Constantine the Great

This article is about Constantine as an Emperor. For St.

Constantine as a Saint, see Constantine the Great and
Christianity.
Constantine I redirects here. For other uses, see
Constantine I (disambiguation).
Constantine of Constantinople redirects here. For the
Patriarchs of Constantinople, see Patriarch Constantine
of Constantinople.

The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire.[5] He built a new imperial residence at Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople
after himself (the laudatory epithet of New Rome came
later, and was never an ocial title). It would later become the capital of the Empire for over one thousand
years; for which reason the later Eastern Empire would
come to be known as the Byzantine Empire. His more
immediate political legacy was that, in leaving the empire to his sons, he replaced Diocletians tetrarchy with
the principle of dynastic succession. His reputation ourished during the lifetime of his children and centuries
after his reign. The medieval church upheld him as a
paragon of virtue while secular rulers invoked him as a
prototype, a point of reference, and the symbol of imperial legitimacy and identity.[6] Beginning with the Renaissance, there were more critical appraisals of his reign due
to the rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources. Critics
portrayed him as a tyrant. Trends in modern and recent
scholarship attempted to balance the extremes of previous scholarship.

Constantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus;[2] Greek:
; 27 February c. 272 AD[1] 22 May 337 AD),
also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine (in
the Orthodox Church as Saint Constantine the Great,
Equal-to-the-Apostles),[3] was a Roman Emperor from
306 to 337 AD. Constantine was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, a Roman army ocer, and his consort
Helena. His father became Caesar, the deputy emperor in
the west in 293 AD. Constantine was sent east, where he
rose through the ranks to become a military tribune under
the emperors Diocletian and Galerius. In 305, Constantius was raised to the rank of Augustus, senior western
emperor, and Constantine was recalled west to campaign
under his father in Britannia (Britain). Acclaimed as emperor by the army at Eboracum (modern-day York) after his fathers death in 306 AD, Constantine emerged
victorious in a series of civil wars against the emperors
Maxentius and Licinius to become sole ruler of both west
and east by 324 AD.

Constantine is a signicant gure in the history of Christianity. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, built on his orders at the purported site of Jesus' tomb in Jerusalem, became the holiest place in Christendom. The Papal claim
to temporal power in the High Middle Ages was based on
the supposed Donation of Constantine. He is venerated
as a saint by Eastern Orthodox, Byzantine Catholics, and
Anglicans.

As emperor, Constantine enacted many administrative,

nancial, social, and military reforms to strengthen the
empire. The government was restructured and civil
and military authority separated. A new gold coin, the
solidus, was introduced to combat ination. It would become the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The rst Roman
emperor to claim conversion to Christianity,[notes 4] Constantine played an inuential role in the proclamation of
the Edict of Milan in 313, which decreed tolerance for
Christianity in the empire. He called the First Council
of Nicaea in 325, at which the Nicene Creed was professed by Christians. In military matters, the Roman
army was reorganised to consist of mobile eld units and
garrison soldiers capable of countering internal threats
and barbarian invasions. Constantine pursued successful
campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiersthe
Franks, the Alamanni, the Goths, and the Sarmatians
even resettling territories abandoned by his predecessors
during the Crisis of the Third Century.

1 Sources
Constantine was a ruler of major historical importance,
and he has always been a controversial gure.[7] The
uctuations in Constantines reputation reect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are
abundant and detailed,[8] but have been strongly inuenced by the ocial propaganda of the period,[9] and
are often one-sided.[10] There are no surviving histories or biographies dealing with Constantines life and
rule.[11] The nearest replacement is Eusebius of Caesarea's Vita Constantini, a work that is a mixture of eulogy
and hagiography.[12] Written between 335 AD and circa
339 AD,[13] the Vita extols Constantines moral and religious virtues.[14] The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine,[15] and modern historians have
frequently challenged its reliability.[16] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constan1

EARLY LIFE

tini.[17] A work of uncertain date,[18] the Origo focuses on February,[28] probably c. 272 AD.[29] His father was
military and political events, to the neglect of cultural and Flavius Constantius, an Illyrian,[30][31] and a native of
religious matters.[19]
Dardania province of Moesia (later Dacia Ripensis).[32]
[33]
Lactantius' De Mortibus Persecutorum, a political Chris- Constantine probably spent little time with his father
tian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the who was an ocer in the Roman army, part of the Emdescribed
Tetrarchy, provides valuable but tendentious detail peror Aurelian's imperial bodyguard. Being
[34]
as
a
tolerant
and
politically
skilled
man,
Constantius
[20]
The
on Constantines predecessors and early life.
ecclesiastical histories of Socrates, Sozomen, and advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship
of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of AuTheodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Con[32]
[21]
stantines later reign.
Written during the reign of relians companions from Illyricum, in 284 or 285.
Constantines mother was Helena, possibly a Bithynian
Theodosius II (40850 AD), a century after Con[35]
stantines reign, these ecclesiastic historians obscure woman of low social standing. It is uncertain whether
she was legally married to Constantius or merely his
the events and theologies of the Constantinian period
[36]
It is unclear if Constantine could speak
through misdirection, misrepresentation and deliberate concubine.
Thracian, his main language being Latin, during his pub[22]
obscurity. The contemporary writings of the orthodox
[37]
Christian Athanasius and the ecclesiastical history of the lic speeches he needed Greek translators.
Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are
no less rm.[23]
The epitomes of Aurelius Victor (De Caesaribus),
Eutropius (Breviarium), Festus (Breviarium), and the
anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus oer
compressed secular political and military histories of the
period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a
favorable image of Constantine, but omit reference to
Constantines religious policies.[24] The Panegyrici Latini, a collection of panegyrics from the late third and
early fourth centuries, provide valuable information on
the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the
early life of Constantine.[25] Contemporary architecture, Constantines parents and siblings, the dates in square brackets
such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in indicate the possession of minor titles
Gamzigrad and Crdoba,[26] epigraphic remains, and the
coinage of the era complement the literary sources.[27]
In July 285 AD, Diocletian declared Maximian, another
colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor
would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate
2 Early life
praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant.[38] Maximian ruled
in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum (Milan,
Italy) or Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany), while
Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia (zmit,
Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the Empire
was called indivisible in ocial panegyric,[39] and both
emperors could move freely throughout the Empire.[40]
In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as
his praetorian prefect in Gaul. Constantius left Helena
to marry Maximians stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or
289.[41]
Diocletian divided the Empire again in 293 AD, appointing two Caesars (junior emperors) to rule over further
subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to their respective Augustus (senior emperor) but
would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands.
Remains of the luxurious residence palace of Mediana, erected This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocleby Constantine I near his birth town of Naissus
tians rst appointee for the oce of Caesar was Constantius; his second was Galerius, a native of Felix RoFlavius Valerius Constantinus, as he was originally muliana. According to Lactantius, Galerius was a brunamed, was born in the city of Naissus, (today Ni, tal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism
Serbia) part of the Dardania province of Moesia on 27 of Romes aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien g-

2.2

In the West

ure, a semi-barbarian.[42] On 1 March, Constantius was

promoted to the oce of Caesar, and dispatched to Gaul
to ght the rebels Carausius and Allectus.[43] In spite of
meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges
of hereditary privilege,[44] and Constantine became the
prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon
as his father took the position. Constantine went to the
court of Diocletian, where he lived as his fathers heir
presumptive.[45]

2.1

In the East

3
Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern
front by the spring of 303 AD, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletians "Great Persecution", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history.[50] In
late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to
the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about
Christians.[51] Constantine could recall his presence at the
palace when the messenger returned, when Diocletian accepted his courts demands for universal persecution.[52]
On 23 February 303 AD, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedias new church, condemned its scriptures to the ames, and had its treasures seized. In the
months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of ocial ranks, and
priests were imprisoned.[53]
It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the
persecution.[54] In his later writings he would attempt
to present himself as an opponent of Diocletians sanguinary edicts against the worshippers of God,[55] but
nothing indicates that he opposed it eectively at the
time.[56] Although no contemporary Christian challenged
Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life.[57]
On 1 May 305 AD, Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating
sickness taken in the winter of 304305 AD, announced
his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan, Maximian did the same.[58] Lactantius states that Galerius
manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning, and
forced him to accept Galerius allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to
Diocletians resignation speech believed, until the very
last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine
and Maxentius (Maximians son) as his successors.[59] It
was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted
to Augusti, while Severus and Maximinus Daia, Galerius
nephew, were appointed their Caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored.[60]

Head from a statue of Diocletian, Augustus of the East

Constantine received a formal education at Diocletians

court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and
philosophy.[46] The cultural environment in Nicomedia
was open, uid and socially mobile, and Constantine
could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He
may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian
scholar of Latin in the city.[47] Because Diocletian did not
completely trust Constantiusnone of the Tetrarchs fully
trusted their colleaguesConstantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantiuss best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in
Asia, and served in a variety of tribunates; he campaigned
against barbarians on the Danube in 296 AD, and fought
the Persians under Diocletian in Syria (297 AD) and under Galerius in Mesopotamia (298299 AD).[48] By late
305 AD, he had become a tribune of the rst order, a
tribunus ordinis primi.[49]

Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius

made on Constantines life in the months following Diocletians abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned
Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge
through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter
into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him
in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at
Galerius feet.[61] It is uncertain how much these tales can
be trusted.[62]

2.2 In the West

Constantine recognized the implicit danger in remaining
at Galeriuss court, where he was held as a virtual hostage.
His career depended on being rescued by his father in the
west. Constantius was quick to intervene.[63] In the late

