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Ali Abadi
Materials Properties
In most materials (e.g. metals), the current is carried by electrons (electronic conduction). In ionic crystals, the
charge carriers are ions (ionic conduction).
The electrical conductivity (the ability of a substance to conduct an electric current) is the inverse of the
resistivity:
= /
Since the electric field intensity (the voltage difference between two points divided by the distance
separating them) in the material is = /,
Ohm's law can be rewritten in terms of the current density (the current per unit of specimen area)
= /
as:
Electrical conductivity varies between different materials by over 27 orders of magnitude, the greatest
variation of any physical property.
1
one way of classifying solid materials is according to the ease with which they conduct an electric
current; within this classification scheme there are three groupings: conductors, semiconductors, and
insulators
Metals: ~ 107 (.m)-1
Semiconductors: 10-6 < < 104 (.m)-1
Insulators: (10-10 10-20 ) (.m)-1
Example: (a) Compute the electrical conductivity of a 7.0-mm (0.28-in.) diameter cylindrical silicon
For a metal, occupancy of electron states (a) before and (b) after an
electron excitation.
For an insulator or semiconductor, occupancy of electron states (a) before and (b) after an electron
excitation from the valence band into the conduction band, in which both a free electron and a hole
are generated.
5
In semiconductors and insulators, electrons have to jump across the band gap into conduction band to
find conducting states above Ef , This is possible only by supplying to an electron the difference
in energy between these two states, which is approximately equal to the band gap energy Eg .
The energy needed for the jump may come from heat, or from irradiation at sufficiently small
wavelength (photoexcitation).
The number of electrons excited thermally (by heat energy) into the conduction
band depends on the energy band gap width as well as temperature
The difference between semiconductors and insulators is that in semiconductors electrons can reach
the conduction band at ordinary temperatures, where in insulators they cannot.
The probability that an electron reaches the conduction band is about exp(-Eg/2kT) where Eg is the
band gap. If this probability is < 10-24 one would not find a single electron in the conduction band in a
solid of 1 cm3. This requires Eg/2kT > 55. At room temperature, 2kT = 0.05 eV Eg > 2.8 eV
corresponds to an insulator.
An electron promoted into the conduction band leaves a hole (positive charge) in the valence band,
that can also participate in conduction. Holes exist in metals as well, but are more important in
semiconductors and insulators.
The various possible electron band structures in solids at 0 K. (a) The electron band structure found in metals such as copper, in which
there are available electron states above and adjacent to filled states, in the same band. (b) The electron band structure of metals such
as magnesium, wherein there is an overlap of filled and empty outer bands. (c) The electron band structure characteristic of insulators;
the filled valence band is separated from the empty conduction band by a relatively large band gap ( > 2 eV). (d) The electron band
structure found in the semiconductors, which is the same as for insulators except that the band gap is relatively narrow (< 2 eV).
Electron Mobility:
The force acting on the electron is -eE, where e is the electric charge.
This force produces a constant acceleration so that, in the absence of obstacles the electron speeds up
continuously in an electric field. This is the case in vacuum (e.g. inside a TV tube) or in a perfect
crystal (this is a conclusion from quantum mechanics).
In a real solid, the electrons scatter by collisions with imperfections and due to atomic thermal
vibrations.
frictional forces resistance a net drift velocity of electron motion is established:
|vd| = eE
where e electron
mobility [m2/V-s]. The
friction transfers part of
the energy supplied by the
electric field into the
lattice as heat. That is how
electric heaters work.
Na (m)
Ag (m)
Al (m)
Si (s)
GaAs (s)
InSb (s)
Since nmetal >> nsemi
Mobility (RT)
(m2V-1s-1)
0.0053
0.0057
0.0013
0.15
0.85
8.00
and
Carrier Density
Ne (m-3)
2.6 x 1028
5.9 x 1028
1.8 x 1029
1.5 x 1010
1.8 x 106
metal < semi
Example: (a) Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in silicon at room temperature and when the
magnitude of the electric field is 500 V/m. (b) Under these circumstances, how long does it take an
electron to traverse a 25-mm length of crystal?
