developed. In these themethod of control varies: in self-adjusting syst
ems the parameters of the control device are varied until optimal or nearlyoptimal v
alues of the controlled quantity are attained; in self-adjusting systems it is possible t
o change the structure for thesame purpose. Broader in principle are the possibilitie
s of self-teaching systems, which improve the functional algorithm onthe basis of an
analysis of the control experience. Optimizing the mode in adaptive ACSs can be ac
complished both bymeans of an automatic scan and by a nonscanning method.
Describes what devices/equipment construct systems and their
role/functions

Relates sensing unit, controller, controlled variable, manipulating variable

and controlled object to each of them in the control system
Describes what sorts of devices are included in the sensing unit
Describes variety of controllers such as electronic (PID, PLC, computer)
controller and pneumatic controller
Defines setting value, input value, deviation and output value/controlled
variable in the controller
Describes what sorts of devices are included as manipulators
Describes variety of controlled object
Describes how automatic controls are utilized in the ships propulsion
machinery, taking examples of temperature and level control systems,
including control parameters such as time lag, time constant, dead time,
first/second-order lag element, disturbance and offset
1.3.2 VARIOUS AUTOMATIC CONTROLS
Classifies systematically automatic controls in terms of control
methodologies
States what an optimal control means
Explains briefly feedback control and feed forward control
Describes briefly ON-OFF control, sequential control, PID control and
program control
Explains how these automatic controls are applied to the control systems
Explains briefly program control and how the control is realized
Describes the applications of program control in the ships propulsion
machinery
1.3.3 ON-OFF CONTROL
Explains what ON-OFF control means
Explains the characteristics of ON-OFF control
Explains how ON-OFF control is utilized
Lists components comprising ON-Off control system
Describes ON-OFF control taking some applications as examples

1.3.6 MEASUREMENT OF PROCESS VALUE

1. Temperature
(mechanical)
- States that it is common practice to call the measuring
instrument for temperatures
- Above 500C a pyrometer
- Below 500C a thermometer
- States the temperature range for which mercury is used
- Names the fluids which can be used for the measurement of
lower temperatures
- Describes the principal features of thermometers based on the
filled system, including:
- Mercury in steel
- Vapour-pressure
- Gas-filled
- Describes the principal features of a bimetallic thermometer
(electrical)
- States that the range and accuracy varies according to the
material used in the detecting element
- Sketches and describes a resistance-type measuring instrument
based on the Wheatstone bridge
- Describes the characteristics of a thermistor and the conditions
for which it is suitable
- Sketches a circuit used in a thermocouple and describes its
operation
- Describes the principles of an optical pyrometer
2. Pressure
- Describes the principle features of, and compares, the following:
Manometers
Simple water
Wide-cistern or well
Inclined-tube
Mercury
Pressure gauges
Bourdon
Diaphragm-sealed gauge
Schaffer
Twin-bellows differential-pressure cell
Strain gauge
- Describes how pressure gauges can be tested on board ship
- Sketches calibration curves for a Bourdon pressure gauge,
showing the effect of:
Zero adjustment
Multiplication adjustment

 Angularity adjustment
- States that calibration and testing are normally performed by
specialists
3. Level
(Direct Methods)
- Describes the principle of a float-operated level-measuring device
- Describes the principle of a probe element
- Describes a displacement gauge
(Inferential Methods)
- Explains the principle of inferential methods
- Describes a level sensor based on immersed resistors
- Describes a level indicator based on a bubbler system
- Describes a pneumercator gauge
4. Flow
- Explains the difference between a quantity metre a rate-of-flowflow metre
- Explains that a quality metre is basically a rate-of-flow metre
combined with an integrator
- Describes the function of the two elements of a flow metre
- Sketches a graph to show the relationship between velocity of a
fluid and its pressure difference
- From the above objective, shows the velocity is proportional to
the square root of pressure
- Explains the situations in which extractions of square roots are
necessary
- Describes the principal features of:
A rotormeter
An electrical flowmeter
A rotameter
- Sketches a n orifice and a Venturi, showing the direction of flow
and the pressure measuring points
- Explains how a manometer can be used as a square-root
extractor when measuring the pressure difference in an orifice of
Venturi
- States that extraction of a square root can also be accomplished
pneumatically and electrically
5. General Measurement of Processes
- Explains the principles of a tachometer
- Explains the principles of A.C and D.C. electric tachometers
- Explains the principles of a torque metre based on the effect of
stress in a magnetic field
- Explains how the above objective can be developed to measure
power
- Explains the principal features of a viscometer
- Describes the application of a photoelectric cell to:
An oil-in-water