3 EARLY RULE

spring or early summer of 305 AD, Constantius requested

leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantines later propaganda describes how he
ed the court in the night, before Galerius could change
his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high
speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake.[64] By the
time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine
had ed too far to be caught.[65] Constantine joined his
father in Gaul, at Bononia (Boulogne) before the summer
of 305 AD.[66]

Marble bust of Constantine the Great from Stonegate, York

tiuss death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an
Augustus.[71] The portrait was wreathed in bay.[72] He
requested recognition as heir to his fathers throne, and
passed o responsibility for his unlawful ascension on
his army, claiming they had forced it upon him.[73] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the
portrait on re. His advisers calmed him, and argued that
outright denial of Constantines claims would mean certain war.[74] Galerius was compelled to compromise: he
granted Constantine the title Caesar rather than AuBronze statue of Constantine I in York, England, near the spot
gustus (the latter oce went to Severus instead).[75]
where he was proclaimed Augustus in 306
Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine
legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emFrom Bononia they crossed the Channel to Britain and perors traditional purple robes.[76] Constantine accepted
made their way to Eboracum (York), capital of the the decision,[75] knowing that it would remove doubts as
province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large to his legitimacy.[77]
military base. Constantine was able to spend a year
in northern Britain at his fathers side, campaigning
against the Picts beyond Hadrians Wall in the summer and autumn.[67] Constantiuss campaign, like that of 3 Early rule
Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into
the north without achieving great success.[68] Constantius Constantines share of the Empire consisted of Britain,
had become severely sick over the course of his reign, and Gaul, and Spain. He therefore commanded one of the
died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum (York). Before dying, largest Roman armies, stationed along the important
he declared his support for raising Constantine to the rank Rhine frontier.[78] After his promotion to emperor, Conof full Augustus. The Alamannic king Chrocus, a barbar- stantine remained in Britain, driving back the tribes of the
ian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Picts and secured his control in the northwestern dioceses.
Constantine as Augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius He completed the reconstruction of military bases bememory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain gun under his fathers rule, and ordered the repair of the
quickly accepted his rule;[69] Iberia, which had been in regions roadways.[79] He soon left for Augusta Treverohis fathers domain for less than a year, rejected it.[70]
rum (Trier) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northConstantine sent Galerius an ocial notice of Constan- western Roman Empire.[80] The Franks, after learning of

3.1

Maxentius rebellion

The portrait of Gaius Flavius Valerius Constantinus on a Roman coin. The inscription around the portrait is Constantinus
Aug[ustus]".

5
hint of illegitimacy about him, he relied on his fathers
reputation in his early propaganda: the earliest panegyrics to Constantine give as much coverage to his fathers deeds as to those of Constantine himself.[88] Constantines military skill and building projects soon gave
the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favorably on
the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a renewal, as it were, in
his own person, of his fathers life and reign.[89] Constantinian coinage, sculpture and oratory also shows a
new tendency for disdain towards the barbarians beyond the frontiers. After Constantines victory over
the Alemanni, he minted a coin issue depicting weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen"The Alemanni
conqueredbeneath the phrase Romans rejoicing.[90]
There was little sympathy for these enemies. As his panegyrist declared: It is a stupid clemency that spares the
conquered foe.[91]

Constantines acclamation, invaded Gaul across the lower

Rhine over the winter of 306307 AD.[81] Constantine
drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured two of 3.1
their kings, Ascaric and Merogaisus. The kings and their
soldiers were fed to the beasts of Triers amphitheater in
the adventus (arrival) celebrations that followed.[82]

Maxentius rebellion

Public baths (thermae) built in Trier by Constantine. More than

100 metres (328 ft) wide by 200 metres (656 ft) long, and capable of serving several thousands at a time, the baths were built to
rival those of Rome.[83]

Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He

strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortied gates, and began building a
palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To
the south of his palace, he ordered the construction
of a large formal audience hall, and a massive imperial bathhouse. Constantine sponsored many building
projects across Gaul during his tenure as emperor of
the West, especially in Augustodunum (Autun) and Arelate (Arles).[84] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed his father in following a tolerant policy towards
Christianity. Although not yet a Christian, he probably
judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution,[85]
and a way to distinguish himself from the great persecutor, Galerius.[86] Constantine decreed a formal end to
persecution, and returned to Christians all they had lost
during the persecutions.[87]

Dresden bust of Maxentius

Following Galerius recognition of Constantine as caesar,

Constantines portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portraits subject as the
son of a harlot, and lamented his own powerlessness.[92]
Maxentius, envious of Constantines authority,[93] seized
the title of emperor on 28 October 306 AD. Galerius refused to recognize him, but failed to unseat him. Galerius
sent Severus against Maxentius, but during the campaign,
Severus armies, previously under command of MaxenBecause Constantine was still largely untried and had a tius father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized

3 EARLY RULE

and imprisoned.[94] Maximian, brought out of retirement

by his sons rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine in late 307 AD. He oered to marry his daughter
Fausta to Constantine, and elevate him to Augustan rank.
In return, Constantine would rearm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius, and oer support to Maxentius cause in Italy. Constantine accepted,
and married Fausta in Trier in late summer 307 AD. Constantine now gave Maxentius his meagre support, oering
Maxentius political recognition.[95]
Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conict,
however. Over the spring and summer of 307 AD, he
had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the
Italian turmoil;[96] now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along
the Rhine. In 308 AD, he raided the territory of the
Bructeri, and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium (Cologne). In 310 AD, he marched
to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not
campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence, and supporting the economy and the arts. His
refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people, and strengthened his power base in
the West.[97] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter
of 307308 AD, but soon fell out with his son. In early
308 AD, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius title,
Maximian returned to Constantines court.[98]
On 11 November 308 AD, Galerius called a general
council at the military city of Carnuntum (PetronellCarnuntum, Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briey returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was
again demoted to Caesar. Licinius, one of Galerius
old military companions, was appointed Augustus in the
western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion, and continued to
style himself as Augustus on his coinage, even as other
members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a Caesar on
theirs. Maximinus Daia was frustrated that he had been
passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius
had been raised to the oce of Augustus, and demanded
that Galerius promote him. Galerius oered to call both
Maximinus and Constantine sons of the Augusti,[99] but
neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310 AD,
Galerius was referring to both men as Augusti.[100]

3.2

Maximians rebellion

A gold multiple of Unconquered Constantine with Sol Invictus,

struck in 313 AD. The use of Sols image stressed Constantines
status as his fathers successor, appealed to the educated citizens
of Gaul, and it was considered less oensive than the traditional
pagan pantheon to the Christians.[101]

tines army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. Constantine soon
heard of the rebellion, abandoned his campaign against
the Franks, and marched his army up the Rhine.[102]
At Cabillunum (Chalon-sur-Sane), he moved his troops
onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the
Sane to the quicker waters of the Rhone. He disembarked at Lugdunum (Lyon).[103] Maximian ed to Massilia (Marseille), a town better able to withstand a long
siege than Arles. It made little dierence, however, as
loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency, but strongly encouraged his
suicide. In July 310 AD, Maximian hanged himself.[102]
In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his fathers devoted
son after his death.[104] He began minting coins with his
fathers deied image, proclaiming his desire to avenge
Maximians death.[105] Constantine initially presented the
suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311 AD,
however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta
learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a
eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was oered suicide, which he accepted.[106] Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on
Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him
and eliminating any public work bearing his image.[107]

In 310 AD, a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against

Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning
against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantines army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He
announced that Constantine was dead, and took up the
imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantines
who would support him as emperor, most of Constan- public image. He could no longer rely on his connection

4.1

War against Maxentius

to the elder emperor Maximian, and needed a new source

of legitimacy.[108] In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25
July 310 AD, the anonymous orator reveals a previously
unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II, a 3rd Century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring
order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasizes Constantines ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantines right to
rule.[109] Indeed, the orator emphasizes ancestry to the
exclusion of all other factors: No chance agreement of
men, nor some unexpected consequence of favor, made
you emperor, the orator declares to Constantine.[110]
The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of
Jupiter and Hercules. Instead, the orator proclaims that
Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and
Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long
reign. In the likeness of Apollo Constantine recognized
himself as the saving gure to whom would be granted
rule of the whole world,[111] as the poet Virgil had once
foretold.[112] The orations religious shift is paralleled by
a similar shift in Constantines coinage. In his early reign,
the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron.
From 310 AD on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus, a
god conventionally identied with Apollo.[113] There is
little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection
or the divine vision are anything other than ction, but
their proclamation strengthened Constantines claims to
legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul.[114]

Civil wars

See also: Civil wars of the Tetrarchy

4.1

War against Maxentius

By the middle of 310 AD, Galerius had become too ill

to involve himself in imperial politics.[115] His nal act
survives: a letter to the provincials posted in Nicomedia
on 30 April 311 AD, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration.[116]
He died soon after the edicts proclamation,[117] destroying what little remained of the tetrarchy.[118] Maximinus mobilized against Licinius, and seized Asia Minor.
A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of
the Bosphorus.[119] While Constantine toured Britain and
Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war.[120] He fortied northern Italy, and strengthened his support in the Christian
community by allowing it to elect a new Bishop of Rome,
Eusebius.[121]