(a) Since the room temperature mobility of electrons is 0.14 m2/V-s
vd=eE
=(0.14 m2/V-s)(500 V/m)=70m/s
(b) The time, t, required to traverse a given length, l (= 25 mm), is just
t =l / vd=25x103m / 70m/s=3.6 x 10-4 s
Example: At room temperature the electrical conductivity and the electron mobility for aluminum
are 3.8 x 107 (-m)-1 and 0.0012 m2/V-s respectively. Compute the number of free electrons per
cubic meter for aluminum at room temperature.
n= / |e|e
=3.8x107(.m)1 / (1.602x1019C)(0.0012m2/V.s)
= 1.98 x 1029 m-3
Example: (a) Calculate the number of free electrons per cubic meter for silver, assuming that there
are 1.3 free electrons per silver atom. The electrical conductivity and density for Ag are 6.8 x107 (m)-1 and 10.5 g /cm3, respectively. (b) Now compute the electron mobility for Ag.
Note: for silver, the number of free electrons per cubic meter (n) given that there are 1.3 free
electrons per silver atom.
(a)
n=1.3NAg=1.3 (AgNA / AAg)
n=1.3 [(10.5g/cm3)(6.023x1023atoms/mol)] / 107.87g/mol
n= 7.62 x 1022 cm-3 = 7.62 x 1028 m-3
(b)
Now we are asked to compute the electron mobility, e.
e= / n|e|
e = 6.8x107(.m)1 / (7.62x1028m3)(1.602x1019C)=5.57 x 10-3 m2/V.s
Conductivity / Resistivity of Metals
The resistivity is defined by scattering events due to the imperfections , thermal vibrations (phonons) and
deformation. Total resistivity tot can be described by the Matthiessen rule:
total = thermal+impurity+deformation
where thermal - from thermal vibrations,
impurity - from impurities,
deformation - from deformation-induced defects
Influence of temperature:
For the pure metal and all the coppernickel alloys shown in Figure above, the resistivity
rises linearly with temperature above about -200oC (increasing thermal vibrations and density of
vacancies, which serve as electron-scattering centers)
= +
where and are constants for each particular metal.
Influence of impurities:
For additions of a single impurity that forms a solid solution,
i = Aci(1 - ci)
where c is impurity concentration in terms of the atom fraction (at%_100),
A composition independent constant that is a function of both the impurity and host metals
Electrical resistivity and temperature coefficient of electrical resistance of Cu-Ni alloys as a function
of nickel content
For two-phase alloy consisting of ( and phases) rule-of-mixtures:
= +
where the Vs and s represent volume fractions and individual resistivities for the
respective phases.
Influence of plastic deformation:
Normally, the influence of plastic deformation on electrical resistivity is weaker than the influence of
temperature and impurities
In general, presence of any
imperfections (crystal defects)
increases resistivity
-- grain boundaries
-- dislocations
-- impurity atoms
-- vacancies
Movement of an electron
through (a) a perfect
crystal, (b) a crystal
heated to a high
temperature, and (c) a
crystal containing atomic
level defects. Scattering
of the electrons reduces
the mobility and
conductivity.
Materials of Choice for Metal Conductors:
One of the best material for electrical conduction (low resistivity) is silver, but its use is
restricted due to the high cost
Most widely used conductor is copper: inexpensive, abundant, high , but rather soft
cannot be used in applications where mechanical strength is important.
Solid solution alloying and cold working improve strength but decrease conductivity (by
about a factor of 5 over high-purity copper). Precipitation hardening is preferred, e.g. CuBe alloy
When weight is important one uses aluminum, which is half as good as Cu and more
resistant to corrosion.
Heating elements require low (high R), and resistance to high temperature oxidation:
nickelchromium alloy
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Semiconductivity:
Intrinsic semiconductors - electrical conductivity is
defined by the electronic structure of pure material.
Examples: Si, Ge, GaP, GaAs, InSb, CdS, ZnTe
Number of electrons in conduction band increases
exponentially with temperature:
n = C T3/2 exp(-Eg/2kT)
C is a material constant
Eg is the bandgap width
Silicon Energy Bands
At finite temperatures, the number of electrons which
reach the conduction band and contribute to current can
be
modeled by the Fermi function. That current is small compared to that in doped semiconductors
under the same conditions.
