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Spring 2013
Saudi Aramco
Journal of Technology
On the Cover
P R O D U C T I O N C O O R D I N AT I O N
Sami A. Al-Khursani
Ashraf A. Ghazzawi
DESIGN
Samer S. AlAshgar
Manager, EXPEC ARC
CONTRIBUTIONS
Relevant articles are welcome. Submission
guidelines are printed on the last page.
Please address all manuscript and editorial
correspondence to:
EDITORIAL ADVISORS
Abdulaziz M. Judaimi
Vice President, Chemicals
Ziyad M. Shiha
Vice President, Power Systems
Abdullah M. Al-Ghamdi
General Manager, Northern Area Gas Operations
Salahaddin H. Dardeer
Manager, Riyadh Refinery
ISSN 1319-2388.
EDITOR
William E. Bradshaw
The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology
Room 2240 East Administration Building
Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia
Tel: +966/3-873-5803
E-mail: william.bradshaw.1@aramco.com.sa
Zuhair A. Al-Hussain
AT T E N T I O N ! M O R E S A U D I A R A M C O
JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY ARTICLES
AVA I L A B L E O N T H E I N T E R N E T.
Khalid A. Al-Falih
President & CEO, Saudi Aramco
Mohammed Al-Qahtani
Vice President, Saudi Aramco Affairs
Essam Z. Tawfiq
General Manager, Public Affairs
COPYRIGHT 2013
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The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology
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Spring 2013
Saudi Aramco
Contents
10
22
30
39
46
52
59
68
Journal of Technology
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
SPRING 2013
RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION
The major nonassociated gas reservoirs in a major Saudi Arabian gas field (Field-A) are present in the upper Permian-Late
Triassic formation, which is divided into four depositional cycles.
Three reservoirs (A, B and C) are gas bearing, while ReservoirD is anhydrite. Reservoir-B represents a third order composite
cycle that commenced with a sea level rise following a long
time of exposure and nondeposition at the Permo-Triassic
boundary. Reservoir-B comprises two high frequency sequences,
initiated with the deposition of an open marine thrombolytic
lime mudstone, that shallow upwards into lagoonal and peritidal facies. Reservoir-B is represented by three reservoir facies
composed of oolitic peloidal grainstone, mud-lean oolitic
peloidal packstone and horizontally burrowed shallow subtidal
dolostone. The oolitic peloidal grainstone is the most common,
with moldic porosity in the calcareous upper part of the reservoir. The porosity of the grainstone is enhanced where the rock
is dolomitized to include moldic and inter-crystalline porosity.
The moldic porosity associated with the ooid grainstone represents the main reservoir rock.
The reservoir is highly heterogeneous and exhibits anomalous
fluid and stress characteristics. The formation has limited preserved primary porosity development, with reservoir quality
related to the digenetic process of dolomitization, selective
dissolution of limestone and cementation (anhydrite). Lithological studies show that the reservoir is composed of dolomite
intermingled with limestone and intermittent anhydrite
stringers within the tighter section of the reservoir. The three
types of porosity observed in the reservoir are inter-particle,
inter-crystalline and moldic. Natural fractures have also been
observed in some cores. Therefore, it is fair to say that the
reservoir is structurally complex and heterogeneous. The best
reservoir development is typically noticed in the dolomitized
grainstone with high inter-particle porosity. Reservoir-B in
PETROGRAPHY
Petrographic evaluations of several core samples, Fig. 1, from
various wells indicated a composition of limestone and dolostone: calcite, dolomite and anhydrite are common
cementing/replacement minerals in many samples. Scanning
electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD)
analysis conducted on these samples confirmed the observed
mineralogy. The allochems in the lime grainstones are moderately sorted, and average grain size ranges from 330 to 383
microns (medium sand size). Some of the micritic grains have
been replaced by dolomite, Fig. 2. Grains appear to have
undergone a minor to moderate amount of compaction, as
evidenced by the numerous point and long grain contacts and
the fewer concavo-convex grain contacts and stylolites. On the
Fig. 1. Photographs of reservoir cores recovered from pay zone at various depths.
SPRING 2013
analysis logs and well tests. Therefore, well placement is critical to avoid wet zones and mitigate water encroachments3, 10.
Reservoir heterogeneity necessitates the use of effective
drilling and completion fluids that reduce induced formation
damage if the wells are to achieve their expected potential11, 12.
Pressure compartmentalization has a major impact on production performance due to the potential drop in the bottom-hole
flowing pressure below the dew point pressure, which would
trigger the onset of condensate banking13. Several techniques
have been deployed to address this onset, such as solvent treatment to remove the condensate banking around the wellbore
region, but production has been enhanced only up to several
months14. More effective treatments, such as wettability
alteration, have been extensively tested and approved in the
lab, and are now undergoing field trials on candidate gas
wells15-17.
RESERVOIR HETEROGENEITY
BEST PRACTICES TO EXPLOIT TIGHT GAS RESERVOIRS
Reservoir-B is a naturally fractured gas carbonate reservoir
that covers most of the field. It is the largest in size compared
to the other carbonate and sandstone reservoirs in the field.
The reservoir is part of the carbonate formation and belongs
to the Triassic age. The reservoir quality varies regionally
according to the ratio of anhydrite to carbonate components,
and the matrix porosity and permeability, as illustrated in the
cross section of wells drilled in the field, Fig. 3. The fracture
density increases from the central area, where the fractures are
thin, dispersed and mostly short in length (< 1 ft)9. Therefore,
the reservoir performance varies widely among offset wells in
the same field1, 5.
Analysis of reservoir data indicates the presence of significant areal and vertical pressure compartmentalization. Seismic
data shows variability in reservoir characteristics, which is
usually thin up to 20 ft true vertical depth (TVD). Due to the
thin nature of the reservoir, seismic impedance inversion is not
precise and many times cannot be correlated with log porosity
and reservoir performance. In many places, multiple contaminations of the data make it impossible to arrive at a correct
interpretation. Changing dip and structures also pose major
challenges for correct interpretation. Another challenge is the
presence of multiple gas-water contacts, as observed in formation
4
SPRING 2013
Tight gas reservoir development requires good reservoir characterization based on sufficient data from core analysis, offset
well logs, reservoir parameters and production performance.
The following steps are a prerequisite for effective development of a tight gas reservoir:
Identify the bottom-hole location based on seismic and
offset well data.
Drill a vertical pilot hole across all layers of the target
reservoir.
Run open hole logs (density/neutron/resistivity/gamma
ray/caliper).
Take pressure points and samples to assess fluid
gradients, fluid type and mobility.
Drill a geometric horizontal hole in the minimum stress
direction targeting the most developed sections observed
in the pilot hole. The geomechanical study parameters
must be determined prior to drilling the sidetrack.
Maintain the recommended mud weight and inclination.
Run open hole logs to assess the reservoir development
across the geometric lateral.
Component
CASE STUDIES
Well-A
Well-A was drilled in 2007 as an open hole Reservoir-C horizontal development well. Due to the poor reservoir quality
seen in the wells motherbore, it was suspended with a 7
bridge plug and three cement plugs. In December 2011, plans
were made to sidetrack the well as a horizontal gas producer
across Reservoir-B in the minimum horizontal stress direction
as part of a strategy to exploit that areas tight gas reservoirs.
The well was sidetracked from inside the 958 casing using a
mechanical whipstock. After milling the window, an 838 directional hole section was drilled across Reservoir-A, building
from around a 3 inclination to a 89 inclination at the 7
liner point inside Reservoir-B, with 103 to 106 pounds per cubic ft (pcf) of potassium chloride (KCl) polymer mud. There
was no major problem in drilling this hole section, with a rate
of penetration (ROP) averaging at 8.3 ft/hr. After running and
cementing the 7 liner, the 578 section was drilled using a
downhole motor for better ROP (due to continuous rotation
without having to slide for directional control). Potassium (K)
formate mud type was used as it is nondamaging to the reservoir, and its lubricity helped reduce torque and drag while
drilling this hole in the minimum stress direction. A higher
mud weight of 103 pcf mud was chosen, as recommended by
the geomechanical studies, to mitigate wellbore instability issues due to the well azimuths being drilled towards the minimum horizontal stress direction. With this mud weight,
Reservoir-B was overbalanced by ~700 psi. Proper sized
CaCO3 chips were added to the K formate mud system to help
create a bridging action across the permeable reservoir sections, thereby minimizing the chance of differential sticking.
Nevertheless, the string got mechanically stuck momentarily
while moving across the reservoir, but it was freed after spotting an acid pill and jarring. While drilling at 15,793 ft measured depth, the downhole motor drive shaft broke, leaving the
bit sub and 578 bit at the bottom of the well. After running
logs across the open hole section, Fig. 4, the decision was
made to call total depth to avoid risky fishing operations and
to not jeopardize the hole. Therefore, a total of 3,566 ft of
Volume, bbl
48
870
821
197
197
SPRING 2013
Well-B
SPRING 2013
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management
for the permission to present and publish this article. We
appreciate the help of all personnel from the Gas Reservoir
Management and Gas Production Engineering Departments
for their assistance.
This article was presented at the Abu Dhabi International
Petroleum Exhibition and Conference (ADIPEC), Abu Dhabi,
U.A.E., November 11-14, 2012.
REFERENCES
1. Al-Qahtani, M.Y. and Rahim, Z.: Optimization of Acid
Fracturing Program in the Khuff Gas Condensate Reservoir
of South Ghawar Field in Saudi Arabia by Managing
Uncertainties Using State-of-the-Art Technology, SPE
paper 71688, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana,
September 30-October 3, 2001.
2. Rahim, Z. and Petrick, M.: Sustained Gas Production
from Acid Fracture Treatments in the Khuff Carbonates,
Saudi Arabia: Will Proppant Fracturing Make Rates
Better? Field Example and Analysis, SPE paper 90902,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Houston, Texas, September 26-29, 2004.
3. Rahim, Z., Al-Anazi, H.A., Al-Kanaan, A.A. and Abdul
Aziz, A.: Successful Exploitation of Khuff-B Low
Permeability Gas Condensate Reservoir through Optimized
Development Strategy, SPE paper 136953, presented at
the SPE/DGS Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium
and Exhibition, al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, April 4-7, 2010.
4. Rahim, Z., Al-Anazi, H.A., Al-Malki, B. and Al-Kanaan,
A.A.: Optimized Stimulation Strategies Enhance Aramco
Gas Production, Oil and Gas Journal, October 4, 2010,
pp. 66-74.
5. Al-Anazi, H.A., Al-Baqawi, A.M., Ahmad Azly, A.A. and
Al-Kanaan, A.A.: Effective Strategies in Development of
Heterogeneous Gas-Condensate Carbonate Reservoirs,
SPE paper 136399, presented at the SPE Russian Oil and
Gas Conference and Exhibition, Moscow, Russia, October
26-28, 2010.
6. Ahmed, M., Rahim, Z., Al-Anazi, H.A., Al-Kanaan, A.A.
and Mohiuddin, M.: Development of Low Permeability
Reservoir Utilizing Multistage Fracture Completion in the
Minimum Stress Direction, SPE paper 160848, presented
at the SPE Saudi Arabia Section Annual Technical
Symposium and Exhibition, al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, April
8-11, 2012.
7. Rahim, Z., Al-Qahtani, M.Y., Bartko, K.A., Goodman, H.,
Hilarides, W.K. and Norman, W.D.: The Role of
Geomechanical Earth Modeling in the Unconsolidated preSAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
SPRING 2013
SPRING 2013
BIOGRAPHIES
Dr. Hamoud A. Al-Anazi is the
General Supervisor of the North
Ghawar Gas Reservoir Management
Division in the Gas Reservoir
Management Department (GRMD).
He oversees all work related to the
development and management of huge
gas fields like Ain-Dar, Shedgum and Uthmaniyah.