7
port dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage;[122]
and Domitius Alexander was able to briey usurp his authority in Africa.[123] By 312 AD, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported,[124] even among Christian Italians.[125] In the summer of 311 AD, Maxentius
mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with aairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his fathers murder.[126] To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with
Licinius,[127] Constantine forged his own alliance with
Licinius over the winter of 311312 AD, and oered him
his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximin considered
Constantines arrangement with Licinius an aront to his
authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for
a military support. Maxentius accepted.[128] According
to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and
there was military buildup everywhere. There was not a
place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day.[129]
Constantines advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius;[130] even his soothsayers
recommended against it, stating that the sacrices had
produced unfavorable omens.[131] Constantine, with a
spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural
guidance,[132] ignored all these cautions.[133] Early in the
spring of 312 AD,[134] Constantine crossed the Cottian
Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about
40,000.[135] The rst town his army encountered was Segusium (Susa, Italy), a heavily fortied town that shut its
gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set re to
its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly.
Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town, and
advanced with them into northern Italy.[134]
At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin, Italy), Constantine met a large
force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry.[136] In the ensuing battle Constantines army encircled Maxentius cavalry, anked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted
them with blows from his soldiers iron-tipped clubs.
Constantines armies emerged victorious.[137] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead.[138] Other cities of the
north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he
was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312 AD,
when he moved on to Brixia (Brescia).[139]

Brescias army was easily dispersed,[140] and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona, where a large Maxentian force was camped.[141] Ruricius Pompeianus, general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius praetorian
prefect,[142] was in a strong defensive position, since the
town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige. ConMaxentius rule was nevertheless insecure. His early sup- stantine sent a small force north of the town in an at-

CIVIL WARS

tempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large

detachment to counter Constantines expeditionary force,
but was defeated. Constantines forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege.[143] Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the
siege, and sent only a small force to oppose him. In
the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius
was killed and his army destroyed.[144] Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia,[145] Mutina
(Modena),[146] and Ravenna.[147] The road to Rome was
now wide open to Constantine.[148]

The description from 28th October 312, 'A cross centered on the
Sun ts with modern-day photographs of Sun dogs.

The Milvian Bridge (Ponte Milvio) over the Tiber, north of Rome,
where Constantine and Maxentius fought in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge

Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had

waged against Severus and Galerius: he sat in Rome and
prepared for a siege.[149] He still controlled Romes praetorian guards, was well-stocked with African grain, and
was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable
Aurelian Walls. He ordered all bridges across the Tiber
cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods,[150] and left
the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured
that regions support without challenge.[151] Constantine
progressed slowly[152] along the Via Flaminia,[153] allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime
further into turmoil.[152] Maxentius support continued
to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd
openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was
invincible.[154] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would
emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat
bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a eld battle against Constantine.[155] On 28 October 312 AD, the
sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers
of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, the enemy of the Romans
would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle.[156]
4.1.1

Constantine and his army adopt the Greek letters for Christs initials: Chi Rho

Further information: Battle of the Milvian Bridge

Maxentius organized his forcesstill twice the size of
Constantinesin long lines facing the battle plain, with
their backs to the river.[157] Constantines army arrived
at the eld bearing unfamiliar symbols on either its standards or its soldiers shields.[158] According to Lactantius,

The Battle of the Milvian Bridge by Giulio Romano

Constantine was visited by a dream the night before the

battle, wherein he was advised to mark the heavenly sign
of God on the shields of his soldiers ... by means of a
slanted letter X with the top of its head bent round, he
marked Christ on their shields.[159] Eusebius describes
another version, where, while marching at midday, he
saw with his own eyes in the heavens a trophy of the
cross arising from the light of the sun, carrying the message, In Hoc Signo Vinces or with this sign, you will
conquer";[160] in Eusebiuss account, Constantine had a
dream the following night, in which Christ appeared with
the same heavenly sign, and told him to make a standard,
the labarum, for his army in that form.[161] Eusebius is
vague about when and where these events took place,[162]
but it enters his narrative before the war against Maxen-

4.2

In Rome

tius begins.[163] Eusebius describes the sign as Chi ()

traversed by Rho (): , a symbol representing the rst
two letters of the Greek spelling of the word Christos
or Christ.[164][165] In 315 AD a medallion was issued at
Ticinum showing Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho,[166] and coins issued at Siscia in
317/318 AD repeat the image.[167] The gure was otherwise rare, however, and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s.[168]

9
He staged a grand adventus in the city, and was met with
popular jubilation.[175] Maxentius body was shed out of
the Tiber and decapitated. His head was paraded through
the streets for all to see.[176] After the ceremonies, Maxentius disembodied head was sent to Carthage; at this,
Carthage would oer no further resistance.[177] Unlike
his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip
to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrices
at the Temple of Jupiter.[178] He did, however, choose
to honor the Senatorial Curia with a visit,[179] where he
promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it
a secure role in his reformed government: there would
be no revenge against Maxentius supporters.[180] In response, the Senate decreed him title of the rst name,
which meant his name would be listed rst in all ocial documents,[181] and acclaimed him as the greatest
Augustus.[182] He issued decrees returning property lost
under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing
Maxentius imprisoned opponents.[183]

Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole

length of Maxentius line. He ordered his cavalry to
charge, and they broke Maxentius cavalry. He then
sent his infantry against Maxentius infantry, pushing
many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and
drowned.[157] The battle was brief:[169] Maxentius troops
were broken before the rst charge.[170] Maxentius horse
guards and praetorians initially held their position, but
broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge;
they also broke ranks and ed to the river. Maxentius
rode with them, and attempted to cross the bridge of An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during
boats, but he was pushed by the mass of his eeing sol- which Maxentius image was systematically purged from
diers into the Tiber, and drowned.[171]
all public places. Maxentius was written up as a "tyrant",
and set against an idealized image of the liberator, Constantine. Eusebius, in his later works, is the best repre4.2 In Rome
sentative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda.[184]
Maxentius rescripts were declared invalid, and the honors Maxentius had granted to leaders of the Senate
were invalidated.[185] Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius inuence on Romes urban landscape.
All structures built by Maxentius were re-dedicated to
Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the
Basilica of Maxentius.[186] At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue of Constantine holding the Christian
labarum in its hand was erected. Its inscription bore
the message the statue had already made clear: By this
sign Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the
tyrant.[187]
Where he did not overwrite Maxentius achievements,
Constantine upstaged them: the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its total seating capacity was twentyve times larger than that of Maxentius racing complex on the Via Appia.[188] Maxentius strongest supporters in the military were neutralized when the Praetorian
Guard and Imperial Horse Guard (equites singulares)
were disbanded.[189] The tombstones of the Imperial
Horse Guard were ground up and put to use in a basilica on the Via Labicana.[190] On November 9, 312 AD,
barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city, the
former base of the Imperial Horse Guard was chosen for
redevelopment into the Lateran Basilica.[191] The Legio
II Parthica was removed from Alba (Albano Laziale),[185]
and the remainder of Maxentius armies were sent to do
frontier duty on the Rhine.[192]
Colossal head of Constantine, from a seated statue: a youthful,
classicising, other-worldly ocial image (Metropolitan Museum
of Art)[172]

Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312.[173][174]

10

4.3

Wars against Licinius

In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantines half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the
emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan,[193] ofcially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the Empire.[194] The document had special benets for Christians, legalizing their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletians persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to
the divine sphere"Divinity and Supreme Divinity,
summa divinitas.[195] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximin
had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximin,
gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman
Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors
deteriorated, as Constantine suered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar;[196] Licinius, for his part had
Constantines statues in Emona destroyed.[197] In either
314 or 316 the two Augusti fought against one another
at the Battle of Cibalae, with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317,
and agreed to a settlement in which Constantines sons
Crispus and Constantine II, and Licinius son Licinianus
were made caesars.[198] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and
took residence at Sirmium, whence he could wage war
on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in
323.[196]
In the year 320, Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and
began to oppress Christians anew,[199] generally without
bloodshed, but resorting to conscations and sacking of
Christian oce-holders.[200] Although this characterization of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful,
the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in
his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore,
Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more
loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general [201] the explanation oered by the Church historian
Sozomen.[202]
This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge
to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil
war of 324. Licinius, aided by Goth mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient Pagan faiths. Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the
labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms.
Outnumbered, but red by their zeal, Constantines army
emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople. Licinius
ed across the Bosphorus and appointed Martius Martinianus, the commander of his bodyguard, as Caesar, but

LATER RULE

Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont, and nally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324.[203]
Licinius and Martinianus surrendered to Constantine at
Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared:
they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica
and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both
arrested and hanged; Liciniuss son (the son of Constantines half-sister) was also killed.[204] Thus Constantine
became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.[205]

5 Later rule
5.1 Foundation of Constantinople

Coin struck by Constantine I to commemorate the founding of

Constantinople

Licinius defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival center of Pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latinspeaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East
into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole
of the Eastern Roman Empire.[206] Among the various
locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (presentday Soa), as he was reported saying that "Serdica is
my Rome".[207] Sirmium and Thessalonica were also
considered.[208] Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium, which
oered the advantage of having already been extensively
rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism, during the preceding century, by Septimius Severus and Caracalla, who
had already acknowledged its strategic importance.[209]
The city was thus founded in 324,[210] dedicated on 11
May 330[210] and renamed Constantinopolis (Constantines City or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honor the event.
The new city was protected by the relics of the True
Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though
a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented
Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city.[211]
The gures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism. Constantine built the new Church of the Holy Apostles on the site