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An electron promoted into the conduction band leaves a hole (positive charge) in the valence
band. In an electric field, electrons and holes move in opposite direction and participate in
conduction.
In Si (Eg = 1.1 eV) one out of every 1013 atoms contributes an electron to the conduction
band at room temperature.
Since there are two types of charge carrier (free electrons and holes) in an intrinsic
semiconductor, the expression for electrical conduction is = n|e|e + p|e|h
where p is the hole concentration and h the hole mobility.
Electrons are more mobile than holes, e > h
For intrinsic semiconductors, every electron promoted across the band gap leaves behind a
hole in the valence band; thus,
n = p = ni , where ni is known as the intrinsic carrier concentration
= n|e|(e + h) = p|e|(e + h) = ni |e|(e + h) (only for intrinsic semiconductors)
n (and p) increase exponentially with temperature, whereas e and h decrease (about
linearly) with temperature.
The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is increasing with temperature (different
from metals)
Example: At room temperature the electrical conductivity of PbS is 25 (.m)-1 whereas the electron
and hole mobilities are 0.06 and 0.02 m2/V.s, respectively. Compute the intrinsic carrier
concentration for PbS at room temperature.
ni= / |e|(e+h)
=25(.m)1 / (1.602x1019C)(0.06+0.02)m2/V.s
= 1.95 x 1021 m-3
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. .+.
= .
, A= C/S
NA 61023 atoms/mol
61023 / 1210-6 = 51028 atoms/m3
fraction of excited electrons per atom ~10-3
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Example: At room temperature the electrical conductivity of PbS is 25 whereas the electron and
hole mobilities are 0.06 and 0.02 m2/V-s, respectively. Compute the intrinsic carrier concentration
for PbS at room temperature.
ni= / |e|(e+h)
=25(-m)1/ (1.602x1019C)(0.06+0.02)m2/V-s
= 1.95 x 1021 m-3
Example: Is it possible for compound semiconductors to exhibit intrinsic behavior? Explain your
answer.
Yes, compound semiconductors can exhibit intrinsic behavior. They will be intrinsic even though
they are composed of two different elements as long as the electrical behavior is not influenced by
the presence of other elements.
Example: For each of the following pairs of semiconductors, decide which will have the smaller
band gap energy, Eg, and then cite the reason for your choice. (a) C (diamond) and Ge, (b) AlP and
InSb, (c) GaAs and ZnSe, (d) ZnSe and CdTe, and (e) CdS and NaCl.
(a) Germanium will have a smaller band gap energy than C (diamond) since Ge is lower in row IVA
of the periodic table (Figure 2.6) than is C. In moving from top to bottom of the periodic table, Eg
decreases.
(b) Indium antimonide will have a smaller band gap energy than aluminum phosphide. Both of these
semiconductors are III-V compounds, and the positions of both In and Sb are lower vertically in the
periodic table (Figure 2.6) than Al and P.
(c) Gallium arsenide will have a smaller band gap energy than zinc selenide. All four of these
elements are in the same row of the periodic table, but Zn and Se are more widely separated
horizontally than Ga and As; as the distance of separation increases, so does the band gap.
(d) Cadmium telluride will have a smaller band gap energy than zinc selenide. Both are II-VI
compounds, and Cd and Te are both lower vertically in the periodic table than Zn and Se.
(e) Cadmium sulfide will have a smaller band gap energy than sodium chloride since Na and Cl are
much more widely separated horizontally in the periodic table than are Cd and S.
Extrinsic semiconductors:
The pure semiconductor mentioned earlier is basically neutral. It contains no free electrons in its
conduction bands. Even with the application of thermal energy, only a few covalent bonds are
broken, yielding a relatively small current flow. A much more efficient method of increasing current
flow in semiconductors is by adding very small amounts of selected additives to them, generally no
more than a few parts per million. These additives are called impurities and the process of adding
them to crystals is referred to as doping. The purpose of semiconductor doping is to increase the
number of free charges that can be moved by an external applied voltage. When an impurity
increases the number of free electrons, the doped semiconductor is negative or n-type, and the
impurity that is added is known as an n-type impurity. However, an impurity that reduces the number
of free electrons, causing more holes, creates a positive or p-type semiconductor, and the impurity
that was added to it is known as a p-type impurity. Semiconductors which are doped in this manner either with n- or p-type impurities - are referred to as extrinsic semiconductors.