Hamoud also heads the technical committee that is
responsible for all new technology assessments and
approvals for GRMD. He joined Saudi Aramco in 1994 as
a Research Scientist in the Research & Development Center
and moved to the Exploration and Petroleum Engineering
Center Advanced Research Center (EXPEC ARC) in
2006. After completing a one-year assignment with the
Southern Area Reservoir Management Department,
Hamoud joined the Gas Reservoir Management Division
and was assigned to supervise the SDGM/UTMN Unit and
more recently the HWYH Unit. With his team he
successfully implemented the deepening strategy of key
wells that resulted in a new discovery of the Unayzah
reservoir in UTMN field and the addition of Jauf reserves
in the HWYH gas field.
Hamouds areas of interests include studies of formation
damage, stimulation and fracturing, fluid flow in porous
media and gas condensate reservoirs. He has published
more than 50 technical papers at local/international
conferences and in refereed journals. Hamoud is an active
member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) where
he serves on several committees for SPE technical
conferences. He is also teaching courses at King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia, as part of the Part-Time Teaching Program.
SPRING 2013
ABSTRACT
Reactive mud cake breaker fluids in long open hole horizontal
wells located across high permeability sandstone reservoirs
have had limited success because they often induce massive
fluid losses. The fluid losses are controlled with special pills,
polymers and brine or water, causing well impairment that is
difficult to remove when oil-based mud (OBM) drill-in fluids
(DIFs) are used. This situation has resulted in a drive for an
alternative cleanup fluid system that is focused on preventing
excessive fluid leak off, maximizing the OBM displacement
efficiency and allowing partial dispersion of the mud cake for
ease of its removal during initial well production. The twostage spacer cleanup fluid is composed of a nonreactive fluid
system, which includes a viscous pill with nonionic surfactants,
a gel pill, a completion brine and a solvent.
Extensive laboratory testing was conducted at simulated
reservoir conditions to evaluate the effectiveness of the OBM
displacement fluid system. The study included dynamic highpressure/high temperature (HP/HT) filter press tests and coreflood tests, in addition to wettability alteration, interfacial
tension and fluid compatibility tests.
The spacer fluid parameters were optimized based on wellbore fluid hydraulic simulation and laboratory test results,
which indicated minimal fluid leak off and a low risk of emulsion formation damage. Three well trials then were conducted
in a sandstone reservoir drilled with OBM in a major offshore
field. All three trial wells (one single lateral and two dual laterals) treated with the displacement fluid system have demonstrated improvement in production performance. This article
will discuss in detail the spacer fluids optimization process,
the laboratory work conducted and the successful field treatments performed.
INTRODUCTION
Oil-based mud (OBM) drill-in fluids (DIFs) are favored for
drilling extended horizontal wells located in reservoirs with
water sensitive shale sections since they provide superior inhibition, greater lubricity, reduced mechanical friction and
improved wellbore stability relative to water-based mud
(WBM) DIFs. Ideally, removal of OBM cake should be done
10
SPRING 2013
Additive
Unit
Conc.
Property
Unit
Value
Mineral Oil
bbl
0.52
Density
lb/ft3
~75
Emulsifier
gal
1.5
Plastic Viscosity
cp
18-20
Lime
lb
6.0
Yield Point
lb/100 ft2
20-25
Filtration Control
lb
6.0-8.0
10 sec. Gel
lb/100 ft2
4-6
bbl
0.22
10 min. Gel
lb/100 ft2
8-12
Organophilic Clay/Viscosifier
lb
6.0-8.0
Filtrate, HP/HT
ml/30 min
1-2
Organic Surfactant
gal
0.5
Electric Stability
volts
>800
CaCl2 (78%)
lb
41
Chlorides
mg/l
350,000
CaCO3 (fine)
lb
90
Excess Lime
lb/bbl
4-6
CaCO3 (medium)
lb
30.0
Oil/Water Ratio
Water
70/30
SPRING 2013
11
their role in DIF induced formation damage had detected permeability reductions of 25% to 65% after mud exposure to
core samples, with higher alterations recorded for higher permeability cores. Improvements observed after physical mud
cake removal and core spinning down suggested that mud cake
was the primary barrier to flow, while higher density (~90 pcf)
muds caused additional alteration in permeability26.
Following traditional practice, the newly drilled wells were
circulated using a solids-free version of the same OBM formulated with a higher density base brine (~90 ppb CaCl2) to facilitate the installation of the sand screen/completion liner
assembly on the bottom. Some of the wells were subsequently
left untreated for weeks and brought onstream only after production hookup facilities were installed. With the rig on-site,
other wells were treated with breaker fluids, which resulted in
severe losses and difficult well control situations. When there is
a high risk of severe losses with breaker fluids, nonreactive
aqueous spacer fluids are recommended to displace the DIFs
from the well. A combination of chemical and mechanical
actions by the spacer fluid system is required to achieve minimum damage in extended horizontal wells during cleanup27, 28.
Criteria that effective spacer fluids must achieve in a waterbased spacer and completion formulation are:
Thinning and weakening of the mud cake by solubilization of the oil from the OBM and filter cake into the
spacer fluid, and wettability reversal (to water-wet) for
better mud cake dispersion and easier lift-off during
production.
Spacer-1
Spacer-2
Spacer-3
Simulation Case
(Viscous Push Pill)
Density
Rheology (PV/YP)
90 pcf
Case-1
90 pcf
Case-2
80 pcf
Base Case
Fluids Hydraulics and Spacer Displacement Modeling
Wellbore fluids displacement efficiency is essentially determined by the hydrodynamic properties of the OBM and the
cleanup fluids, in addition to the chemical interaction of the
DIFs, completion fluids and formation fluids. Wellbore fluid
hydraulics analysis software was used to evaluate the fluid12
SPRING 2013
Sensitivity Cases
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
OBM/
Spacer Fluid
RPM Readings
PV cp
YP
lb/100
ft2
600
300
200
100
Field OBM
119
74
55
32
45
29
Lab OBM
97
60
52
30
37
23
Push Pill
114
78
63
48
36
42
Gel Pill
73
58
51
43
15
43
SPRING 2013
13
Photos 1a and 1b: OBM DIF sample before and after surfactants at 120 F.
Photos 2a and 2b: Compatibility test of solvent pill with OBM base oil at 120 F
and 1,000 psi.
microemulsion surfactant wash fluid reduced the OBM rheology by 30% to 60%. Measurement of the rheology of the
OBM and spacer fluid mixtures was required to determine the
fluids behavior at the mixing zone/interface during wellbore
displacements. The test also enabled performance comparison
of different surfactants or surfactant concentrations on specific
OBM DIFs.
Fig. 5. Conventional/Microemulsion surfactant effect on OBM rheology.
process. The push pill designed in this work showed a favorable yield point (YP) in contrast with the conditioned DIF
(similar to the lab DIF) and field OBM before commencement
of the cleanup operation. The YP value of the key displacing
fluid (push pill) was approximately 1.5 times the YP for the
displaced OBM (laboratory and field), as recommended by
Javora and Adkins30.
The dispersion effect of the surfactant/solvent wash pill on
the OBM was evaluated by measuring the change in the emulsion stability and rheology of the OBM when it was mixed
with different volumes of the wash pill. This change in emulsion stability and rheology was measured using an electrical
stability meter and a viscometer, respectively. Figure 4 shows
the increased reduction in electrical stability achieved by increasing the mixing ratio of the surfactant spacer with the
OBM. At around 12 wt% of wash pill added to the OBM, a
reduction of 90% in emulsion stability was measured. This reduction is an indication of how well the wash pill was dispersing the OBM and reversing the wettability to more water-wet.
A complete dispersion of the mud components in the wash pill
was accomplished at a concentration of 20 wt%.
Figure 5 shows the change in viscometer reading that was
caused by the addition of 10% vol/vol of the wash pill to the
OBM at speeds ranging from 100 rpm to 600 rpm. The
14
SPRING 2013
A bottle test was performed to confirm the ability of the surfactant/wash pill to water-wet the OBM particles. Tests that
simulated the OBM/surfactant solution interaction were prepared with an OBM/solution ratio of 10/90 that was left to
soak overnight at ~120 F. Visual observation of solid particle
dispersion, with none of the particles sticking on the glass,
gave an indication of the cleaning effectiveness. Mud particles
were fully dispersed and water wetted for the mixed solution,
Photos 1a and 1b. See-through cell tests were also carried out
to assess the compatibility of the solvent additive with the
OBM DIF base oil by observing the mixed fluids at different
ratios of 25/75, 50/50 and 75/25, Photos 2a and 2b. Similar
compatibility tests were carried out between the solvent and
the base brine, Photos 3a and 3b. No precipitation or emulsion
droplets were observed for the different fluids at bottom-hole
conditions, i.e., a circulating pressure of 1,000 psi and a temperature of 120 F. A Winsor Type III middle-phase microemulsion was also confirmed after mixing the OBM with a
surfactant/solvent wash pill, Photo 4.
An inter-facial tension (IFT) test was conducted on the surfactant based wash pill/OBM fluid system, using the spinning
drop method for measuring ultra-low IFTs to determine the effectiveness of the surfactant solutions in solubilizing the oil in
the aqueous surfactant based solution and in water wetting the
Fluid Interface
IFT Measurement
Water: OBM
48
0.160
0.078
Photos 3a and 3b: Compatibility test of solvent pill with 67 pcf NaCl completion
brine at 120 F and 1,000 psi.
Photos 5a and 5b. OBM sample mud cake and after cleanup flush with solvent
spacer at 120 F.
OBM filter cake. This test followed from the established fact
that cleaning of oil and oily dirt from solid surfaces with surfactant solutions is largely dependent on ultra-low IFTs (<< 1
N/m = 1 dyne/cm) between the immiscible fluids. Table 5
shows two different surfactant/solvent solutions that gave relatively low IFTs with the OBM at 70 C (158 F), i.e., 0.160
and 0.078 dynes/cm as against the ~48 dynes/cm expected for
a typical water/oil fluid interface. Also, the surfactant/solvent
solution was completely haze-free, indicating salinity tolerance
at the test temperatures.
Performance of Cleanup Flush/Circulation Treatment
To study the ability of the spacer train to thin and weaken the
filter cake while maintaining minimum fluid losses during the
wellbore clean out, a filter press test was conducted on the
cleanup spacers using a synthetic ceramic disc of the permeability range, 35.0 m, (equivalent to 10 Darcies) and OBM
DIFs at expected reservoir conditions. OBM filter cake was
prepared by circulating the mud for 30 minutes at an expected
overpressure of 500 psi and a bottom-hole circulating temperature of 140 F, followed by 3 hours of static conditions. The
spacer fluids were circulated sequentially, one after the other,
Coreflood tests were conducted to determine the return permeability using different spacer trains in a dynamic fluid loss instrument with two test cells. The tests were conducted at a
third-party laboratory facility using these procedures:
Base Permeability Measurement: Cores were loaded into
the test cells, and the flow of mineral oil was initiated in
the production direction to obtain initial core
permeability at 150 F.
Dynamic Fluid Loss Measurement: Mud was loaded
into the system, and the pump was started at a
predetermined shear rate that matched the wellbore
flow conditions. Differential pressure across the cores
was 350 psi while system temperature was maintained
at 150 F, with fluid loss lines opened for 4 hours.
Static Fluid Loss Measurement (pump shutdown): The
mud differential pressure across the core was reduced to
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
SPRING 2013
15
W 1, g
W2, g
W3, g
FCR%
Ti, mm
Tf, mm
Reduced Cake
Thickness, %
Solvent Pill
45.99*
56.36
54.451
18.41
9.57
8.89
7.11
Surfactant
52.581
57.97
57.491
8.89
9.28
9.04
2.56
Cleanup Flushes
53.743
62.281
60.520
20.63
10.03
9.38
6.48
Spacer
SPRING 2013
The dual horizontal well was drilled with 75 pcf to 80 pcf mineral oil-based DIFs and completed with a 5 ICD/sand
screen in the lower lateral and a 4 ICD/sand screen in the
upper lateral in July 2009. The 3,440 ft lower lateral was
treated with 200 bbl of a reactive microemulsion/mesophase
fluid system due to the unavailability of the spacer fluid additives. The treatment fluid was formulated with NaCl brine/
10% acetic acid and nonionic surfactant additive (displaced
and spotted in open hole with 125 bbl of 70 pcf NaCl brine).