5.2

Religious policy

11

of a temple to Aphrodite. Generations later there was the

story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and
an angel no one else could see, led him on a circuit of the
new walls. The capital would often be compared to the
'old' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana, the New
Rome of Constantinople.[205][212]

title emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion priesthood until Gratian (r. 375383) renounced the
title.[216][217] According to Christian writers, Constantine
was over 40 when he nally declared himself a Christian, writing to Christians to make clear that he believed
he owed his successes to the protection of the Christian
High God alone.[218] Throughout his rule, Constantine
supported the Church nancially, built basilicas, granted
5.2 Religious policy
privileges to clergy (e.g. exemption from certain taxes),
promoted Christians to high oce, and returned propFurther information: Constantine I and Christianity, erty conscated during the Diocletianic persecution.[219]
Constantine I and paganism, and Constantine the Great His most famous building projects include the Church of
and Judaism
the Holy Sepulchre, and Old Saint Peters Basilica.
Constantine was the rst emperor to stop Christian perApparently Constantine did not patronize Christianity
alone. After gaining victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312), a triumphal archthe Arch of Constantinewas built (315) to celebrate his triumph. The
arch is decorated with images of the goddess Victoria. At
the time of its dedication, sacrices to gods like Apollo,
Diana, and Hercules were made. Absent from the Arch
are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, as
the Arch was commissioned by the Senate, the absence
of Christian symbols may reect the role of the Curia at
the time as a pagan redoubt.[220]
In 321, he legislated that the venerable day of the sun
should be a day of rest for all citizens.[221] In the year
323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrices[222] Furthermore, Constantines
coinage continued to carry the symbols of the sun. After
the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantines attributes: the chi
rho between his hands or on his labarum,[223] as well on
the coin itself.[224]
Constantine the Great, mosaic in Hagia Sophia, c. 1000

secutions and to legalise Christianity along with all other

religions and cults in the Roman Empire.
In February 313, Constantine met with Licinius in Milan, where they developed the Edict of Milan. The edict
stated that Christians should be allowed to follow the faith
without oppression.[213] This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously, and returned conscated Church property. The edict protected from religious persecution not
only Christians but all religions, allowing anyone to worship whichever deity they chose. A similar edict had
been issued in 311 by Galerius, then senior emperor of
the Tetrarchy; Galerius edict granted Christians the right
to practise their religion but did not restore any property
to them.[214] The Edict of Milan included several clauses
which stated that all conscated churches would be returned as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians.

The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the

position of the emperor as having great inuence and ultimate regulatory authority within the religious discussions involving the early Christian councils of that time,
e.g., most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine himself disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring where possible to establish an orthodoxy.[225] His
inuence over the early Church councils was to enforce
doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity;
what proper worship and doctrines and dogma consisted
of was for the Church to determine, in the hands of the
participating bishops.[226]

Most notably, from 313 to 316 bishops in North Africa

struggled with other Christian bishops who had been
ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian. The
African bishops could not come to terms and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute.
Three regional Church councils and another trial before
Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism
Scholars debate whether Constantine adopted his mother movement in North Africa. In 317 Constantine issued an
St. Helena's Christianity in his youth, or whether he edict to conscate Donatist church property and to send
adopted it gradually over the course of his life.[215] Con- Donatist clergy into exile.[227] More signicantly, in 325
stantine possibly retained the title of pontifex maximus, a

12

LATER RULE

Constantine burning Arian books. Drawing from a 9th-century

manuscript.
Head of Constantines colossal statue at the Capitoline Museums.
The original statue of marble was acrolithic with the torso consisting of a cuirass in bronze.[233]

he summoned the Council of Nicaea, eectively the rst

Ecumenical Council (unless the Council of Jerusalem is
so classied), most known for its dealing with Arianism
and for instituting the Nicene Creed.
state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions
Constantine enforced the prohibition of the First Coun- and most provincial governorships (as it was felt that they
upbringing needed in an
cil of Nicaea against celebrating the Lords Supper lacked the specialized military
[234]
age
of
acute
defense
needs
),
such posts being given to
on the day before the Jewish Passover (14 Nisan)
equestrians
by
Diocletian
and
his
colleaguesfollowing
(see Quartodecimanism and Easter controversy). This
a
practice
enforced
piecemeal
by
their
predecessors. The
marked a denite break of Christianity from the Judaic
emperors,
however,
still
needed
the
talents
and the help
tradition. From then on the Roman Julian Calendar, a
of
the
very
rich,
who
were
relied
on
to
maintain
social orsolar calendar, was given precedence over the lunisolar
der
and
cohesion
by
means
of
a
web
of
powerful
inuence
Hebrew Calendar among the Christian churches of the
and
contacts
at
all
levels.
Exclusion
of
the
old
senatorial
[228]
Roman Empire.
aristocracy threatened this arrangement.
Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews, but
while some of his edicts were unfavorable towards Jews, In 326, Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend,
they were not harsher than those of his predecessors.[229] raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank
It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to at- and thus opening these oces to the old aristocracy,
tack other Jews who had converted to Christianity.[229] and at the same time elevating the rank of already exthe
They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to isting equestrians oce-holders to senator, degrading
[235]
in
equestrian
order
at
least
as
a
bureaucratic
rank
[230][231]
circumcise their slaves.
On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian the process, so that by the end of the 4th century the title
of perfectissimus was granted only to mid-low ocials.
clergy.[229][232]
By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator, either by being elected praetor or (in most
5.3 Administrative reforms
cases) by fullling a function of senatorial rank:[236] from
then on, holding of actual power and social status were
Beginning in the mid-3rd century the emperors began to melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. At the
favor members of the equestrian order over senators, who same time, Constantine gained with this the support of
had had a monopoly on the most important oces of the old nobility,[237] as the Senate was allowed itself to

5.5

Executions of Crispus and Fausta

elect praetors and quaestors, in place of the usual practice

of the emperors directly creating new magistrates (adlectio). In one inscription in honor of city prefect (336337)
Ceionius Rufus Albinus, it was written that Constantine
had restored the Senate the auctoritas it had lost at Caesars time.[238]
The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators, who had been
marginalized as potential holders of imperial functions
during the 3rd century, could now dispute such positions
alongside more upstart bureaucrats.[239] Some modern
historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt
by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into
the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianized imperial rule;[240] however, such an interpretation remains
conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise
numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieusome historians suggesting that early conversions among the old aristocracy were
more numerous than previously supposed.[241]
Constantines reforms had to do only with the civilian administration: the military chiefs, who since the Crisis of
the Third Century had risen from the ranks,[242] remained
outside the senate, in which they were included only by
Constantines children.[243]

5.4

Monetary reforms

13
silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal
content, and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Minting of the Diocletianic pure silver
argenteus ceased, therefore, soon after 305, while the billon currency continued to be used until the 360s. From
the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at
restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of good standard gold
piecesthe solidus, 72 of which made a pound of gold.
New (and highly debased) silver pieces would continue
to be issued during Constantines later reign and after his
death, in a continuous process of retaring, until this
bullion minting eventually ceased, de jure, in 367, with
the silver piece being de facto continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being
the centenionalis.[244] These bronze pieces continued to
be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping duciary
minting alongside a gold standard. The anonymous author of the possibly contemporary treatise on military
aairs De Rebus Bellicis held that, as a consequence of
this monetary policy, the rift between classes widened:
the rich beneted from the stability in purchasing power
of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with everdegrading bronze pieces.[245] Later emperors like Julian
the Apostate tried to present themselves as advocates of
the humiles by insisting on trustworthy mintings of the
bronze currency.[246]
Constantines monetary policy were closely associated
with his religious ones, in that increased minting was associated with measures of conscationtaken since 331
and closed in 336of all gold, silver and bronze statues from pagan temples, who were declared as imperial
property and, as such, as monetary assets. Two imperial
commissioners for each province had the task of getting
hold of the statues and having them melded for immediate mintingwith the exception of a number of bronze
statues who were used as public monuments for the beautication of the new capital in Constantinople.[247]

5.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta

A Nummus of Constantine

After the runaway ination of the third century, associated with the production of at money to pay for public
expenses, Diocletian had tried unsuccessfully to re establish trustworthy minting of silver and billon coins. The
failure of the various Diocletianic attempts at the restoration of a functioning silver coin resided in the fact that the

On some date between 15 May and 17 June 326, Constantine had his eldest son Crispus, by Minervina, seized and
put to death by cold poison at Pola (Pula, Croatia).[248]
In July, Constantine had his wife, the Empress Fausta,
killed in an over-heated bath.[249] Their names were
wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to
their lives in the literary record were erased, and the
memory of both was condemned. Eusebius, for example,
edited praise of Crispus out of later copies of his Historia
Ecclesiastica, and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus at all.[250] Few ancient sources
are willing to discuss possible motives for the events;
those few that do, oer unconvincing rationales, are of
later provenance, and are generally unreliable.[251] At the
time of the executions, it was commonly believed that the
Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with

14

Crispus, or was spreading rumors to that eect. A popular myth arose, modied to allude to HippolytusPhaedra
legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities.[252] One source, the
largely ctional Passion of Artemius, probably penned in
the eighth century by John of Damascus, makes the legendary connection explicit.[253] As an interpretation of
the executions, the myth rests on only the slimmest of
evidence": sources that allude to the relationship between
Crispus and Fausta are late and unreliable, and the modern suggestion that Constantines godly edicts of 326
and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected
rests on no evidence at all.[252]

LATER RULE

commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led

a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war
and extended his control over the region, as remains of
camps and fortications in the region indicate.[256] Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts, and conscripted the rest into
the army. Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in
336.[257]

Although Constantine created his apparent heirs Caesars, following a pattern established by Diocletian, he
gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the
tetrarchic system: Constantines Caesars were to be kept
in the hope of ascending to Empire, and entirely subordinated to their Augustus, as long as he was alive.[254]
Therefore, an alternative explanation for the execution of
Crispus was, perhaps, Constantines desire to keep a rm
grip on his prospective heirs, thisand Faustas desire for
having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother
being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent
execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a
reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in killing his own relatives when he felt this was
necessary.[255]
Gold medallion struck at Nicomedia in 336337 to celebrate the
30th anniversary of his rule

5.6

Later campaigns

The Roman Empire in 337, showing Constantines conquests in

Dacia across the lower Danube (shaded purple) and other Roman dependencies (light purple).

Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and

permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion
of his later life. He rebuilt Trajans bridge across the
Danube, in hopes of reconquering Dacia, a province that
had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of
332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against
the Goths. The weather and lack of food cost the Goths
dearly: reportedly, nearly one hundred thousand died before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian

In the last years of his life Constantine made plans for a

campaign against Persia. In a letter written to the king
of Persia, Shapur, Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persias Christian subjects and urged Shapur to
treat them well.[258] The letter is undatable. In response
to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the
eastern frontier in 335. In 336, prince Narseh invaded
Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a
Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to
campaign against Persia himself. He treated the war as a
Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the
army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to
follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptized in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter
of 336337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them
away. The campaign was called o, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337.[259]

5.7 Sickness and death

Constantine had known death would soon come. Within
the Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantine had secretly prepared a nal resting-place for himself.[260] It
came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast
of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill.[261] He left
Constantinople for the hot baths near his mothers city

15
and which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia;[269] the
Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor, written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate
near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against
the Persians;[270] and the Breviarium of Eutropius, a
handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens,
which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa
in Nicomedia.[271] From these and other accounts, some
have concluded that Eusebiuss Vita was edited to defend
Constantines reputation against what Eusebius saw as a
less congenial version of the campaign.[272]
The Baptism of Constantine, as imagined by students of Raphael

of Helenopolis (Altinova), on the southern shores of the

Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of zmit). There,
in a church his mother built in honor of Lucian the Apostle, he prayed, and there he realized that he was dying.
Seeking purication, he became a catechumen, and attempted a return to Constantinople, making it only as far
as a suburb of Nicomedia.[262] He summoned the bishops, and told them of his hope to be baptized in the River
Jordan, where Christ was written to have been baptized.
He requested the baptism right away, promising to live a
more Christian life should he live through his illness. The
bishops, Eusebius records, performed the sacred ceremonies according to custom.[263] He chose the Arianizing bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, bishop of the city
where he lay dying, as his baptizer.[264] In postponing his
baptism, he followed one custom at the time which postponed baptism until after infancy.[265] It has been thought
that Constantine put o baptism as long as he did so as to
be absolved from as much of his sin as possible.[266] Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fty-day festival of Pentecost
directly following Pascha (or Easter), on 22 May 337.[267]

Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles there.[273] He was succeeded by his three sons born
of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. A
number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantines nephews Dalmatius (who held
the rank of Caesar) and Hannibalianus, presumably to
eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated
succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and
Helena, wife of Emperor Julian.[274]

6 Legacy

The Constantinian dynasty down to Gratian (r. 367383)

Although Constantines death follows the conclusion of

the Persian campaign in Eusebiuss account, most other
sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the
mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died in
the middle of his preparations for war.[268] Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini, an anonymous
document composed while Constantine was still living,

Bronze head of Constantine, from a colossal statue (4th century).

Although he earned his honoric of The Great

("") from Christian historians long after he had
died, he could have claimed the title on his military

16

LEGACY

achievements and victories alone. Besides reuniting the Eunapius beganand Zosimus continueda historioEmpire under one emperor, Constantine won major vic- graphic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening
tories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306308, the the Empire through his indulgence to the Christians.[285]
Franks again in 313314, the Goths in 332 and the
Sarmatians in 334. By 336, Constantine had reoccupied
most of the long-lost province of Dacia, which Aurelian
had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his
death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on
the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire.[275] Serving for a total of almost 31 years (combining his years as
co-ruler and sole ruler), he was also the longest serving
emperor since Augustus and the second longest serving
emperor in Roman history.
In the cultural sphere Constantine contributed to the revival of the clean shaven face fashion of the Roman emperors from Augustus to Trajan, which was originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus. This
new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of
Phocas.[276][277]
The Byzantine Empire considered Constantine its
founder and the Holy Roman Empire reckoned him
among the venerable gures of its tradition. In the later
Byzantine state, it had become a great honor for an emperor to be hailed as a new Constantine. Ten emperors,
including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire,
carried the name.[278] Monumental Constantinian forms
were used at the court of Charlemagne to suggest that he
was Constantines successor and equal. Constantine acquired a mythic role as a warrior against heathens. The
motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted gure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name Constantine itself enjoyed renewed
popularity in western France in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries.[279] The Orthodox Church considers Constantine a saint ( , Saint Constantine),
having a feast day on 3 September,[280] and calls him isapostolos ( )an equal of
the Apostles.[281]
The Ni Airport is named Constantine the Great in
honor of him. A large Cross was planned to be built on
a hill overlooking Ni, but the project was cancelled.[282]
In 2012, a memorial was erected in Ni in his honor. The
Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Ni in
2013.[283]

6.1

Historiography

During his life and those of his sons, Constantine was presented as a paragon of virtue. Pagans such as Praxagoras
of Athens and Libanius showered him with praise. When
the last of his sons died in 361, however, his nephew (and
son-in-law) Julian the Apostate wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia, which denigrated Constantine,
calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and
given over to luxury and greed.[284] Following Julian,

Constantius appoints Constantine as his successor by Peter Paul

Rubens, 1622

In both medieval East and West, Constantine was presented as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any
king or emperor could be measured.[285] The Renaissance
rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a reevaluation of Constantines career. The German humanist Johann Lwenklau, discoverer of Zosimus writings,
published a Latin translation thereof in 1576. In its preface, he argued that Zosimus picture of Constantine was
superior to that oered by Eusebius and the Church historians, oered a more balanced view.[286] Cardinal Caesar
Baronius, a man of the Counter-Reformation, criticized
Zosimus, favoring Eusebius account of the Constantinian
era. Baronius Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince.[287] For his
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
(177689), Edward Gibbon, aiming to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship, oered a portrait of
Constantine built on the contrasted narratives of Eusebius
and Zosimus.[288] In a form that parallels his account of
the empires decline, Gibbon presents a noble war hero
corrupted by Christian inuences, who transforms into
an Oriental despot in his old age: a hero ... degenerating
into a cruel and dissolute monarch.[289]
Modern interpretations of Constantines rule begin with
Jacob Burckhardt's The Age of Constantine the Great
(1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardts Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties
in a quest to secure his own power.[290] Henri Grgoire,

6.3

Georey of Monmouths Historia

writing in the 1930s, followed Burckhardts evaluation

of Constantine. For Grgoire, Constantine developed an
interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political
usefulness. Grgoire was skeptical of the authenticity of
Eusebius Vita, and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work.[291] Otto Seeck, in Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (192023), and Andr Piganiol,
in L'empereur Constantin (1932), wrote against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presented Constantine as a
sincere war hero, whose ambiguities were the product of
his own nave inconsistency.[292] Piganiols Constantine is
a philosophical monotheist, a child of his eras religious
syncretism.[293] Related histories by A.H.M. Jones (Constantine and the Conversion of Europe, 1949) and Ramsay
MacMullen (Constantine, 1969) gave portraits of a less
visionary, and more impulsive, Constantine.[294]
These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Beginning with Norman H. Baynes' Constantine the Great and
the Christian Church (1929) and reinforced by Andreas
Alfldi's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome
(1948), a historiographic tradition developed which presented Constantine as a committed Christian. T. D.
Barnes's seminal Constantine and Eusebius (1981) represents the culmination of this trend. Barnes Constantine
experienced a radical conversion, which drove him on a
personal crusade to convert his empire.[295] Charles Matson Odahls recent Constantine and the Christian Empire
(2004) takes much the same tack.[296] In spite of Barnes
work, arguments over the strength and depth of Constantines religious conversion continue.[297] Certain themes
in this school reached new extremes in T.G. Elliotts The
Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early
childhood.[298] A similar view of Constantine is held in
Paul Veyne's recent (2007) work, Quand notre monde
est devenu chrtien, which does not speculate on the origins of Constantines Christian motivation, but presents
him, in his role as Emperor, as a religious revolutionary
who fervently believed himself meant to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of
humanity.[299]

6.2

17
(752757), a document called the Donation of Constantine rst appeared, in which the freshly converted Constantine hands the temporal rule over the city of Rome
and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and
the Western regions to Sylvester and his successors.[301]
In the High Middle Ages, this document was used and
accepted as the basis for the Popes temporal power,
though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto
III[302] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by
the poet Dante Alighieri.[303] The 15th century philologist Lorenzo Valla proved the document was indeed a
forgery.[304]