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n-Type Semiconductor
The n-type impurity loses its extra valence electron easily when added to a semiconductor material,
and in so doing, increases the conductivity of the material by contributing a free electron. This type
of impurity has 5 valence electrons and is called a pentavalent impurity. Arsenic, antimony,
bismuth, and phosphorous are pentavalent impurities. Because these materials give or donate one
electron to the doped material, they are also called donor impurities.
When a pentavalent (donor) impurity, like phosphorous , is added to silicon, it will form covalent
bonds with the silicon atoms. Figure above illustrates this by showing a phosphorous atom (P) in a
silicon (Si) lattice structure (ND = N Phosphorus ~ n). Notice the phosphorous atom in the center of
the lattice. It has 5 valence electrons in its outer shell but uses only 4 of them to form covalent bonds
with the silicon atoms, leaving 1 electron relatively free in the crystal structure. Pure silicon may be
converted into an n-type semiconductor by doping it with any donor impurity having 5 valence
electrons in its outer shell. Since this type of semiconductor (n-type) has a surplus of electrons, the
electrons are considered majority carriers, while the holes, being few in number, are the minority
carriers. Conduction occurs mainly by the free electrons (thus n-type) ~ n|e|e ~ ND |e|e .
Conduction in the n-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a copper wire. That is,
with voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal just as current
would flow in a copper wire. The positive potential of a battery will attract the free electrons in the
crystal. These electrons will leave the crystal and flow into the positive terminal of the battery. As an
electron leaves the crystal, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery will enter the crystal,
thus completing the current path. Therefore, the majority current carriers in the n-type material
(electrons) are repelled by the negative side of the battery and move through the crystal toward the
positive side of the battery.
p-Type Semiconductor
The second type of impurity, when added to a semiconductor material, tends to compensate for its
deficiency of 1 valence electron by acquiring an electron from its neighbor. Impurities of this type
have only 3 valence electrons and are called trivalent impurities. Aluminum, indium, gallium, and
15
boron are trivalent impurities. Because these materials accept 1 electron from the doped material,
they are also called acceptor impurities.
A trivalent (acceptor) impurity element can also be used to dope silicon. In this case, the impurity is
1 electron short of the required amount of electrons needed to establish covalent bonds with
4 neighboring atoms. Thus, in a single covalent bond, there will be only 1 electron instead of 2. This
arrangement leaves a hole in that covalent bond. Figure above illustrates this theory by showing what
happens when silicon is doped with an boron (B) atom. Notice, the boron atom in the figure is
1 electron short of the required amount of electrons needed to form covalent bonds with
4 neighboring atoms and, therefore, creates a hole in the structure (NA = NBoron ~p ). Gallium and
Indium, which are also trivalent impurities, exhibit these same characteristics when added to silicon.
The holes can only be present in this type semiconductor when a trivalent impurity is used. Note that
a hole carrier is not created by the removal of an electron from a neutral atom, but is created when a
trivalent impurity enters into covalent bonds with a tetravalent (4 valence electrons) crystal structure.
The holes in this type of semiconductor (p-type) are considered the majority carriers since they are
present in the material in the greatest quantity. The electrons, on the other hand, are the minority
carriers.
Current Flow in the p-type Material is by positive holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole moves
from the positive terminal of the p-material to the negative terminal. Electrons from the external
circuit enter the negative terminal of the material and fill holes in the vicinity of this terminal. At the
positive terminal, electrons are removed from the covalent bonds, thus creating new holes. This
process continues as the steady stream of holes (hole current) moves toward the negative terminal.
Conduction occurs mainly by the holes (thus p-type).