The 3,300 ft upper lateral cleanup was carried out using
acid-free MSFs in two stages with NaCl brine as the displacement fluid in July 2009, Table 7. The initial displacement rate
was limited at <1.2 bpm with maximum pressure at 700 psi
during treatment of the upper lateral to avoid premature
packer setting. The post-completion production test indicated
a 157% (0% water cut) production rate when compared with
the offset well. Well performance was better than that of the
offset wells that had encountered severe fluid losses while being treated with breaker fluids during completion, Table 8.
Test Well-3
Test Well-1
Test Well-2
Test Well-3
Upper Lateral
Upper Lateral
Lower Lateral
Stage-1
Weighted Spacer
60 bbl
60 bbl
60 bbl
60 bbl
Gel Spacer
60 bbl
60 bbl
60 bbl
60 bbl
Brine Spacer
60 bbl
60 bbl
60 bbl
60 bbl
Solvent Pill
45 bbl
35 bbl
35 bbl
40 bbl
NA
350 bbl
390 bbl
380 bbl
Gel Spacer*
NA
70 bbl
70 bbl
140 bbl
Weighted Spacer
30 bbl
30 bbl
30 bbl
30 bbl
Gel Spacer
30 bbl
30 bbl
30 bbl
30 bbl
Brine Spacer
30 bbl
53 bbl
40 bbl
67 bbl
Solvent Pill
35 bbl
45 bbl
40 bbl
35 bbl
Stage-2
Displacement Brine**
(2-3 hole volumes until clean
returns)
*Spotted in open hole prior to stinging out of the sand screen PBR
**Displacement after setting production packer
Table 7. OBM spacer fluids pump sequence and volumes
Test #1
Offset #1
Offset #2
Feb. 2010
Aug. 2007
Jan. 2002
*Prod Rate %
110
41
100
Water Cut %
5.0
59.1
36.3
Test #2
Offset #3
June 2010
Feb. 2008
*Prod Rate %
157
100
Water Cut %
4.3
Date
Date
Test #3
Date
June 2010
*Prod Rate %
145
Water Cut %
SPRING 2013
17
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Photos 6a and 6b. Displacement brine returns after first-stage treatment and after
second-stage treatment.
REFERENCES
Fig. 7. Pump and displacement brine data for lower lateral in test Well-3.
content was recorded for the test Well-3 upper lateral), Photos
6a and 6b. The post-completion production test indicated a
production rate of 145% (0% water cut) compared to the
same offset wells used for the test Well-2 assessment. The well
performance was appraised as better than that of the offset
wells that had breaker fluids treatment while encountering
severe losses at completion, Table 8.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Reactive mud cake breaker fluids are incapable of effectively removing OBM filter cake in long open hole horizontal wells located across high permeability sandstone reservoirs without inducing severe fluid losses and emulsion
induced formation damage as a result of the OBM, completion and formation fluids mixing together.
2. A two-stage circulation treatment with acid-free MSFs has
been proven effective in facilitating open hole sandstone
wellbore cleanup by altering the wettability of the oily filter
cake and mud particles without completely removing the
filter cake and so inducing fluid losses that need to be controlled with more damaging materials.
3. It is recommended to evaluate the probability and potential
risk of severe losses with breaker fluid application to the
filter cake by reviewing the completion and cleanup fluid
performance in offset wells prior to using the acid-free
MSFs.
4. The surfactant/solvent fluids were effective in dispersing
and water-wetting the OBM DIFs. The OBM base oil and
formation brine were found to be compatible with the surfactant/solvent pills as no precipitation or emulsion was observed at bottom-hole conditions. The generation of a Winsor
Type III middle-phase microemulsion was confirmed.
18
SPRING 2013
23. van Zanten, R. and Ezzat, D.: Surfactant Nanotechnology Offers New Method for Removing OilBased Residue to Achieve Fast, Effective Wellbore
Cleaning and Remediation, SPE paper 127884,
presented at the SPE International Symposium and
Exhibition on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette,
Louisiana, February 10-12, 2010.
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19
20
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BIOGRAPHIES
Peter I. Osode is a Petroleum Engineer
Specialist with the Formation Damage
and Stimulation Unit in Saudi
Aramcos Advanced Technical Services
Division.
He has over 30 years of diverse
upstream industry experience spanning
wellsite petroleum engineering operations, production
technology (well and reservoir management, production
optimization and production chemistry) and drilling and
completion fluids management. Peter started his career
with Baroid/Halliburton as a Technical Sales Engineer
before moving to Shell Petroleum Development Company
in Nigeria and Shell Internationals affiliate-Petroleum
Development Oman (PDO) in Oman. He has participated
in a number of Shell Global E&P Well Performance
Improvement projects and was the subject matter expert on
drilling fluids performance assessment process prior to
joining Saudi Aramco in 2009.
Peter received his B.S. degree with honors in Petroleum
Engineering from the University of Ibadan, Ibadan,
Nigeria.
He is an active member of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers (SPE) International and has authored a number
of published technical papers. Peter is currently involved in
formation damage evaluation of reservoir drilling and
completion fluids.
Msalli Al-Otaibi joined Saudi Aramco
in 2005 and began working with the
Formation Damage and Stimulation
unit of the Exploration and Petroleum
Engineering Center Advanced Research
Center (EXPEC ARC) as a Petroleum
Engineer. His work experience includes
formation damage evaluation and prevention strategies for
exploration drilling, reservoir development and water
injection projects in addition to impaired well diagnosis
and remedial treatments.
Msalli was a principal member of the focused team
tasked with promoting innovation in Saudi Aramco
through the development and launching of the first
Innovation Tournament (InTo) in 2010. He has been an
active member in the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE)
by publishing seven technical papers and leading the Young
Professionals (YP) and Students Outreach committee of the
SPE-Saudi Arabia Section (SAS) for 2010/2011. Also,
Msalli served as the 2010/2011 SPE-SAS representative on
the North Africa and Middle East (MENA) YP committee.
He received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering
from Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, in
2005. In 2011, Msalli received his M.S. degree in Chemical
Engineering from KFUPM. He is currently pursuing his
Ph.D. degree in Petroleum Engineering at the Colorado
School of Mines, Golden, CO.
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ABSTRACT
Hydraulic fracturing is required to commercially produce low to
moderate permeability gas reservoirs. The selection of fracturing
fluids, additives and proppant types is a major component when
designing and implementing a hydraulic fracturing treatment.
A viscous, unbroken fracture fluid that remains after the treatment compounds the effects of fracture face skin and causes
severe deterioration to proppant conductivity. With the advancement of technology, many novel fracture fluid systems
are now available in the industry with reduced polymer concentration to preserve reservoir and proppant integrity. The
advantages of these fluids include less formation damage,
lower cost and reduced treatment pressure. Subsequent to the
fracture operation, an aggressive breaker treatment is often
necessary to effectively clean up the fracture and restore proppant conductivity. Proppant conductivity plays a tremendous
role in the post-fracture production enhancement, and any
damage left from the fluids can impair well potential considerably. Similarly, the correct choice of proppant, based on the rock
strength, reservoir fluid properties, expected production rate,
pressure and temperature, is important. Proppant type and
scheduling determine the ultimate propped fracture geometry
that controls the gas flow from the reservoir to the wellbore.
The application of new technologies in combination with
better job design is ongoing to obtain improved results in the deep
sandstone reservoirs of Saudi Arabia. In the process of optimization, fluids along with their gel type, polymer concentration
and additives have been modified and changed to provide better
results. Similarly, proppant size, type and scheduling have been
optimized. Different types of aqueous-based fracturing fluids
with various polymer loadings, as well as hybrid systems and
viscoelastic surfactant (VES) fluids for deep and high temperature reservoirs are currently in use. Several case studies provided
in this article demonstrate how the critical fracturing parameters
have progressed with time, been customized and can now be
made to fit the reservoir conditions to make a noticeable impact
on well productivity and recovery.
INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of hydraulic fracturing treatment is to
22
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Functions
Breaker
Cross-linked Agent
Base Gel
KCl
Proppant
Surfactant
Chemical Components
Gelling Agent
Hydroxyethyl Cellulose/
Hydroxypropyl Guar
Proppant
Cross-linker
Borate Salt
Breaker
Ammonium Persulfate
Surfactant
Isopropanol
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BREAKERS
Fig. 1. Effects of pressure and temperature on fracture fluid viscosity.
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in Saudi Arabia9. The fluid volume size, gel loading and additives are customized to fit the needs of a particular field and
reservoir. The fluid quality and type have also advanced during
this time, and new fluids systems are progressively being used.
Figure 4 shows a comparison chart of the average percentage of basic fracture fluid additives (x-axis) used in 2011 compared to 2008 in a few of the Saudi Arabian wells. Other than
differences in some of the fluid chemistry, it is noticeable how
the quantity of some of the ingredients has increased over time.
The pH control and bactericide are used to maintain the integrity of the fluids and provide compatibility with the formation. The cross-linker concentration was increased to provide
better proppant carrying capacity and generate a larger fracture width. The breaking agent in particular has increased by
more than 60%, indicating the importance of ensuring a clean
fracture after the treatment and a quick flow back of the degraded gel. Figure 5, which shows the breaker-to-gel ratio used
in the treatment of about 100 wells analyzed since 2000, illustrates the trend toward using increased breaker concentrations.
This change in the fracturing program is due to the fact that a
higher concentration of breaking agent is conducive in achieving cleaner fractures, thereby leading to higher productivity
wells. The field results confirmed the benefits of using a higher
breaker amount, so the trend continues. The gel loading did
not change, Fig. 6, showing that the proppant transport and
fracture dimensions were being achieved as per expectation. In
fact, attempts have been made to decrease the gel loading without compromising fracture quality so as to incur less damage
to the proppant and formation.
Figure 7 presents the use of different breaker types and their
respective quantities as a function of the total gel volume. The
choice and use of both oxidative and encapsulated breakers,
along with their specific activation characteristics, are important to cover the range of temperature between the cooled
down fracture during the treatment and the reservoir temperature. Therefore, the proper mix of low temperature and high
temperature (LT and HT) breaking agents ensures that the
breaking of gel initiates when the fracture closes and is relatively cool, and continues for a prolonged period as the fracture eventually attains reservoir temperature.
EXAMPLE WELLS
The effects of breaking down the gel are seen in results from
two recent vertical wells where additional breakers were
pumped after it was realized that the post-treatment production
rates were not up to the expectation based on open hole log data
and rates from some of the offset wells. The inflow performance
SPRING 2013
25
PROPPANT OPTIMIZATION
Good proppant selection is an integral part of successful hydraulic fracturing. Among the different types of proppants
available, the major ones used in Saudi Aramco are the lightweight ceramics and the intermediate/high density ceramics,
some of which are resin coated proppants (RCP). RCP is routinely used as a tail-end in the pumping treatment to prevent
proppant flow back, and this process has been working very
well. The main criteria of proppant selection depend on the
conductivity requirement at downhole conditions. The evaluation is usually done based on the contrast between the flow
capacity of the fracture and the reservoir, known as the dimenkf Wf
sionless fracture conductivity, FCD= kmLf .
Selection criteria are also based on reservoir pressure and
temperature, embedment, multiphase flow and crushing. Other
very important aspects to take into account while selecting the
proppant are the flow convergence effects, particularly in
transverse fractures, non-Darcy flow, gel damage, and nonoptimal proppant concentration and placement, as well as reduced
conductivity due to fines migration and pressure cycling.