6.3 Georey of Monmouths Historia

During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd. While some of
this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as Emperor in Britain, there was also confusion of his family
with Magnus Maximus's supposed wife Saint Elen and
her son, another Constantine (Welsh: Custennin). In the
12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage
in his Historia Anglorum that the emperor Constantines
mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King
Cole of Colchester.[305] Georey of Monmouth expanded
this story in his highly ctionalized Historia Regum Britanniae, an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from
their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion.[306] According to Georey, Cole was King of the Britons when
Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of
the Romans, Cole submitted to Roman law so long as he
retained his kingship. However, he died only a month
later, and Constantius took the throne himself, marrying
Coles daughter Helena. They had their son Constantine,
who succeeded his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman Emperor.
Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable.
Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left
for Britain.[41] Additionally, no earlier source mentions
that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a
princess. Henrys source for the story is unknown, though
it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena.[306]

Donation of Constantine

Main article: Donation of Constantine

7 Documentaries

Documentaries of Constantine include: PBS' From JeLatin Rite Catholics considered it inappropriate that Con- sus To Christ: The First Christians Chapter 12[307] and
stantine was baptized only on his death-bed and by an Hector Galans Ancient Roads from Christ to Constanunorthodox bishop, as it undermined the authority of the tine Episode 6 Constantine.[308]
Papacy. Hence, by the early fourth century, a legend had
emerged that Pope Sylvester I (314335) had cured the
pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend,
Constantine was soon baptized, and began the construc- 8 See also
tion of a church in the Lateran Palace.[300] In the eighth
century, most likely during the ponticate of Stephen II
Colossus of Constantine

18

Constantinian shift
Decline of an Empire
Fifty Bibles of Constantine
German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine
List of Byzantine Emperors

References

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Epistola de Decretis Nicaenae Synodi (Letter on

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507

10 Notes
[1] Caesar in the west; self-proclaimed Augustus from 309;
recognized as such in the east in April 310.
[2] Undisputed Augustus in the west, senior Augustus in the
empire.
[3] As emperor of whole empire.
[4] with the possible exception of Philip the Arab (r. 244
249). See Philip the Arab and Christianity.[4]

23

[5] This translation is not very good. The pagination is broken in several places, there are many typographical errors
(including several replacements of Julian with Jovian
and Constantine with Constantius). It is nonetheless
the only translation of the Historia Nova in the public
domain.[309]

11

Citations

[16] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 26571; Cameron, 90

92; Cameron and Hall, 46; Elliott, Eusebian Frauds in
the Vita Constantini"", 16271.
[17] Lieu and Montserrat, 39; Odahl, 3.
[18] Bleckmann, Sources for the History of Constantine
(CC), 26; Lieu and Montserrat, 40; Odahl, 3.
[19] Lieu and Montserrat, 40; Odahl, 3.

Essays from The Cambridge Companion to the Age of

Constantine are marked with a "(CC)".

[20] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 1214; Bleckmann,

Sources for the History of Constantine (CC), 24;
Mackay, 207; Odahl, 910.

[1] Birth dates vary but most modern historians use c. 272.
Lenski, Reign of Constantine (CC), 59.

[21] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 225; Bleckmann,

Sources for the History of Constantine (CC), 2829;
Odahl, 46.

[2] In Classical Latin, Constantines ocial imperial title was

IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS
PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS, Imperator Caesar
Flavius Constantine Augustus, the pious, the fortunate, the
undefeated. After 312, he added MAXIMVS (the greatest), and after 325 replaced (undefeated) with VICTOR, as invictus reminded many of Sol Invictus, the Sun
God.
[3] Among Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and
Byzantine Catholic Christians. The Byzantine liturgical
calendar, observed by the Eastern Orthodox Church and
Eastern Catholic Churches of Byzantine rite, lists both
Constantine and his mother Helena as saints. Although he
is not included in the Latin Churchs list of saints, which
does recognise several other Constantines as saints, he is
revered under the title The Great for his contributions
to Christianity.
[4] I. Shahd, Rome and the Arabs (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1984), 6593; H. A. Pohlsander, Philip the
Arab and Christianity, Historia 29:4 (1980): 46373.
[5] Gregory, A History of Byzantium, 49.
[6] Van Dam, Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge,
30.
[7] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 272.
[8] Bleckmann, Sources for the History of Constantine
(CC), 14; Cameron, 9091; Lenski, Introduction (CC),
23.
[9] Bleckmann, Sources for the History of Constantine
(CC), 2325; Cameron, 9091; Southern, 169.
[10] Cameron, 90; Southern, 169.
[11] Bleckmann, Sources for the History of Constantine
(CC), 14; Corcoran, Empire of the Tetrarchs, 1; Lenski,
Introduction (CC), 23.
[12] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 26568.

[22] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 225; Bleckmann,

Sources for the History of Constantine (CC), 2629;
Odahl, 56.
[23] Odahl, 6, 10.
[24] Bleckmann, Sources for the History of Constantine
(CC), 2728; Lieu and Montserrat, 26; Odahl, 67;
Warmington, 16667.
[25] Bleckmann, Sources for the History of Constantine
(CC), 24; Odahl, 8; Wienand, Kaiser als Sieger, 2643.
[26] Bleckmann, Sources for the History of Constantine
(CC), 2021; Johnson, Architecture of Empire (CC),
28891; Odahl, 1112.
[27] Bleckmann, Sources for the History of Constantine
(CC), 1721; Odahl, 1114; Wienand, Kaiser als Sieger,
4386.
[28] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3, 3942; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 17; Odahl, 15; Pohlsander, Constantine I"; Southern, 169, 341.
[29] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3; Barnes, New Empire, 3942; Elliott, Constantines Conversion, 4256;
Elliott, Eusebian Frauds, 163; Elliott, Christianity of
Constantine, 17; Jones, 1314; Lenski, Reign of Constantine (CC), 59; Odahl, 16; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 14; Rodgers, 238; Wright, 495, 507.
[30] Odahl, Charles M. (2001). Constantine and the Christian
empire. London: Routledge. pp. 4041. ISBN 978-0415-17485-5.
[31] Gabucci, Ada (2002). Ancient Rome : art, architecture
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p. 141. ISBN 978-0-89236-656-9.
[32] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3; Lenski, Reign of
Constantine (CC), 5960; Odahl, 1617.

[13] Drake, What Eusebius Knew, 21.

[33] MacMullen, Constantine, 21.

[14] Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; Odahl, 3.

[34] Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3; Barnes,
Constantine and Eusebius, 13, 290.

[15] Lenski, Introduction (CC), 5; Storch, 14555.

24

[35] Drijvers, J.W. Helena Augusta: The Mother of Constantine

the Great and the Legend of Her nding the True Cross
(Leiden, 1991) 9, 1517.
[36] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3; Barnes, New Empire, 3940; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 17;
Lenski, Reign of Constantine (CC), 59, 83; Odahl, 16;
Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 14.
[37] Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Simon, Reeva Spector (2012).
Conict, conquest, and conversion two thousand years
of Christian missions in the Middle East. New York:
Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-231-51109-4.
[38] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 814; Corcoran, Before Constantine (CC), 4154; Odahl, 4650; Treadgold,
1415.
[39] Bowman, 70; Potter, 283; Williams, 49, 65.
[40] Potter, 283; Williams, 49, 65.

11 CITATIONS

[53] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 2225; MacMullen,

Constantine, 2430; Odahl, 6769; Potter, 337.
[54] MacMullen, Constantine, 2425.
[55] Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25; Odahl, 73.
[56] Drake, The Impact of Constantine on Christianity (CC),
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[57] Drake, The Impact of Constantine on Christianity (CC),
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[58] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 2527; Lenski, Reign
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[59] Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.26; Barnes,
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[60] Lenski, Reign of Constantine (CC), 6061; Odahl, 72
74; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15.

[41] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3; Elliott, Christianity

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[61] Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.39;

Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.23; Epitome de
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[42] Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 13, 290.

[62] Lenski, Reign of Constantine (CC), 61.

[43] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3, 8; Corcoran, Before

Constantine (CC), 4041; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 20; Odahl, 4647; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 89, 14; Treadgold, 17.
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[45] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3; Lenski, Reign of
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[48] Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum, 16.2; Elliott,
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[49] Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 29; Lenski, Reign of
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[52] Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.4952; Barnes, Constantine
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[63] Odahl, 7576.

[64] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 3940; Lenski, Reign of Constantine (CC), 61; MacMullen, Constantine, 32; Odahl, 77;
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[65] MacMullen, Constantine, 32.
[66] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 3940; Lenski, Reign of Constantine
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[67] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27, 298; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 39; Odahl, 7778, 309; Pohlsander,
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[68] Mattingly, 23334; Southern, 170, 341.
[69] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 2728; Jones, 59;
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[70] Jones, 59.
[71] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 2829; Lenski, Reign
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[72] Jones, 59; MacMullen, Constantine, 39.
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[75] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 29; Elliott, Christianity
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25

[76] Odahl, 7980.

[77] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 29.
[78] Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 1617.
[79] Odahl, 8081.
[80] Odahl, 81.
[81] MacMullen, Constantine, 39; Odahl, 8182.

[102] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3435; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Lenski, Reign of Constantine
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[103] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 34.
[104] Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Lenski, Reign of
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[105] Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 45; Lenski, Reign of

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[86] Odahl, 86.
Odahl, 9495, 31415; Potter, 35253.
[87] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 28.

[110] Panegyrici Latini 6(7)1. Qtd. in Potter, 353.

[88] Rodgers, 236.

[111] Panegyrici Latini 6(7).21.5.