~ p|e|p ~ NA |e|p
Notice in both n-type and p-type materials, current flow in the external circuit consists of electrons
moving out of the negative terminal of the battery and into the positive terminal of the battery. Hole
flow, on the other hand, only exists within the material itself.
Example: An n-type semiconductor is known to have an electron concentration of 5 x 1017 m3 . If
the electron drift velocity is 350 m/s in an electric field of 1000 V/m, calculate the conductivity of
this material.
e =vd / E
=350m/s / 1000V/m=0.35m2/V.s
=n|e|e
=(5x1017m3)(1.602x1019C)(0.35m2/V.s)
= 0.028 (.m)-1
Example: (a) The room-temperature electrical conductivity of a silicon specimen is 500 (.m)-1
The hole concentration is known to be 2 x 1022 m3 .Using the electron and hole mobilities for silicon
(0.05 and 0.14 m2/V-s, respectively), compute the electron concentration. (b) On the basis of the
result in part (a), is the specimen intrinsic, n-type extrinsic, or p-type extrinsic? Why?
n= - p|e|h / |e|e
= 500(.m)1 (2.0x1022m3)(1.602x1019C)(0.05m2/V.s) / (1.602x1019C)(0.14m2/V.s)
= 2.97 x 1020 m-3
(b) This material is p-type extrinsic since p (2.0 x 1022 m-3) is greater than n (2.97 x 1020 m-3).
16
Figure: Intrinsic carrier concentration (logarithmic scale) as a function of temperature for germanium
and silicon.
17
n = p ~ exp(-Eg/2kT)
18
Carrier mobility:
Dopants are impurities and, like in metals, the mobility of electrons and holes decreases with
impurity concentration. Also worth noting is that the mobility of electrons is always larger than the
mobility of holes.
At dopant levels less than 1020 m-3 both carrier mobilities are at their maximum
levels and the effect of dopants on mobility is negligible.
For dopant concentrations below 1024 m-3, mobility of both electrons and holes decreases with
increasing temperature due to the enhanced thermal scattering of the carriers.
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Example: calculate the intrinsic electrical conductivity of germanium at 175 0C , where the Ge
Conductivity at room temperature (298 K) is [2.2 (.m)-1] and Eg is (0.67 eV ) . If the conductivity
for intrinsic germanium near room temperature is found equal to = CT3/2 exp ( Eg / 2kT)
ln =ln C(3/2) lnT Eg / 2kT
ln C=ln + (3/2) lnT + Eg / 2kT
=ln(2.2) + (3/2) ln(298) + 0.67eV / (2)(8.62x105eV/K)(298K)
= 22.38
Now, again using first Equation, we are able to compute the conductivity at 448 K (175C)
ln =lnC(3/2) lnTEg / 2kT
=22.38(3/2) ln(448 K) 0.67eV / (2)(8.62x105eV/K)(448K)
= 4.548
which leads to = e4.548 = 94.4 (-m)-1.
Example: Calculate the room-temperature electrical conductivity of silicon that has been doped
with 1023 m-3 of arsenic atoms. If the electron mobility, at an impurity concentration of 1023 m-3, is
0.065 m2/V.s.
=n|e|e=(1023m3)(1.602x1019C)(0.065m2/V.s)=1040(m)1
Example: Estimate the electrical conductivity, at 135 0C, of silicon that has been doped with
1024 m-3 of aluminum atoms. If the hole mobility, at an impurity concentration of 1024m-3 and at 135
0
C , is 0.007 m2/V.s.
= p|e|h =(1024m3)(1.6021019C)(0.007m2/V.s)=1120(.m)1
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Capacitance:
When a voltage V is applied to two parallel conducting plates, the plates are charged by +Q, Q,
and an electric field E develops between the plates.
The charge remains on the plates even after the voltage has been removed.
21
The ability to store charge is called capacitance and is defined as a charge Q per applied voltage V:
C = Q / V [Farads]
For a parallel-plate capacitor, C depends on geometry of plates and material between plates
C = r o A / L = A / L
where A is the area of the plates, L is the distance between plates, is the permittivity of the
dielectric medium, o is the permittivity of a vacuum (8.85x10-12 F/m2), and r is
relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) of the material, r = / o = C / Cvac
Dielectric Materials:
The dielectric constant of vacuum is 1 and is close to 1 for air and many other gases. But when a
piece of a dielectric material is placed between the two plates in capacitor the capacitance can
increase significantly.