Maintaining a high conductivity fracture has always proven
to be a preferred option since it overcomes many of the above
mentioned problems that can reduce gas production rate. A
proppant type that shows high conductivity at higher stress in
the laboratory, however, can fall short in the field, failing to
maintain that level of conductivity due to non-Darcy effects or
flow convergence11. The non-Darcy flow permeability, which
is the effective permeability, kF, can be computed from the
laminar flow equation by relating Darcy permeability, kD, with
the flow turbulence expressed by Reynolds number, NRE, using
kD
the equation: kF=1+NRe . Therefore, the higher the Reynolds
Fig. 10. Flow rate and pressure before and after breaker treatment, Well-B.
curves from Well-A and Well-B presented in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively, clearly show the improved rates from both wells,
where the increase of absolute open flow ratio ranged from
25% to over 100%. The measured rate and pressure are plotted on the graph. The improvement varies, depending on the
initial treatment schedule and what was pumped in terms of
gel loading and breaker quality. The optimum procedure is to
take into consideration all damage and cleanup possibilities so
as to optimize the fluids pumped during the treatment. That
way, added intervention in the well is avoided, saving time and
additional expenditure. Consequently, post-frac production
analysis must be conducted on all wells, and if there is a con26
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the post-fracture expected rate is not achieved, although fracture treatment was pumped as designed. When this happens,
well performance has been compromised because of gel residue
in the fracture and suboptimal cleanup. The following are
some of the key points drawn from this article.
Efficient polymer breaker treatment contributes to
higher well productivity. Low polymer loading and/or
an adequate amount of breaker is necessary for a
complete post-fracture cleanup.
Fig. 11. Normalized rate loss as a function of fracture conductivity for different
reservoir permeabilities.
Fig. 12. Normalized gas rate illustrating both laminar and non-Darcy effects for
different reservoir permeabilities.
CONCLUSIONS
Hydraulic fracturing is a necessary technique to improve gas
production from tight or conventional reservoirs. Many times
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management
for the permission to present and publish this article.
This article was presented at the SPE Unconventional Gas
Conference and Exhibition, Muskat, Oman, January 28-30,
2013.
REFERENCES
1. Economides, M.J. and Nolte, K.G.: Reservoir Stimulation,
3rd edition, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2000, p. 818.
2. Gall, B.L. and Raible, C.J.: Molecular Size Studies of
Degraded Fracturing Fluid Polymers, SPE paper 13566,
presented at the SPE Oil Field and Geothermal Chemistry
Symposium, Phoenix, Arizona, April 9-11, 1985.
3. Langedijk, R.A., Al-Naabi S., Al-Lawati H., Pongratz, R.,
Elia, M.P. and Abdulrab, T.: Optimization of Hydraulic
Fracturing in a Deep, Multilayered, Gas-Condensate
Reservoir, SPE paper 63109, presented at the SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas,
October 1-4, 2000.
4. Courtesy of Schlumberger.
5. Gupta, S.: Unconventional Fracturing Fluids: What,
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BIOGRAPHIES
Dr. Zillur Rahim is a Petroleum
Engineering Consultant with Saudi
Aramcos Gas Reservoir Management
Department (GRMD). He heads the
team responsible for stimulation
design, application and assessment for
GRMD. Rahims expertise includes
well stimulation, pressure transient test analysis, gas field
development, planning, production enhancement, and
reservoir management. Prior to joining Saudi Aramco, he
worked as a Senior Reservoir Engineer with Holditch &
Associates, Inc., and later with Schlumberger Reservoir
Technologies in College Station, TX, where he used to
consult on reservoir engineering, well stimulation, reservoir
simulation, and tight gas qualification for national and
international companies. Rahim is an Instructor of
petroleum engineering industry courses and has trained
engineers from the U.S. and overseas. He developed
analytical and numerical models to history match and
forecast production and pressure behavior in gas reservoirs.
Rahim developed 3D hydraulic fracture propagation and
proppant transport simulators and numerical models to
compute acid reaction, penetration, and fracture
conductivity during matrix acid and acid fracturing
treatments.
Rahim has authored 65 Society of Petroleum Engineers
(SPE) papers and numerous in-house technical documents.
He is a member of SPE and a technical editor for the
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering (JPSE).
Rahim is a registered Professional Engineer in the State of
Texas and a mentor for Saudi Aramcos Technologist
Development Program (TDP). He is an instructor of the
Reservoir Stimulation and Hydraulic Fracturing course for
the Upstream Professional Development Center (UPDC) of
Saudi Aramco. Rahim is a member of GRMDs technical
committee responsible for the assessment and approval of
new technologies.
Rahim received his B.S. degree from the Institut
Algerien du Petrole, Boumerdes, Algeria, and his M.S. and
Ph.D. degrees from Texas A&M University, College
Station, TX, all in Petroleum Engineering.
SPRING 2013
29
ABSTRACT
The increasing demand for oil and gas resources to support
worldwide development plans means that the petroleum industry is always actively engaged in exploring new frontiers in
drilling and production, including tight multilayered reservoirs.
It is becoming evident more than ever that producing the most
oil and gas out of drilled reservoirs is an absolute necessity.
Accordingly, completion techniques have presented themselves
as a crucial well construction parameter, one that is key to
optimally producing wells.
Several completion techniques have been exhaustively trial
tested in Saudi Aramco to determine the most successful completion mode for each reservoir. Among those various techniques, open hole multistage stimulation has demonstrated
superior performance in minimizing skin damage and maximizing reservoir contact through efficient propagation of
fracture networks within the rock matrix.
Overall, the production results from wells completed using
open hole multistage stimulation systems as deployed in the
tight gas fields of Saudi Arabia have been very positive. Various open hole multistage completion systems were run over
approximately 40 wells. While production results varied where
this new technology was utilized, the majority of the wells
have met or exceeded the pre-stimulation expectations for gas
production.
This study highlights these systems and discusses their impact
on wells during the fracturing operation and the final stabilized production. This study will also present some case studies
in multistage fracturing operations and investigate the operational impact of such operations on productivity enhancement.
With correct implementation, the findings from this study
should increase the probability of having a more successful
multistage stimulation job from a productivity standpoint.
Hydraulic fracturing is required in tight multilayered reservoirs for increased oil and gas recovery. Effective wellbore
compartmentalization by means of open hole packers, especially in low and nonuniform permeability reservoirs, is key to
successful multistage stimulation operations. It is, therefore,
important to describe and compare the modes of operation of
stimulation systems and the effects of the various downhole
conditions on the main open hole packer designs available to
our industry today.
Since the beginning of 2007, a total of 40 wells in the tight
gas fields of Saudi Aramcos Southern Area have been completed with open hole multistage stimulation systems. Target
formations have spanned the Khuff B and C carbonates and
the pre-Khuff (Unayzah) sandstone reservoir. Hole sizes have
included both 8 and 5, and the number of stages per well
has been as high as seven. Figures 1 to 6 show more details
about the 40 wells where open hole multistage stimulation systems were run by the various technology suppliers. Out of the 40
wells:
INTRODUCTION
While the well trajectory planning, reservoir characterization
and completion design are important determinants of well productivity, open hole multistage stimulation completion has
demonstrated that it can have significant effects on long-term
stabilized production and reservoir draining efficiency.
30
SPRING 2013
Fig. 7. Unbalanced system with the hydraulic fracture sleeve (stage 1) at the
bottom of the lower completion.
Fig. 8. Balanced system with the hydraulic fracture sleeve (stage 1) between two
packers.
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31
Swell Packers
SPRING 2013
Significant pre-job data should be collected for each wellbore section. Once the necessary information is gathered, it is
possible to estimate the packer dimensions (base pipe OD and
element thickness) as well as the swell period required to
achieve the desired pressure rating.
As soon as the element comes into contact with its corresponding fluid (water or hydrocarbon), it begins to swell.
Therefore, to avoid premature swelling, retardant chemicals
are normally mixed in the rubber recipe or otherwise applied
to the element OD, depending on the swell packer supplier
company.
The swell process is a function of time, temperature and
fluid type, so these crucial factors must be carefully observed
during job design and execution.
In swell packers such as that provided by Supplier C, the retardant chemical is applied to the outside of the SEP. This typically creates a huge risk when running in the open hole, as it is
possible that the retardant chemical could be removed or
scraped off, and premature swelling could occur. The optimum
swell packer to use is one where the retardant chemical is
mixed in the rubber, so the possibility of its removal and premature swelling does not occur. Another disadvantage of Supplier Cs swell packer is the 32 ft length with a 5.60 OD,
which makes deployment a major issue when running several
stages in the well and heightens the risk of not reaching the target depth due to mechanical or differential sticking issues. The
shorter the length and the smaller the OD, the better, when
selecting swell packers from the deployment standpoint.
The time to swell could range from hours to weeks depending on well conditions, element design and swell packer supplier company.
MECHANICAL PACKERS
Hydraulically set mechanical open hole packers use rubber
pack off elements, which are compressed when set to form a
seal between the completion and the open hole, Fig. 11. A successful packer design used in the Saudi Aramco Southern Area
gas fields is an open hole packer that features more than one
rubber element.
The setting mechanism of this packer is characterized by a
dynamic setting mode that uses the fracture surface pumping
Fig. 12. Summary graph showing the history of the hydraulic frac-port openings
on all MSS operations.
Fig. 13. Treatment chart for first well: CT pressure cycling attempts. The port was sat to 4,500 psi and finally opened at 7,474 psi.
Fig. 14. Treatment chart for Well-B: Frac pumps attempted five times to open the HFS-B by bullheading. On the fifth attempt, it was opened at 8,000 psi and 4 bpm.
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33
Fig. 15. Pressure drop seen on first well during injection test within water.
Fig. 16. Pressure drop seen on second well during main treatment.
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the first injection step rate test (SRT), from 10,100 psi to
8,400 psi, Fig. 15. In the second well, a similar drop in surface
pressure was observed following spotting acid/mutual acid
during the main treatment; here there was a drop of 5,254 psi
surface pressure from an initial 10,800 psi, Fig. 16.
When pumping commenced into the second stage for both
wells, it was very clear that there was communication between
zones and that the packers were likely no longer holding pressure. As seen in Figs. 17 and 18, there was an immediate pressure decline to 0 psi surface pressure when the pumping was
stopped.
For the two initial gas well completion operations in 2007,
the open hole multistage systems were all in a balanced config-
uration. Due to the aforementioned mechanical and/or differential sticking issues during deployment, where the completion
was unable to reach the target depth, it was decided that an
unbalanced system was preferred. The theory was that if the
lower multistage completion was unable to reach target depth,
then the toe section of the well could still be treated.
One important consideration is that the open hole swell
packers or mechanical packers offer near negligible anchoring
capability. Testing performed in open hole conditions has
shown that it is possible to piston the packer uphole with certain overpull, depending on various downhole conditions.
Given the open hole diameter and the high pressures involved
during the stimulation treatments, the upward forces created
that are acting on the lowermost packer are very high: up to
400,000 lb upward force on the lower packer, Figs. 19 and 20.
With an unbalanced system and with high forces acting on the
bottom packer, the completion will undergo a rapid upwards
pistoning effect, and all of the lower completion will stroke a
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
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35
Fig. 19. Area (shaded in yellow) where the force is applied to the lowermost open
hole packer.
For all formation types, a balanced system would be the preferred method of running the multistage fracturing completion.
This is simply because the first stage is in a balanced condition,
and the forces created during the fracturing treatment are
equally applied, in opposing directions, to each packer. For
carbonate formations, the need for a balanced system is greatly
increased because with an unbalanced system the potential risk
of the acid treatment eroding away the formation around the
open hole packer is higher than in sandstone formations.