[89] Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3.4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.22, [112] Virgil, Ecologues 4.10.
qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238.
[113] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3637; Lenski, Reign
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[90] MacMullen, Constantine, 40.
[114] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3637; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 5053; Lenski, Reign of Constantine (CC), 6667; Odahl, 9495.
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[115] Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 3135; Eusebius,
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Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 34; Lenski, Reign of
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Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32; Lenski, Reign of
[120] Odahl, 96.
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[121] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 38; Odahl, 96.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3234; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 4243; Jones, 61; Lenski, Reign [122] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 37; Curran, 66; Lenski,
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[91] Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine, 40.

[92]
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[100] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 33; Jones, 61.

[123] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 37.

[101] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3637.

[124] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3739.

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[154] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Curran, 67; Jones,
[126] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 40; Curran, 66.
7172; Odahl, 1078.
[127] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41.

[155] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4243; MacMullen,

Constantine, 78; Odahl, 108.

[128] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 4445; Lenski, Reign of Constantine [156] Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.8; Barnes, Con(CC), 69; Odahl, 96.
stantine and Eusebius, 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl,
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[129] Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.15.12, qtd. and tr. in
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[157] Odahl, 108.
[130] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; MacMullen, Con- [158] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 43; Digeser, 122;
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[131] Panegyrici Latini 12(9)2.5; Curran, 67.
[132] Curran, 67.
[133] MacMullen, Constantine, 7071.

[159] Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.46, tr. J.L.

Creed, Lactantius: De Mortibus Persecutorum (Oxford:
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[134] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Odahl, 101.

[160] Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28, tr. Odahl, 105. Barnes,

Constantine and Eusebius, 43; Drake, Impact of Constan[135] Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5.13; Barnes, Constantine and
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Eusebius, 41; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 101.
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[162] Drake, Impact of Constantine on Christianity (CC),
[137] Panegyrici Latini 12(9)56; 4(10)2124; Jones, 7071;
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MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 102, 31718.
[163] Cameron and Hall, 208.
[138] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Jones, 71; Odahl,
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[164] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 306; MacMullen, Constantine, 73; Odahl, 319.
[139] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4142; Odahl, 103.
[140] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; Mac- [165] Cameron and Hall, 2067; Drake, Impact of Constantine
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[141] Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 103.

[166] Lenski, Reign of Constantine (CC), 71, citing Roman

Imperial Coinage 7 Ticinum 36.

[142] Jones, 71; Odahl, 103.

[167] R. Ross Holloway, Constantine and Rome (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 2004), 3, citing Kraft, Das Silbermedaillon Constantins des Grosses mit dem Christusmonogram auf dem Helm, Jahrbuch fr Numismatik und
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[168] Lenski, Reign of Constantine (CC), 71.
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[170] MacMullen, Constantine, 78.
Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71.
[171] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 43; Curran, 68; Lenski,
MacMullen, Constantine, 71.
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[143] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; Odahl,

103.
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[146]
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71.
[149] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; Odahl,
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[172] Portrait Head of the Emperor Constantine, Metropolitan

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[150] Jones, 71.

[173] Barnes 1981, p. 44.

[151] Odahl, 104.

[174] MacMullen, Constantine, 81; Odahl, 108.

[152] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42.

[175] Cameron, 93; Curran, 7174; Odahl, 110.

27

[176] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 44; Curran, 72; Jones, [204] Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors, 215.
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[205] MacMullen, Constantine.
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[177] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4445.

[206] Gilbert Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale, 24

[178] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 44; MacMullen, Con- [207] Petrus Patricius excerpta Vaticana, 190:

stantine, 81; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 7275.

" .
[179] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 45; Curran, 72; MacMullen, Constantine, 81; Odahl, 109.
[208] Ramsey MacMullen, Constantine, Routledge ed., 1987,
149
[180] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4546; Odahl, 109.
[181] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 46; Odahl, 109.

[209] Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale, 15/19

[182] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 46.

[210] Constantinople in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium,

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[183] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 44.

[184] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4547; Cameron, 93; [211] Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned
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[185] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 45.
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[186] Curran, 8083.
[212] According to the Reallexikon fr Antike und Christentum,
vol. 164 (Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 2005), column 442,
there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine ofCurran, 8385.
cially dubbed the city New Rome (Nova Roma or Nea
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 45; Curran, 76; Odahl,
Rhome). Commemorative coins that were issued dur109.
ing the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis
(Michael Grant, The Climax of Rome (London: WeidenCurran, 101.
feld and Nicolson, 1968), 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city Second Rome (Deutera Rhome) by
Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Roocial decree, as reported by the 5th-century church hismanorum, 5.90, cited in Curran, 9396.
torian Socrates of Constantinople.
Odahl, 109.
[213] Bowder, Diana. The Age of Constantine and Julian. New
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The term is a misnomer as the act of Milan was not an
edict, while the subsequent edicts by Liciniusof which
the edicts to the provinces of Bythinia and Palestine are [214] See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 3435.
recorded by Lactantius and Eusebius, respectivelywere [215] R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds
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[187] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 47.

[188]
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[194] Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 25.

[195] Drake, Impact, 121123.
[196] Carri & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain, 229

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[222] Codex Theodosianus 16.2.5

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[233] Js Elsner, Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph, 64, [257] Odahl, 261.
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[235] As equestrian order refers to people of equestrian cen- [259] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25859. See also:
susthousands of which had no state functionthat
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Claude Lepelley, Fine delle' ordine equestre: le tappe [260] Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.5860; Barnes, Constantine
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[263] Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62.4.
[237] Carri & Rousselle L'Empire Romain, 65859.

[264] Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 7576; Lenski, Reign

of Constantine (CC), 82.
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[265] Because he was so old, he could not be submerged in wade:8888/epigr/epieinzel_de?p_belegstelle=CIL+06%
ter to be baptised, and therefore, the rules of baptism were
2C+01708&r_sortierung=Belegstelle. Archived from
changed to what they are today, having water placed on the
the original on 20 July 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
forehead alone. In this period infant baptism, though pracMissing or empty |title= (help); Carri & Rousselle
ticed (usually in circumstances of emergency) had not yet
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[239] Carri & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain, 660.
Glazier, 1992); Philip Rousseau, Baptism, in Late An[240] Cf. Arnhein, The Senatorial Aristocracy in the Later Rotiquity: A Guide to the Post Classical World, ed. G.W.
man Empire, quoted by Perry Anderson, Passages from
Bowersock, Peter Brown, and Oleg Grabar (Cambridge,
Antiquity to Feudalism, 101.
MA: Belknap Press, 1999).

29

[266] Marilena Amerise, 'Il battesimo di Costantino il Grande. [291] Lenski, Introduction (CC), 7.
[267] Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.64; Fowden, Last Days of [292] Lenski, Introduction (CC), 78.
Constantine, 147; Lenski, Reign of Constantine (CC),
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[293] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 274.
[268] Julian, Orations 1.18.b.

[294] Lenski, Introduction (CC), 8.

[269] Origo Constantini 35.

[270] Sextus Aurelius Victor, Historiae abbreviatae XLI.16.
[271] Eutropius, Breviarium X.8.2.
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[273] Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 7576.
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[295] Lenski, Introduction (CC), 89; Odahl, 283.

[296] Odahl, 283; Mark Humphries, Constantine, review of
Constantine and the Christian Empire, by Charles Odahl,
Classical Quarterly 56:2 (2006), 449.
[297] Averil Cameron, Introduction, in Constantine: History,
Historiography, and Legend, ed. Samuel N.C. Lieu and
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[275] Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 72.

[298] Lenski, Introduction (CC), 10.
[276] Byzantine rst & last times. Byzantium.xronikon.com.
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[299] Quand notre monde est devenu chretien, Fabian E. Udoh,
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[277] Barba NumisWiki, The Collaborative Numismatics
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[280] Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 9293.
[281] Lieu, Constantine in Legendary Literature (CC), 305.

[302] Henry Charles Lea, The 'Donation of Constantine'". The

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[282] Ni: Vinik osta pusto brdo.

[303] Inferno 19.115; Paradisio 20.55; cf. De Monarchia 3.10.

[283] http://www.b92.net/eng/news/society.php?yyyy=2013&
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[306]
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Fubini, 7986; Lenski, Introduction (CC), 6.

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[286] Johannes Leunclavius, Apologia pro Zosimo adversus Evagrii, Nicephori Callisti et aliorum acerbas criminationes
(Defence of Zosimus against the Unjustied Charges of [307] Watch The Full Program Online | From Jesus To Christ
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Evagrius, Nicephorus Callistus, and Others) (Basel, 1576),
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[308] HOME.
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[287] Caesar Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici 3 (Antwerp, 1623),
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[309] Roger Pearse, "Preface to the online edition of Zosimus
New History". 19 November 2002, rev. 20 August 2003.
[288] Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman EmRetrieved 2009-08-15.
pire Chapter 18, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 274, and Odahl, 282. See also Lenski, Introduc- [310] This list of primary sources is based principally on the
tion (CC), 67.
summary in Odahl, 211 and further lists in Odahl, 372
[289] Gibbon, Decline and Fall, 1.256; David P. Jordan, Gibbons 'Age of Constantine' and the Fall of Rome, History
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[290] Jacob Burckhardt, Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen
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76. See also Bruno Bleckmann, Sources for the History of Constantine (CC), Sources for the History of
Constantine, in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of
Constantine, trans. Noel Lenski, ed. Noel Lenski (New
York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 1431; and
Noel Lenski, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Age
of Constantine (New York: Cambridge University Press,
2006), 41117.