A smoke-density detector
An oil-mist detector
Describes the common types of fire detector
Describes the principal features of:
An explosive-gas detector
A vibration monitor
An oxygen analyser
A CO2 analyser
A relative humidity metre
Salinity measurement
A dissolved-oxygen metre
A pH metre
Describes or performs routine setting up, testing and
maintenance of the measuring devices included in the above
objectives

2.1.3.7 TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS

1. Transmitters - a set of equipment used to generate and transmit
electromagnetic waves carrying messages or signals, especially those of
radio or television.
-describes the function of a transducer
* Components in relation to the function found in flow charts. A device that
converts variations in a physical quantity, such as pressure or brightness, into
an electrical signal, or vice versa.
2. Controlling elements
(Pneumatic)- A Pneumatic Controller is a mechanical device designed to
measure temperature or pressure and transmit a corrective air signal to the
final control element.
-describes the flapper and nozzle arrangement
* A pneumatic control system operates with air. The signal is transmitted in
the form of variable air
pressure (often in the
range of 0.2 to 1.0 bar
(3-15 psi)) that initiates
the control action. One
of the basic building
blocks of a pneumatic
control system is the
flapper nozzle amplifier.
It converts very small displacement signal (in order of microns) to variation of
air pressure.

-explains what is meant by negative feedback and by positive

feedback
-sketches a flapper and nozzle arrangement with negative feedback
-explains the function of a force-balance transducer
-describes the principle features of an electro pneumatic transducer
(Electrical)
-uses a Wheatstone bridge used as a transducer
-describes the principles of a variable-inductance
-describes the principles of a variable-capacitance transducer
-describes the principles of an electronic force-balance system
-describes the principles of a voltage-current transducer
(Receivers)
-describes the principal feature of:
* a pneumatic receiver integrator
* a potentiometric pen recorder
* explains the function of an X-Y recorder
*describes the basic principles of ac and dc positions motors
2.1.3.8 MANIPULATOR ELEMENTS
1. Pneumatic
-states that the final controller might be operated pneumatically,
hydraulically or electrically
-sketches a diaphragm-operated control valve
-describes the characteristics of the motor element and the correcting
element in the above objective
-describes or, preferably, determines by experiment the flow
characteristics and applications of :
*mitre valves
*vee-ported valves
-explains what is meant byturn-down ratio
-describes the conditions which may dictate the need for a positioned
-describes the principal features of a positioned
-explains the circumstance when piston actuators might be used
-describes the conditions where butterfly valves might be used
-describes the wax-element temperature-control valve and states its
normal temperature range

2. Electrical Servomotors
-describes a dc servomotor and explains how it varies from the common
motor
-Explains the problems of using a three-phase ac machine as a servomotor
-describes the applications of a two-phase ac servomotor, explaining how
its characteristics can be varied
3. Hydraulic Servomotor - The linear hydraulic actuators are designed to
transform hydraulic energy into mechanical energy in order to move any load
required, since movement of the distributor ring command of the turbine valve
adduction, braking system, among others.
-describes the principles of a swash plate pump - Swash plate pumps have a
rotating cylinder containing pistons. A spring pushes the pistons against a
stationary swash plate, which sits at an angle to the cylinder. The pistons suck in
fluid during half a revolution and push fluid out during the other half. Shown on
edge on the far right in the animation is a dark stationary disk. It contains two semicircular ports. It is shown again in a head-on view below, right. These ports allow
the pistons to draw in fluid as they move toward the swash plate (on the backside
and not shown here) and discharge it as they move away. For a given speed swash
plate pumps can be of fixed displacement like this one, or variable by having a
variable swash plate angle. The greater the slant the further the pistons move and
the more fluid they transfer.
-explains the advantage of using high pressures
-explains the applications of a hydraulic ram servomotor