C = r o A / L
with r = 81 for water, 20 for acetone, 12 for silicon, 3 for ice, etc.
A dielectric material is an insulator in which electric dipoles can be induced by the electric field
(or permanent dipoles can exist even without electric field), that is where positive and negative
charge are separated on an atomic or molecular level.
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In capacitor, the surface charge density D, or quantity of charge per unit area of capacitor plate
(C/m2), is proportional to the electric field.
When a vacuum is present, then 0 = 0
The constant of proportionality being0 . Furthermore, an analogous expression exists for the
dielectric case; that is, =
Sometimes, D is also called the dielectric displacement
Schematic representations of (a) the
charge stored on capacitor plates for a vacuum, (b) the dipole arrangement in an
unpolarized dielectric, and (c) the increased charge storing capacity resulting from the
polarization of a dielectric material.
Dipole formation induces additional charge Q on
plates:
total plate charge Qt = |Q+Q|.
Therefore, C = Qt / V has increased and dielectric
constant of the material
r = C / Cvac > 1
The process of dipole formation/alignment in electric
field is called polarization and is described by P =
Q/A
In the capacitor surface charge density (also called
dielectric displacement) is
D = Q/A = r oE = oE + P
Polarization is responsible for the increase in charge
density above that for vacuum
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Dielectric strength:
Very high electric fields (>108 V/m) can excite electrons to the conduction band and accelerate them
to such high energies that they can, in turn, free other electrons, in an avalanche process (or electrical
discharge). The field necessary to start the avalanche process is called dielectric strength or
breakdown strength.
Example: A parallel-plate capacitor using a dielectric material having an r of 2.2 has a plate
spacing of 2 mm (0.08 in.). If another material having a dielectric constant of 3.7 is used and the
capacitance is to be unchanged, what must be the new spacing between the plates?
C=r0A / l
Now, let us use the subscripts 1 and 2 to denote the initial and final states, respectively. Since C1 =
C2, then r10A / l1= r20A / l2
And, solving for l2, then: l2 = r2l1 / r1= (3.7)(2mm) / 2.2= 3.36 mm
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Example: Consider a parallel-plate capacitor having an area of 3225 mm2 , a plate separation of 1
mm, and with a material having a dielectric constant of 3.5 positioned between the plates. (a)What is
the capacitance of this capacitor? (b) Compute the electric field that must be applied for 2 x 10-8 C
to be stored on each plate.
C = r0A / l
= (3.5)(8.85x1012F/m)(3225mm2)(1m2/106mm2) / 103m = 10-10 F = 100 pF
(b) Now we are asked to compute the electric field that must be applied in order that 2 x 10-8 C be
stored on each plate. First we need to solve for V
V = QC= 2x108C x 1010F= 200 V
The electric field E may now be determined using
E = V / l= 200V / 103m= 2.0 x 105 V/m
Example: For CaO, the ionic radii for Ca+2 and O-2 ions are 0.100 and 0.140 nm, respectively.
If an externally applied electric field produces a 5% expansion of the lattice, compute the dipole
moment for each Ca+2 - O-2 pair. Assume that this material is completely unpolarized
in the absence of an electric field.
d = rCa2+ + rO2- = 0.100 nm + 0.140 nm = 0.240 nm
and d = 0.05 d = (0.05)(0.240 nm) = 0.0120 nm = 1.20 x 10-11 m
the dipole moment, p, is just p=qd
= (1.602 x 10-19 C)(1.20 x 10-11 m)
= 1.92 x 10-30 C.m
Piezoelectricity
In some ceramic materials, application of external forces produces an electric (polarization) field and
vice-versa. Applications of piezoelectric materials is based on conversion of mechanical strain into
electricity (microphones, strain gauges, sonar detectors)
Examples:
barium titanate BaTiO3
lead zirconate PbZrO3
quartz.
Without stress
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