30

12

13

Further reading

Baynes, Norman H. (1930). Constantine the Great

and the Christian Church. London: Milford.
Burckhardt, Jacob (1949). The Age of Constantine
the Great. London: Routledge.
Cameron, Averil (1993). The later Roman empire:
AD 284430. London: Fontana Press. ISBN 0-00686172-5.
Eadie, John W., ed. (1971). The conversion of Constantine. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
ISBN 0-03-083645-X.
Pelikn, Jaroslav (1987). The excellent empire: the
fall of Rome and the triumph of the church. San
Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-254636-8.
Velikov, Yuliyan (2013). Imperator et Sacerdos. Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524932-7 (in Bulgarian)

13

External links

Media related to Constantine I at Wikimedia Commons

Complete chronological list of Constantines extant
writings
Firth, John B. Constantine the Great, the Reorganisation of the Empire and the Triumph of the
Church (BTM). Retrieved 2016-02-19.
Letters of Constantine: Book 1, Book 2, & Book 3
Encyclopdia Britannica, Constantine I
12 Byzantine Rulers by Lars Brownworth of Stony
Brook School (grades 712). 40 minute audio lecture on Constantine.
Constantine I in the 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica
Constantine the Great A site about Constantine the
Great and his bronze coins emphasizing history using coins, with many resources including reverse
types issued and reverse translations.
House of Constantine bronze coins Illustrations and
descriptions of coins of Constantine the Great and
his relatives.
BBC North Yorkshires site on Roman York, Yorkshire and Constantine the Great
This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows
laws passed by Constantine I relating to Christianity.
Constantines time in York on the 'History of York'

EXTERNAL LINKS

Constantine the Great Acrolithic Statue

Constantines place in World history
Commemorations

31

14
14.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Captain-tucker, Hda3ku, DougsTech, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, E-man94, Mteshima, Altid44, Leszek Jaczuk, Fluernutter, Soccerstar
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Zad68, Tbritton1217, I Feel Tired, Capricorn42, Wperdue, Uwishunewme, DSisyphBot, XZeroBot, 3family6, Graynoise, Alveus lacuna,
Himanhiwoman9, Aa77zz, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Jdsteakley, FiguresInMotion, Enders Shadow Snr, Anastius, J04n, C+C, GrouchoBot, Abce2, Omnipaedista, Rejust, GhalyBot, Wwicki, Moby-Dick3000, PM800, Erik9, Dougofborg, George6996, Starbook, Thisisme2, Wikipe-tan, Oergell, Masterchriszhou, Merchantsofchaos, Yukisealive, , Killerpetercom, Oatley2112, Naru12333, ZenerV,
Southparkfamilyguy, Tommibg, DivineAlpha, Maxo300, Citation bot 1, Psalm84, Quodvultdeus, Hartiboozer, Thermalite, Pinethicket, I
dream of horses, Jakarss, Arctic Night, PrincessofLlyr, 10metreh, Spidey104, Calmer Waters, Tomcat7, Aca Srbin, Cmguy777, Cullen328,
Liamman11, Wingman555, 888, Jeppiz, Turian, Cliniic, AnimeEditor, White Shadows, FoxBot, Dark Lord of the Sith,
ItsZippy, Etincelles, Lotje, Callanecc, Javierito92, Benelohim74, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, Lceliku, Jerd10, Peacedance, Tbhotch, Unevennumbers13579, Minimac, Onel5969, Mean as custard, Jetheis, Bento00, Salvio giuliano, Valus6, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan
Wiki, Vipsanius, HiMyNameIsFrancesca, Racerx11, Yt95, GoingBatty, DiiCinta, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Monhy, AsceticRose,
Evelyn moore, Trinityforever, ZroBot, Daisy Cutter 2, John Cline, Ida Shaw, F, Josve05a, Bollyje, Traxs7, Renato de carvalho ferreira,
, Senjuto, Philafrenzy, Willthacheerleader18, Fortruth8989, Chewings72, Kris159, ChuispastonBot, Peter Karlsen, Ktier09, DASHBotAV, Zoupan, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Timothy1990, NapoleonX, Gilderien, SPARTANsenator, Thegiantbark, Bro.Sergiy, Adri1wald,
EauLibrarian, Diggye3, , MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jean-Pol GRANDMONT, HMSSolent, Ocyril, Totalcas, Romanrunning, Iamdan89, Ballupcrew, Juicelikemango, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Wasbeer, Hashem sfarim, Graham11, Wiki13, ElphiBot, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, Mark Arsten, Knightserbia, Altar, Arminden, Aranea Mortem, Bran1016, The
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Li, Magerius, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, 23 editor, Tahc, E4024, Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN, Jedi.jesse, Webclient101, Mogism, Chicbyaccident, Viewmont Viking, CuriousMind01, SteedLaw, Numismatica, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Arianu, Graphium, Iw2es333,
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14.2

Images

File:0_Constantinus_I_-_Palazzo_dei_Conservatori_(2).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/0_

Constantinus_I_-_Palazzo_dei_Conservatori_%282%29.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: User:Jean-Pol GRANDMONT
(2011) Original artist: unknown
File:0_Gaius_Flavius_Valerius_Constantinus_-_Palatino.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/0_
Gaius_Flavius_Valerius_Constantinus_-_Palatino.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: User:Jean-Pol GRANDMONT (2011) Original artist: Jean-Pol GRANDMONT
File:Bust_of_Constantine_I_from_York_YORYM_1998_23.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/
Bust_of_Constantine_I_from_York_YORYM_1998_23.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: This le has been provided by York
Museums Trust as part of a GLAMwiki partnership. Original artist: Photographed by: York Museums Trust Sta
File:Constantian_Dynasty,_the_children_of_Constantius.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/
Constantian_Dynasty%2C_the_children_of_Constantius.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia
Original artist: Geuiwogbil (Talk). Original uploader was G.W. at en.wikipedia
File:Constantine,_York_Minster.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Constantine%2C_York_
GFDL Contributors:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Constantine,_York_Minster.jpg Original artist:
Minster.jpg License:
NewTestLeper79
File:ConstantineEmpire.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/ConstantineEmpire.png License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tataryn
File:Constantine_I_Hagia_Sophia.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Constantine_I_Hagia_
Sophia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This le was derived from Hagia Sophia Southwestern entrance mo<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg' class='image'><img
saics.jpg:
alt='Hagia Sophia Southwestern entrance mosaics.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hagia_
Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg/50px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg'
width='50'
height='37'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg/75px-Hagia_
Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg
1.5x,
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Original artist: File:Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg: Photograph: Myrabella

14.3

Content license

33

File:Constantine_burning_Arian_books.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Constantine_burning_

Arian_books.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jean Hubert et al., Europe in the Dark Ages (London: Thames & Hudson, 1969), p.
143 Original artist: le: James Steakley; artwork: unknown
File:Constantine_multiple_CdM_Beistegui_233.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/
Constantine_multiple_CdM_Beistegui_233.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Unknown<a
href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https:
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File:Constantinian_Dynasty,_the_children_of_Constantine.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/
Constantinian_Dynasty%2C_the_children_of_Constantine.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia
Original artist: Geuiwogbil (Talk). Original uploader was G.W. at en.wikipedia
File:Constantinopolis_coin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Constantinopolis_coin.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ingsoc
File:Constantinus.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Constantinus.JPG License: GFDL Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Atzmonit
File:Fargo_Sundogs_2_18_09.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Fargo_Sundogs_2_18_09.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gopherboy6956
File:Flag_of_Palaeologus_Dynasty.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Palaeologus_Dynasty.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Dragases at English Wikipedia
File:Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_(284-305_d.C.)_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg
Source:
https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_%28284-305_d.C.%29_-_Foto_G.
_Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Own work Original artist: G.dallorto
File:MMA_bust_02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/MMA_bust_02.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0
Contributors: 26.229 Original artist: katie chao and ben muessig
File:Maxentius02_pushkin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Maxentius02_pushkin.jpg License: CC
BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: shakko
File:Medijana.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Medijana.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors:
P1020176 Original artist: Elias Bizannes from Sydney, Australia
File:Nummus_of_Constantine_(YORYM_2001_10313)_obverse.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/
b3/Nummus_of_Constantine_%28YORYM_2001_10313%29_obverse.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: This le has been provided by York Museums Trust as part of a GLAMwiki partnership. Original artist: Photographed by: York Museums Trust Sta
File:Ponte_Milvio-side_view-antmoose.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Ponte_Milvio-side_
view-antmoose.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: ponte milvio composite Original artist: Anthony Majanlahti from Rome, Italy
File:Raphael-Constantine_at_Milvian_Bridge.jpg
Raphael-Constantine_at_Milvian_Bridge.jpg License:
Original artist: School of Raphael

Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/
Public domain Contributors: Constantine at the Battle of Milvian Bridge

File:Raphael_Baptism_Constantine.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Raphael_Baptism_
Constantine.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Baptism of Constantine Original artist: School of Raphael
File:Roman_-_Imperial_Medallion_of_Constantine_I_-_Walters_59690.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/9/9e/Roman_-_Imperial_Medallion_of_Constantine_I_-_Walters_59690.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
Walters Art Museum:
<a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_
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8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png
2x'
data-le-width='128'
data-leheight='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/3150' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
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1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Anonymous (Roman Empire)
File:Sir_Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Constantius_appoints_Constantine_as_his_successor_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
Source:
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successor_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ggEwfH0gsv0ASQ at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Peter Paul Rubens
File:Trier_Kaiserthermen_BW_1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Trier_Kaiserthermen_BW_1.
JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Berthold Werner

14.3

Content license

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