Well Name
Open Hole
Size
Completion
Size OD
Completion
Size ID
Open Hole
Annulus Area
(sq. in)
Bottom-hole
Pressure (psi)
Reservoir
Pressure (psi)
Well-A
38
8
4.7
37.74
16,200
6,600
Well-B
78
5
3.813
17.49
13,500
5,200
Differential
Pressure (psi)
Force Created
on Lowest
Packer (lbsf)
Shrinkage due
to Temperature
Difference
(lbsf)
Resulting
Upwards Force
Created (lbsf)
Friction Forces
based on T&D
Analysis (lbsf)
Completion
Length (ft)
Resulting Liner
Movement (ft)
Uphole from
TD
9,600
362,304
50,000
412,304
80,000
3,760
8 ft
8,300
145,164
50,000
195,164
60,000
5,284
12 ft
Table 1. Liner upward movement resulting from applied forces on the lower packer when treating Stage 1 for an unbalanced system
36
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CONCLUSIONS
This investigation is part of a more detailed report currently
being complied of evaluations performed on the multistage
stimulation fracturing and completion efficiencies. High rate
and high-pressure acid fracturing treatments have pushed the
completion equipment to its limits, and there is much still to be
learned on the interaction with carbonate formations. The well
direction and resulting fracture orientation is certainly a major
influence on the fluid placement. This investigation focused
solely on the completion equipment set-up and configurations.
The completion that was run on the second well by Supplier
B was an unbalanced system, and the completion was only anchored at the top of the liner by the liner hanger. The lowest
single sealing packer therefore began to slide immediately
when pressure was applied to it. A major pressure drop of approximately 1,700 psi was seen immediately during the SRT
when pumping water at approximately 8,300 psi differential
pressure (surface pressure less than reservoir pressure).
With 8,300 psi differential pressure and 145,164 lb of force
applied to the lowest packer in the 5 open hole, with 5,284
ft of liner in total, the upwards movement can be as much as
12 ft. This would potentially damage the packer seal and
therefore allow communication between zones.
The completion used on the first well saw a pressure drop
occur following three days of pumping, which included an acid
treatment designed to dissolve some of the barite mud away.
Stage 1 of the completion system had been pressure cycled
many times up to its maximum differential of 9,600 psi by the
time the pressure drop was observed.
As a result of the deployment issues that led to a failure to
reach the target depths and the port opening problems, Supplier C was placed on hold from future operations in February
2011 and has not resumed multistage stimulation operations.
As a result of the hydraulic P-sleeve problems as well as CT
mill-out problems, Supplier B was placed on hold from future
operations in March 2011 and has yet to resume multistage
stimulation operations.
For future wells, it is recommended to run a balanced system with an open hole packer at the bottom of the first stage
prior to the hydraulic fracturing sleeve.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management
for the permission to present and publish this article. Further
thanks are provided to the Saudi Aramco Multistage Fracturing
REFERENCE
1. Al-Jubran, H.H., Wilson, S. and Johnston, B.: Successful
Deployment of Multistage Fracturing Systems in
Multilayered Tight Gas Carbonate Formations in Saudi
Arabia, SPE paper 130894, presented at the SPE Deep
Gas Conference and Exhibition, Manama, Bahrain,
January 24-26, 2010.
BIOGRAPHIES
Mohammed A. Al-Ghazal is a
Production Engineer at Saudi Aramco.
He is part of a team that is responsible
for gas production optimization in the
Southern Area gas reserves of Saudi
Arabia. During Mohammeds career
with Saudi Aramco, he has led and
participated in several upstream projects, including pressure
control valve optimization, cathodic protection system
performance, venturi meter calibration, new stimulation
technologies, innovative wireline technology applications,
upgrading fracturing strategies, petroleum computer-based
applications enhancement and safety management
processes development.
In 2011, Mohammed assumed the position of Gas
Production HSE Advisor in addition to his production
engineering duties. During his tenure as HSE Advisor, he
founded the People-Oriented HSE culture, which has
brought impressive benefits to Saudi Arabia gas fields,
resulting in improved operational performance.
In early 2012, Mohammed went on assignment with the
Southern Area Well Completion Operations Department,
where he worked as a foreman leading a well completion
site in remote areas.
As a Production Engineer, Mohammed played a critical
role in the first successful application of several high-end
technologies to present new possibilities in the Kingdoms
gas reservoirs.
Mohammeds areas of interest include formation
damage investigation and mitigation, coiled tubing
applications, wireline operations, matrix acidizing,
hydraulic fracturing and organizational HSE performance.
In 2010, Mohammed received his B.S. degree with
honors in Petroleum Engineering from King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia.
He has also authored and coauthored several Society of
Petroleum Engineers (SPE) papers and technical journal
articles as well as numerous in-house technical reports.
Additionally, Mohammed served as a member on the
industry and student advisory board in the Petroleum
Engineering Department of KFUPM from 2009 to 2011.
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38
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
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39
Procedure
40
Benefits
The iterative program has several benefits that make significant contributions to the management of a gas condensate
reservoir. The program is a quick guide to the stable flow conditions needed for gas wells to avoid possible accumulation of
liquids in the tubing. This model then provides proactive solutions to maintain continuous gas production. The model also
recognizes and predicts liquid loading that can happen in the
future, and simultaneously provides practical remedial action
to be taken at the outset to overcome later production impairment. By preventing liquid loading, it enhances the production
life of a gas condensate reservoir and ensures the most efficient
reserves exploitation.
Signs of Liquid Loading
Liquid loading is not easily identified. Even when a well is liquid loaded, it may continue to produce for a long time. It follows that if liquid loading is recognized and reduced at an
early stage, higher producing rates can be achieved and maintained. Symptoms indicating liquid loading include the following2:
Pressure Gradient: Pressure surveys reveal a heavier
gradient.
Variance from the Decline Curve: Typically gas wells
will follow an exponential-type curve decline; however,
liquid loading generally leads to a deviation from the
curve with a lower than predicted production rate.
Liquid Slugging: Liquid production does not arrive to
the surface in a steady continuous flow, but instead in
slugs of fluid. This is readily observed through
production monitoring.
Crit-T
g12
Parameters
Units
Gas Rate
MMscfd
FWHP
psia
bbl/MMscfd
psi/ft
Reservoir Depth
ft
kg/m3
dynes/cm
Tubing Diameter
inches
psia
Bottom-hole Temperature
psi
the well do not change when the FBHP is reduced. The variable Pr in this equation is the average reservoir pressure (psia),
Pwf is the FBHP (psia), Q is the gas rate (Mscfd), the value of n
ranges from 0.5 to 1, and C is defined by Mscfd/psia2.
The user can also evaluate the effect of replacing the tubing
with the next smaller size (velocity string concept) and the
effect of reducing the gas-liquid interfacial tension (soap-sticks
concept). The following sections present a few examples where
gas condensate wells were analyzed using the iterative program.
EXAMPLE WELL-1
Figure 3 presents the well parameters and reservoir conditions
that were input for the well. They show that the well is flowing at
a low rate of 1 million standard cubic ft per day (MMscfd), and
the condensate yield is 130 bbl/MMscf. From a reservoir pressure
of 4,000 psi and a reservoir temperature of 240 F, the program
computed a critical gas rate of 4.18 MMscfd for this well.
The result box provided at the bottom of Fig. 3 shows that
the current well production rate (1 MMscfd) is lower than the
critical gas flow rate, and therefore the well is loading up with
liquids. An intervention box thereby appeared to suggest a reduction in the tubing size to overcome the slug flow. At the
current well flowing conductions and based on the inflow performance curve that the program automatically computes, the
BHP is also low. Therefore, the only possible solution for getting the well to produce above the critical gas flow rate is to
reduce the tubing size, which is also aligned with the velocity
string concept that reduces the flow area of a well by inserting
an external string in the wellbore.
After clicking the show intervention button marked in
green, Fig. 3, a plot of Qcrit vs. tubing internal diameter
appeared, Fig. 4.
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
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Fig. 4. Critical gas flow rate vs. tubing internal diameter plot for Well-1.
Fig. 6. Critical gas flow rate vs. tubing internal diameter plot for Well-2.
The iterative software application in this example has computed the following:
EXAMPLE WELL-2
The input variables in Fig. 5 show that, for the given reservoir
properties, the Qcrit for Well-2 is 5.75 MMscfd. This well was
currently producing at 10 MMscfd, which is above the critical
gas rate, so no intervention was required.
It is also worth noting that plots of Qcrit vs. tubing internal
diameter and FBHP, Fig. 6, were still generated so users can
better understand how these critical rates change throughout
the life of the well as reservoir pressure depletes. Also, in case a
tubing replacement is required for this well due to corrosion or
damage, an assessment of the effect of the new tubing size on
the production rate can be quickly performed.
The critical gas rate for Well-2 is higher than that for Well1. That is because certain factors, such as tubing diameter and
BHP, have a significant impact on the Vcrit calculation compared to gas gravity, interfacial tension and bottom-hole temperature. Well-2 has a much higher BHP than Well-1, resulting
in higher gas density and a higher Vcrit. The Qcrit vs. the FBHP
plot is provided in Fig. 7.
Example Sensitivity Runs
Fig. 11. Declining gas rate with higher CGR and lower reservoir pressure.
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CONCLUSION
Liquid loading is a complex phenomenon, and accurately modeling the process is very difficult due to the various flow regimes and
the dynamics of fluid flow and its interaction among reservoir,
wellbore and surface hydraulics. Most models are based on
steady-state flow solutions and therefore cannot necessarily
capture the full process that occurs throughout the life of a well.
Liquid loading is currently one of the major challenges
faced in high CGR fields, and several wells have been shut-in
due to the inability to unload fluids accumulated in their wellbores. If the Qcrit is calculated and predicted earlier, then steps
can be taken to maintain the well rate above the Qcrit to avoid
liquid loading. The software application developed in this
study detects the loading process and automatically generates a
solution so that well intervention can be planned in advance.
This application was initially developed and coded in visual
BASIC and was then transferred into an easier and more userfriendly interface to better conduct the runs and sensitivity
analysis. Several wells have been analyzed using this model,
which has greatly helped in improving good reservoir management practices.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management
for the permission to present and publish this article.
This article was presented at the SPE Kuwait International
Petroleum Conference and Exhibition, Kuwait City, December
10-12, 2012.
REFERENCES
1. Hearn, W.: Gas Well Deliquification Application
Overview, SPE paper 138672, presented at the
44
BIOGRAPHIES
Hamza Al-Jamaan is a Petroleum
Engineer with the Gas Reservoir
Management Department at Saudi
Aramco. His interests include general
reservoir engineering, field
development and production
optimization. Currently, Hamza is
pursuing his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Petroleum
Engineering at Stanford University, Stanford, CA. His
current research involves the characterization and
petrophysics of shale gas.
He received a dual B.S. degree with honors in Petroleum
Engineering and Economics from the University of Texas at
Austin, Austin, TX.
Dr. Zillur Rahim is a Petroleum
Engineering Consultant with Saudi
Aramcos Gas Reservoir Management
Department (GRMD). He heads the
team responsible for stimulation
design, application and assessment for
GRMD. Rahims expertise includes
well stimulation, pressure transient test analysis, gas field
development, planning, production enhancement, and
reservoir management. Prior to joining Saudi Aramco, he
worked as a Senior Reservoir Engineer with Holditch &
Associates, Inc., and later with Schlumberger Reservoir
Technologies in College Station, TX, where he used to
consult on reservoir engineering, well stimulation, reservoir
simulation, and tight gas qualification for national and
international companies. Rahim is an Instructor of
petroleum engineering industry courses and has trained
engineers from the U.S. and overseas. He developed
analytical and numerical models to history match and
forecast production and pressure behavior in gas reservoirs.
Rahim developed 3D hydraulic fracture propagation and
proppant transport simulators and numerical models to
compute acid reaction, penetration, and fracture
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ABSTRACT
A pyrosequencing survey of planktonic seawater and sessile
pipeline solids samples from a seawater injection system in
Saudi Arabia indicates the presence of distinct microbial communities. The pipeline surface had a microbial community
consisting of the anaerobic heterotrophs Roseovarius, Ruegeria, Colwellia, Lutibacter and Psychrobacter, which ferment
refractory organic carbon to intermediates (e.g., lactate and
H2) and are then used by sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) of the
genus Desulfovibrio to reduce sulfate to sulfide. All of these
microbes were present in a much smaller fraction in the seawater, e.g., Desulfovibrio was present in a 100-fold smaller fraction in the planktonic seawater population than in the pipeline
solids. The presence of sulfur in the pipeline solids, as determined by X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), and of high numbers of cultivatable SRB (108/g) also indicated the potential for
significant microbially influenced corrosion (MIC) risk, biofouling and water quality deterioration. The data suggests that
measures to control SRB should be continued and possibly
adjusted to decrease the risk of operational problems caused
by SRB growth and activity.
INTRODUCTION
In water injection, or waterflooding, either aquifer water or
deoxygenated and filtered seawater is injected at strategic
points along the periphery of the oil reservoir, displacing the
oil and pushing it towards oil supply wells in the center of
the formation. The technique increases crude oil recovery
substantially and allows for greater returns from the field.
Nonpotable water from underground aquifers located
above the oil reservoirs is usually used in injection programs to
maintain reservoir pressure. Oil companies also have converted
some of their water injection facilities to use treated seawater
in waterflooding to conserve the aquifers for future use.
The seawater injection system studied uses water from a
seawater treatment plant in Saudi Arabia that treats millions of
gallons of seawater per day from the Gulf region and ships it
over very long distances (hundreds of kilometers) through
massive transfer lines. Given the size and complexity of the
injection system and the high salinity of the water it uses
46
(~55,000 mg/l); microbial content present throughout the system differs from one location to another due to exploitation of
the biocide batch treatment further downstream of the system.
Moreover, produced water re-injection may enrich microbial
content and may allow different microbial species to live on
the higher concentration of organics in some parts of the system.
The waterflooding system in Saudi Arabia was subjected to
a microbial community structure review. Conventional microbial investigations were conducted to assess the microbial activity in the system. The progress in molecular biology and
DNA sequencing technologies has opened endless possibilities
to analyze microbial communities and identify the types of microorganisms responsible for relevant microbial activities, such
as souring and corrosion. Pyrosequencing, a massive parallel
DNA sequencing technology, was used here to characterize the
community composition of the seawater injection system.
Sample
Description
PCR Product
(ng/ml)
Sample #1
Injection well
45.8
Sample #2
Water 2
51
Sample #3
Water 3
41.9
Sample #4
Water 4
25.7
Sample #5
Scraping solids-1
48.9
Sample #6
Scraping solids-2
48.8
The cell pellets stored at -70 C were taken out and thawed to
room temperature. The cell pellets were re-suspended in 280 l
of 0.15 M NaCl and 0.1 M ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid
(pH 8). Genomic DNA was isolated using a procedure outlined
in Marmur1. In brief, the cell pellets were treated with
lysozyme (to weaken the bacterial cell wall), followed by treatment with 25% sodium dodecyl sulfate and then with three
rounds of freeze-thaw cycles (-70 C to 68 C).
Treatment with DNase-free RNase and recombinant Proteinase K (Roche Diagnostics, GmbH) was done to remove
RNA and protein contaminants, respectively. DNA was further
purified by precipitation with a DNA precipitation mix
(sodium acetate + ethanol) and by washing with 70% ethanol.
DNA was re-suspended in buffer EB (10 mM Tris-Cl, pH 8.5;
Qiagen QIAquick kit).
Community Structure Analysis by Pyrosequencing
PCR products (typically 20 l of 5 ng/l) were sent for pyrosequencing analyses. Pyrosequencing was performed with a
Genome Sequencer FLX instrument, using a GSFLX Titanium
Series kit XLR70 (Roche Diagnostics Corporation).
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Fig. 3. ESEM image at 1-2 and the corresponding EDS X-ray spot analysis
spectrum.
The pyrosequencing data were analyzed by Phoenix-2, a bioinformatics pipeline developed in-house2. Sequence reads were
subjected to stringent systematic checks to remove low quality
reads and minimize sequencing errors that can be introduced
during the pyrosequencing process3. Eliminated sequences included those that: (1) did not perfectly match the adaptor and
primer sequences, (2) had ambiguous bases, (3) had an atypical length of 1 SD away from mean length after removing
adaptor and primer sequences, (4) had an average quality
score below 25, and (5) contained homopolymer lengths
greater than 8 bp.
The remaining high quality sequences were compared
against the nonredundant SSU reference data set of SILVA1024
using the Tera-BLAST algorithm on a TimeLogic decypher system from Active Motif, Inc., consisting of 12 boards. The
Tera-BLAST results were used to screen for problematic,
chimerical and eukaryotic sequences. Sequences having a best
alignment covering less than 70% or having a best BLAST
search hit an e-value greater than e-50 were excluded as problematic sequences.
Putative chimeras were identified by using a two-stage
approach. The sequences having a best alignment covering less
than 90% of the trimmed read length, with greater than 90%
sequence identity to the best BLAST match, were identified as
potential chimeras. The potential chimeras were excluded from
further analysis if they were also identified as chimeras at minimum 80% bootstrap support in chimera.slayer implemented in
48
24,485
14,156
10,329
SA-1 to SA-6
SA-1 to SA-4
SA-5 to SA-6
Sample Type
All
Seawater
Srapings
Ratio
Average Reads
(%)
A1 (%)
A2 (%)
A2/A1
Betaproteobacteria Delftia
39.58
53.50
11.72
0.22
Alphaproteobacteria Sphingomonas
16.24
22.05
4.62
0.21
Class Genus
Gammaproteobacteria Pseudomonas
6.28
0.24
18.95
78.48
Gammaproteobacteria Pseudoalteromonas
4.89
7.33
0.02
0.00
Gammaproteobacteria Sedimenticola
2.56
0.18
7.32
39.78
Betaproteobacteria Polaromonas
2.50
3.75
0.00
0.00
Gammaproteobacteria Colwellia
2.47
0.15
7.11
47.40
Deltaproteobacteria Desulfovibrio
2.37
0.07
6.98
98.70
Betaproteobacteria Petrobacter
2.17
0.05
6.43
142.96
Flavobacteria Lutibacter
1.20
0.24
3.13
13.04
Gammaproteobacteria Thiomicrospira
1.15
0.19
3.07
16.57
Gammaproteobacteria Acinetobacter
1.03
0.93
1.25
1.35
Alphaproteobacteria Roseovarius
0.99
0.03
2.91
90.28
Deltaproteobacteria Desulfurivibrio
0.81
1.08
0.26
0.24
Alphaproteobacteria Bradyrhizobium
0.71
1.00
0.14
0.13
Actinobacteria Microbacterium
0.69
0.91
0.24
0.26
Gammaproteobacteria Psychrobacter
0.64
0.23
1.46
6.34
Betaproteobacteria Achromobacter
0.60
0.02
1.77
92.05
Betaproteobacteria Hylemonella
0.59
0.88
0.00
0.00
Alphaproteobacteria Ruegeria
0.57
0.18
1.33
7.35
Table 2. Genus level survey of 16S sequences in samples of seawater and scrapings listed in Table 1. The number of pyrosequencing reads (n) and the average fraction
(%) of these for each genus are indicated for the 20 most prevalent genera. The list is ranked in order of most to least prevalent genus (average for all samples).
Averages for seawater (A1) and scrapings (A2) samples are also provided, as well as the ratio R=A2/A1, which indicates prevalence in pipeline scrapings
The data obtained allowed comparison of the planktonic community (Table 2, A1, the average for seawater samples 1 to 4)
and the sessile community present on the pipeline wall (Table 2,
A2, the average for scrapings samples 5 and 6). The ratio
R=A2/A1 was calculated for each entry in Table 2 and indicated
the tendency of a given microbe to attach to the pipeline wall.
The sessile community was dominated (in order of decreasing R) by Petrobacter, Desulfovibrio, Achromobacter, Roseovarius, Colwellia, Sedimenticola, Thiomicrospira, Lutibacter,
Ruegeria and Psychrobacter. Of these, Petrobacter and Achromobacter are potentially anaerobic heterotrophic bacteria, capable of degrading organic carbon in seawater. Roseovarius
and the related Ruegeria, Colwellia, Lutibacter and Psychrobacter are commonly isolated from seawater, with
Colwellia being capable of Fe-III reduction.
Collectively, these bacteria may form a biofilm on the
pipeline wall, anaerobically degrading organic carbon in seawater. Degradation products (e.g., lactate or H2) are then used
CONCLUSIONS
Planktonic seawater and sessile pipeline solids samples (Samples 1 to 4 and Samples 5 and 6, respectively) from the seawater injection system in Saudi Arabia harbor a diverse microbial
community, which shows very significant differences, Table 2.
The pipeline surface has a microbial community with a 100fold higher fraction of SRB of the genus Desulfovibrio, which
may contribute to microbially influenced corrosion and biofouling. Therefore, treatment to limit pipeline damage, as currently being undertaken, must continue or must be adjusted to
prevent further proliferation of SRB.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by an NSERC Industrial Research
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
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REFERENCES
1. Marmur, J.: A Procedure for the Isolation of
Deoxyribonucleic Acid from Microorganisms, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Vol. 3, No. 2, April 1961, pp. 208-218.
2. Park, H.S., Chatterjee, I., Dong, X., Wang, S.H., Sensen,
C.W., Caffrey, S.M., et al.: Effect of Sodium Bisulfite
Injection on the Microbial Community Composition in a
Brackish Water Transporting Pipeline, Applied and
Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 77, No. 19, October 1,
2011, pp. 6,908-6917.
3. Huse, S.M., Huber, J.A., Morrison, H.G., Sogin, M.L. and
Welch, D.M.: Accuracy and Quality of Massively Parallel
DNA Pyrosequencing, Genome Biology, Vol. 8, No. 7,
July 20, 2007.
4. Pruesse, E., Quast, C., Knittel, K., Fuchs, B.M., Ludwig,
W., Peplies, J., et al.: SILVA: A Comprehensive Online
Resource for Quality Checked and Aligned Ribosomal
RNA Sequence Data Compatible with ARB, Nucleic
Acids Research, Vol. 35, No. 21, October 17, 2007, pp.
7,188-7,196.
5. Schloss, P.D., Westcott, S.L., Thomas, R., Hall, J.R.,
Hartmann, M., Hollister, E.B., et al.: Introducing Mothur:
Open Source, Platform Independent, Community
Supported Software for Describing and Comparing
Microbial Communities, Applied Environmental
Microbiology, Vol. 75, No. 23, October 2, 2009, pp.
7,537-7,541.
6. Shigematsu, T., Yumihara, K., Ueda, Y., Numaguchi, M.,
Morimura, S. and Kida, K.: Delftiatsuruhatensis sp. nov.,
a Terephthalate-assimilating Bacterium Isolated from
Activated Sludge, International Journal of Systematic
Evolutionary Microbiology, Vol. 53, September 2003, pp.
1,479-1483.
7. Jrgensen, N.O.G., Brandt, K.K., Nybroe, O. and Hansen,
M.: Delftialacustris sp. nov., a Peptidoglycan-degrading
Bacterium from Fresh Water, and Emended Description of
Delftiatsuruhatensis as a Peptidoglycan-degrading
Bacterium, International Journal of Systematic
Evolutionary Microbiology, Vol. 59, 2009, pp. 2,1952,199.
50
BIOGRAPHIES
Mohammed A. Al-Moniee joined
Saudi Aramcos Petroleum
Microbiology Unit of the Research &
Development Center (R&DC) in 1998.
He is currently working as a Senior
Lab Scientist with the Material
Performance Group of the Technical
Services Division, R&DC. In June 2005, Mohammed
undertook an internship program with the Biotechnology
Department at the Institute Francias du Petrol (IFP),
France, working on bio-denitrogenation of diesel oil. He
has over 15 years of professional and field experience in
the areas of microbial corrosion, bactericides and microbial
sensing, biofouling and bioprocessing for oil upgrading.
Mohammed has handled various projects covering Saudi
Aramcos oil fields. In particular, he has worked on
bacterial monitoring and control in the seawater injection
system and oil pipeline system.
In 1997, Mohammed received his B.S. degree in
Chemistry from the University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, and
in 2012, he received his M.S. degree in Project
Management (Oil and Gas Specialty) from the University of
Liverpool, Liverpool, U.K.
Mohammed has authored or coauthored numerous
journal and international conference publications in his
areas of expertise. He is an active member of the American
Chemical Society (ACS) and the Saudi Arabian
International Chemical Science Chapter of ACS.
Dr. Indranil Chatterjee is the Senior
Research Microbiologist at the Pune
Technology Center, India, for the Oil
Field Chemical Division of Nalco (An
Ecolab Company). He acquired
experience in various microbiological
and molecular techniques in addition
to projects dealing with global genomic analysis
(transcriptomics and proteomics). In addition, Indranil was
also involved in pharmaceutical industrial projects with
Bayer Vital, GmbH and Wyeth Pharma, GmbH.
Following his 6 years of research experience with
Medical Microbiology, he joined the Petroleum Microbiology Research Group (PMGR) at the University of
Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Here, Indranil was
assigned to a project funded by Genome Canada/Genome
Alberta, working as a senior postdoctoral fellow. During
this time, he was responsible for conducting research into
the composition of microbial communities within varied
hydrocarbon resource environments using modern
metagenomic tools and evaluating biotechnologies to
improve oil production. Indranil was involved in several
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ABSTRACT
Increases in water production can significantly reduce well
performance and the life of a well, leading to decreased oil
production. To mitigate this situation, water management is
crucial. Water influx can occur through several mechanisms
and approach from several directions. Accurate diagnostic information is important for the design of successful shut-offs
and effective results. One option is to isolate the water producing zone with a rigless water shut-off (WSO) technique, which
is less costly than the use of workover rigs for interventions.
This article presents case histories of five horizontal wells
drilled in carbonate formations and producing excess water;
three were completed in open hole and two were cased. A multiphase production logging (MPL) tool, equipped with five
miniaturized spinners for phase velocity measurement, and six
electrical and six optical probes for holdup data, provided important diagnostic data for the decision making on remedial
actions. Using the tool data, the operator pinpointed the water
entries and performed shut-off operations based on the source
of the entries and water flow profiles. Subsequent production
test results showed that the water cut was reduced in all the
wells. Examples from open and cased hole completions are
shown, utilizing a number of different shut-off techniques. In
addition, oil production was considerably increased in many of
the wells. These results demonstrate that accurate diagnostic
information and an integrated approach are keys to successful
rigless WSOs.
INTRODUCTION
Most horizontal wells are drilled to improve oil production
and to minimize water production. In addition, the drilling of
horizontal sidetracks is increasing to further maximize oil recovery. The monitoring and management of these wells are
challenging operations because their completions and interventions are complex, and it is difficult to obtain accurate diagnostics in the complex flow regimes occurring in their
undulating deviations. It has been shown1, 2 that the use of an
integrated compact production logging tool with multiple
mini-spinners can provide accurate information on water
entries and flow profiles.
52
FIELD EXAMPLES
Logging Results: Figure 2 shows the results, with the well
All the wells presented in this article were drilled in the Jurassic formation of a giant oil field. The formation is thick and
has high permeability. The formation is divided from top to
bottom into lithostratigraphic zones 1 to 4; zones 2 and 3 are
divided into subzones A and B. The best reservoir quality is in
zone 2, described as having been formed in a high energy, shallow marine environment. The oil is of relatively light quality,
and the formation water has a very high salinity, above 200K
ppm total dissolved solids. The field has been under peripheral
water injection for a long time to maintain pressure and improve production. The multiphase production logging (MPL)
tool, Fig. 1, was run in all these examples to determine the
Fig. 2. Results from integration of production log and open hole formation
evaluation data in Well-A.
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sketch/perforated interval, flow profile and open hole data displayed in tracks 2, 6 and 9, respectively. The MPL data analysis showed that all of the water production was identified as
coming from the second perforation (perfo-2) and the fourth
perforation (perfo-4), and most of the produced oil was identified as coming from the first perforation (perfo-1), as shown in
track 6, Fig. 2. Perforations 2 and 4 were in communication
(indicated by downward water cross flow) during shut-in, as
shown in track 8, Fig. 2. It was also observed that perforations
3, 5, 6 and 7 were not contributing to oil production.
Shut-off Job: The MPL data showed that all of the water production was identified from below X600, and the open hole
log data showed that there are tight intervals above X600.
Therefore, a WSO job was performed by setting an inflatable
packer at X560 using CT, as illustrated in track 10, Fig. 2.
Consequently, the producing perforated interval after the WSO
job is now distinctly above the tight zones at X560.
Fig. 4. Results from integration of production log and open hole formation
evaluation data in Well-B.
54
Fig. 6. Results from integration of production log and open hole formation
evaluation data in Well-C.
Fig. 8. Results from integration of production log and open hole formation
evaluation data in Well-D.
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First run in 2005: The job was done with a 2 CT, with
61% coverage over the objective interval, in both shutin and flowing conditions.
Second run in 2007: The job was done with 2 CT,
with 89% coverage over the objective interval, only in
shut-in condition because of operational issues.
Third run in 2008: The job was done with 2 CT,
with 99% coverage over the objective interval, to avoid
the tools damage. The relevant intervals were covered,
enabling appropriate production and reservoir management decisions. The well was logged under shut-in
and natural flowing conditions.
Logging Results: Figure 8 shows the results of all three MPL
jobs, with the well sketch, flow profile from 2005, shut-in
profile from 2007, flow profile from 2008, shut-in profile from
2008 and open hole data displayed in tracks 2, 5, 7, 9, 10 and
11, respectively.
The logging result summary of each job is as follows:
First run in 2005: The MPL showed no water, which
were also in agreement with the test results. The MPL
data showed major oil entry (82% of total oil) at
intervals between X250 and X330 (track 5, Fig. 8). This
was attributed to the presence of conductive fractures
over this interval. No cross flow was observed during
the shut-in and flowing surveys.
Second run in 2007: The MPL showed a strong
downward oil cross flow during the shut-in survey (no
flowing survey was done). It was discovered that the zones
with conductive fractures (between X250 and X330)
were responsible for this cross flow (track 7, Fig. 8).
Third run in 2008: The MPL showed a strong
downward oil and water cross flow during both shut-in
and flowing surveys. During the flowing survey, the
shallower fracture at X260 was bringing all the water to
the wellbore, as shown in track 9, Fig. 8. During the
shut-in survey, it was also discovered that the zones
with conductive fractures (between X250 and X330)
were responsible for this cross flow (track 10, Fig. 8).
Shut-off Job: From the latest 2008 MPL data, the water
56
Fig. 10. Results from integration of production log and open hole formation
evaluation data in Well-E.
CONCLUSIONS
Integration of MPL results, open hole data and other static and
dynamic data is essential for a successful shut-off job (and other
production and reservoir management decisions). The presented
results demonstrate that successful WSO is achievable in horizontals wells, even though there is a potential for water coning
due to the homogeneous character and high permeability of
the reservoirs. It was also observed that reservoir barriers/low
permeability intervals above the shut-off interval play an important role in preventing water coning after the WSO job.
These field examples showed that increased water production can significantly reduce oil production and impair well
performance. In one example, water production had caused
the horizontal well to become a dead well. As demonstrated in
that example, the execution of a successful WSO job can revive
such a well and make it flow naturally at a high rate and at
low water cut.
Accurate production logging diagnostic input and a methodical shut-off design can lead to significant improvement in
well performance and increased well life. Although the rigless
shut-off technique is generally desired because it is a fast and
cost-effective intervention, the shut-off solution may require
more expensive options, such as using a workover rig to install
equalizer strings and ICDs and/or to sidetrack the well. The
success of WSO depends on accurate problem diagnostics,
careful job design and excellence in execution.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following guidelines and recommendations will improve
the potential for WSO success:
1. Production logging data should be recent when planning the
shut-off design and execution, as the reservoir dynamics can
rapidly change, especially in mature fields.
2. Ensure there is a prominent reservoir barrier/low permeability zone above the shut-off interval, as shown by open hole
log and/or image data.
3. Numerical simulation within an integrated petroleum engineering study will help assess more quantitatively the effectiveness of the shut-off job and the added value (cost, rate,
etc.).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management
and Schlumberger for their permission to present and publish
this article and to thank Mohammad M. Al-Mulhim for providing relevant data.
This article was presented at the Abu Dhabi International
Petroleum Exhibition and Conference (ADIPEC), Abu Dhabi,
U.A.E., November 11-14, 2012.
REFERENCES
1. Baldauff, J., Runge, T., Cadenhead, J., Faur, M.,
Marcus, R., Mas, C., et al.: Profiling and Quantifying
Complex Multiphase Flow, Oilfield Review, Vol. 16,
No. 3, October 1, 2004, pp. 4-13.
2. Al-Muthana, A.S., Ma, S.M., Zeybek, M. and Malik, S.:
Comprehensive Reservoir Characterization with
Multiphase Production Logging, SPE paper 120813,
presented at the SPE Saudi Arabia Section Technical
Symposium, al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, May 10-12, 2008.
3. Nawawi, A., Bawazir, M., Zeybek, M. and Malik, S.:
Pinpointing Water Entries in Dead Horizontal Wells,
IPTC paper 15375, presented at the International
Petroleum Technology Conference, Bangkok, Thailand,
February 7-9, 2012.
4. Al-Behair, A., Malik, S., Zeybek, M., Al-Hajari, A. and
Lyngra, S.: Real Time Diagnostics of Gas Entries and
Remedial Shut-off in Barefoot Horizontal Wells, IPTC
paper 11745, presented at the International Petroleum
Technology Conference, Dubai, U.A.E., December 4-6,
2007.
5. Bailey, B., Crabtree, M., Tyrie, J., Kuchuk, F., Romano, C.,
Roodhart, L.; Water Control, Oilfield Review, Vol. 12,
No. 1, 2000, pp. 30-51.
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BIOGRAPHIES
Nawawi A. Ahmad is a Petroleum
Engineer Specialist and is currently the
Lead Engineer for day-to-day
evaluation of production logs for all
fields in Saudi Aramco. He started his
oil field career in 1989 with Shell in
Southeast Asia as a Well Site
Petroleum Engineer, Operational Petrophysicist and Field
Study Petrophysicist in new and mature oil and gas fields.
Nawawi then worked as a Senior Petrophysicist and field
study leader for Petroleum development Oman in the
Middle East. His last position before joining Saudi Aramco
was as a division head of one of the petrophysic units in a
Shell operating company in Southeast Asia.
Nawawi received his B.Eng. degree in Mining and
Petroleum Engineering from Strathclyde University,
Glasgow, U.K., in 1989 and an M.B.A. from Brunei
University, Brunei, in 2005.
He has been a member of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers (SPE) since 1989.
Hussain S. Al-Shabibi joined
Schlumberger Oilfield Services in 2006
as a Borehole Production Engineer in
the Petro-Technical Services (PTS)
segment. He has 6 years of experience
in job planning, real-time monitoring
and post-acquisition data processing
and interpretation related to production logging in vertical
and horizontal wells. Hussain also assists the company in
the marketing and support of integrated solutions.
In 2006, he received his B.S. degree in Petroleum
Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Hussain has been a member of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers (SPE) since 2003.
58
ABSTRACT
A Jurassic oil field in Saudi Arabia is characterized by black oil
in the crest with mobile heavy oil underneath, all of it underlain by a tar mat at the oil-water contact (OWC). The viscosities in the black oil section of the column are fairly similar and
are quite manageable from a production standpoint. In contrast, the mobile heavy oil section of the column contains a
large continuous increase in asphaltene content with increasing
depth, extending to the tar mat. The tar shows very high asphaltene content, but it is no longer monotonically increasing
with depth. Because viscosity depends exponentially on asphaltene content in these oils, the observed viscosity varies from
several to ~1,000 centipoise (cP) in the mobile heavy oil and
increases to far greater viscosities in the tar mat. Both the excessive viscosity of the heavy oil and the existence of the tar
mat present major, distinct challenges in oil production. Conventional pressure-volume-temperature modeling of this oil
column grossly fails to account for these observations. Indeed,
the very large height of this oil column poses a stringent challenge for any corresponding fluid model. A simple new formalism used to characterize the asphaltene nanoscience in crude
oils, the Yen-Mullins model, has enabled development of the
industrys first predictive equation of state (EoS) for asphaltene
gradients: the Flory-Huggins-Zuo (FHZ) EoS. For a low gasoil ratio (GOR) such as those in this field, the FHZ EoS reduces to the simple gravity term. Robust application of the
FHZ EoS, employing the Yen-Mullins model, accounts for the
major property variations in the oil column and by extension,
the tar mat as well. Moreover, as these crude oils are largely
equilibrated throughout the field, reservoir connectivity is indicated in this field. This novel asphaltene science is dramatically
improving the understanding of important constraints on oil
production.
INTRODUCTION
Huge viscosity gradients in oil columns have an enormous
impact on production. Oil flow rate depends inversely on
viscosity. Water sweep efficiency is greatly reduced when the
viscosity ratio between oil and water exceeds ~5 centipoise
(cP), causing water fingering instead of sweep. Tar mats at the
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ASPHALTENE NANOSCIENCE
60
(1)
where OD(hi) is the optical density or oil color (typically
measured by downhole fluid analysis) at height hi in the oil
column, f a(hi) is the asphaltene concentration at height hi, va
is the molar volume of the asphaltene species of interest (either
molecule, nanoaggregate or cluster, cf. Fig. 1), v is the molar
volume of the crude oil, g is the earths gravitational acceleration, is the density contrast between the asphaltene and the
liquid crude oil, a is the solubility parameter of the asphaltene, is the solubility parameter of the crude oil, k is Boltzmanns constant, and T is temperature. The color of the crude
oil scales linearly with asphaltene content, as has been shown
in numerous case studies.
The first term in the argument of the exponential is the
gravity term. For low GOR black oils and heavy oils, the gravity term dominates. This gravity term contains Archimedes
buoyancy, which has had two millennia of validation, va g.
The asphaltenes are negatively buoyant (more dense) than the
liquid crude oil. Newtons force (F=ma) is mass times acceleration. With Archimedes buoyancy, it is not the total mass of the
asphaltene species that matters but rather the effective buoyant
mass, va (volume times density = mass). This buoyant mass
is multiplied by g to obtain the gravitational force on the asphaltene particle. Of course, with larger asphaltene species
(with larger volume va), the force is greater. In effect, the energy required to lift an asphaltene particle off the base of the
oil column to some height, h, equals the gravitational force,
va g, multiplied by h.
If gravity were the only determinant for the asphaltene distribution, then all asphaltenes would be at the base of the oil
column; however, as Boltzmann showed over 100 years ago,
available thermal energy can lift particles to higher energy
states. In a gravitational field, this amounts to thermal energy
lifting particles off the floor to some higher height. The Boltzmann distribution describes the population distribution of
ground (E=0) and excited (E) states in the very simple form:
exp{-E/kT}. This applies to all systems. Most importantly, the
Boltzmann distribution represents an equilibrated state.
Having particles in an excited state is not a transient condition;
it is an equilibrium condition that will not change with time.
One system that clearly shows the Boltzmann distribution is
the earths atmosphere. If gravity were the only determinant
for the distribution of air molecules, then all air molecules
Fig. 2. Calculated atmospheric pressure from the equation exp{-mgh/kT} using the
weighted average of the molecular mass of air molecules (and 298 Kelvin) closely
matches observations. The prediction for Mount Everest is slightly high because of
the assumption of constant room temperature. Virtually the same equation applies
to mobile heavy oil gradients, substituting the negative buoyancy of asphaltene
particles for mass2.
Fig. 3. The asphaltene gradient from the gravity term alone for the three
asphaltene species in the Yen-Mullins model from Fig. 1. The large clusters (5.0
nm) show a rapid decline of % asphaltene with height, while the intermediate
nanoaggregates (2.0 nm) and the small molecules (1.5 nm) show a very gradual
decline. For low GOR crude oils, the gravity term tends to dominate the
asphaltene gradient, while for large GOR crude oils, the solubility term in the
FHZ EoS can dominate the asphaltene gradient (cf. Eq. 1).
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oils, the gravity term dominates. For crude oils with high solution gas (>700 scf/bbl), there is a significant solution gas variation, and the solubility parameter then becomes dominant,
creating the asphaltene gradient. The GOR variation is largely
traceable to compressibility. Crude oils with high solution gas
are compressible. As the hydrostatic head pressure of the oil
column increases density at the base of the column, the light
components get squeezed out of the base, creating a solution
gas variation. Crude oils with low solution gas are incompressible. For these oils, the hydrostatic head pressure does not increase the oil density at the base of the column; therefore, there
is no density gradient to drive a compositional gradient.
Fig. 4. A local section of a large anticline with fluid data from three wells. Top:
The asphaltene content vs. height agrees exactly with a simple equilibrium model
with only one tightly constrained parameter, the size of the asphaltene cluster, here
determined to be 5.2 nm, closely matching the nominal 5.0 nm cluster size in Fig.
1. Bottom: The viscosity matches a simple Pal-Rhodes model, showing that
viscosity is largely exponentially dependent on asphaltene content.
Fig. 5. Data from eight wells shows that the mobile heavy oil column around the
entire circumference of the field matches the simple gravity term of the FHZ EoS
with one tightly constrained parameter, the asphaltene cluster size (here 5.2 nm vs.
the nominal 5.0 nm in Fig. 1). Moreover, the large height of the column yields a
factor-of-6 variation of asphaltene content. This field represents an extreme test of
our simple model for mobile heavy oil and represents the best data set there is
(to the knowledge of the authors) to test thermodynamic modeling of mobile
heavy oil.
FHZ EoS. This indicates that this reservoir is in flow communication that is, it is a connected reservoir13. Gross differences in asphaltene concentration in crude oil vs. height at
different reservoir locations could trigger convection, which
would then rapidly smooth out these differences. In addition, it
Fig. 6. For the mobile heavy oils plotted in Fig. 5, the primary variation is the
asphaltene content. The variation of the other SARA fractions is a factor of 5 to
10 smaller. This data shows consistency with the finding of a simple gravitational
equilibration of asphaltene clusters through the height and circumference of the
field.
Fig. 7. Live black oil centrifugation shows a similar result to that found in Fig.
614. A giant asphaltene gradient (10x) was formed by centrifuging a live black oil
with moderate GOR so both the gravity term and the solubility term contribute to
the asphaltene gradient. Due to the lower asphaltene fraction in this black oil, the
asphaltenes are present as nanoaggregates.
At the base of the mobile heavy oil section, Fig. 5 indicates that
a tar mat was found. Several wells were drilled to intersect this
tar mat for characterization. The organics were extracted from
core sections at different depths in the tar mat and characterized
in terms of SARA fractions. Figure 8 shows an example of the
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asphaltene content in the extracted tar vs. depth for two separate wells at the same depth scale.
Figure 8 also shows that there is a nearly random variation
of tar with height in each of the two tar wells. The asphaltenes are not equilibrated vs. height, even in a single well,
which is a huge contrast to the heavy oil sections where the asphaltene content is (or appears to be) largely equilibrated over
the circumference of the mobile heavy oil flank. Figure 8 also
shows that there is no correlation of asphaltene concentration
laterally for these two wells. The asphaltene content shows
large increases and decreases over very short vertical distances.
The mobile heavy oil section was shown to be characterized
by a simple gravitational accumulation and equilibration of asphaltene vs. depth. Figure 8, on the other hand, shows that the
asphaltene content of the tar is not even monotonic with depth
and does not even approximate any equilibration. It is important to check whether the tar is simply an accumulation of asphaltene in oil or whether other SARA fractions show large
variations in the tar as well.
According to Fig. 8, there is a huge variation of asphaltene
content in the tar. Since the asphaltene content shows large
variations, the other SARA fractions must also show variations; the sum of all SARA fractions must add to 1. Therefore,
it is the ratio of the other SARA fractions that is of interest.
Figure 9 shows the ratios of asphaltenes to paraffins, aromatics to paraffins and resins to paraffins. By far the largest
change is in the asphaltene-to-paraffin ratio. That is, the tar is
primarily an addition of a variable amount of asphaltene to an
oil with fixed ratios of paraffins (or saturates), aromatics and
resins.
Figure 9 also shows that the tar is dominated by changes in
asphaltene content. Indeed, the variation of the asphaltene
content is enormous, in one well changing from ~30% to
65%. This picture is consistent with the origin of tar in this
field as being due to the gravitational accumulation of asphaltene at the base of the oil column, and it is consistent with the
same conclusion drawn for the origin of the mobile heavy oil
column immediately above the tar column. The primary differ-
Fig. 8. Asphaltene content vs. depth for tar wells below the mobile heavy oil
section in two wells (cf. Fig. 5). The asphaltene content does not vary
monotonically, even in a single well. In addition, there is no lateral correlation of
asphaltene content, in contrast to the mobile heavy oil sections. In the tar mat,
there are large increases and decreases of asphaltene within very small intervals of
height.
64
ences between the tar and the mobile heavy oil is that: (1) the
mobile heavy oils have asphaltene content less than ~30% (cf.
Fig. 8), while the tar has asphaltene content greater than
~30%, and (2) the mobile heavy oil is vertically and laterally
equilibrated, while the tar is not equilibrated even over short
vertical distances, let alone large lateral distances. Two factors
play an important role in equilibration: distance and viscosity.
Figure 10 shows the viscosity as a function of asphaltene content in an oil phase of fixed composition15. This viscosity profile
is not that of the oil and tar presented in this article, but nevertheless shows the dependence of viscosity on asphaltene content.
Figure 10 provides a plausible reason why the tar is not
equilibrated, while the mobile heavy oil directly above the tar
is equilibrated. (Equilibrated here means that the asphaltene
content is varying monotonically vs. depth according to Eq. 2.)
By showing that the viscosity is high at 30% asphaltene
content, and that every 5% increase in asphaltene content is
Fig. 9. The SARA fractions are divided by paraffins vs. asphaltene content for
samples from two tar wells (saturates = paraffins). By far the largest variation is
in the asphaltene/paraffin ratio; the aromatic/paraffin ratio and the resin/paraffin
ratio exhibit much smaller changes. Consequently, the tar can largely be described
as having large, variable asphaltene content in an oil of fixed composition.
associated with another huge increase in viscosity, Fig. 10 indicates that the viscosity in sections of the tar mat is extraordinarily high, precluding equilibration.
Plausible Geoscenarios Matching Field Observation
This Jurassic reservoir initially contained black oil. A subsequent charge of a lighter hydrocarbon could have occurred
because, in a normal burial sequence, the kerogen generates
lighter hydrocarbons with longer times and greater temperatures. The lighter hydrocarbon often goes to the top of the
reservoir without good mixing16. This lighter hydrocarbon (it
could even be gas) can diffuse into the oil column, causing
instability of the asphaltene17, 18. If the instability is not too
great, the asphaltenes can migrate great distances in the reservoir, in some cases going to the base of the reservoir. High concentrations of asphaltenes at or near the OWC can therefore
occur. One can imagine separate destabilizing events yielding
pulses of asphaltenes, all snowing down towards the OWC. At
high asphaltene concentrations, the viscosity increases, and if
the viscosity increase is also associated with a permeability restriction in the reservoir, then low viscosity tar can become
trapped or perched below the high viscosity tar. At some
high asphaltene concentrations, there might also be a phase
transition, yielding a phase very rich in asphaltenes that might
block pore throats. This is under investigation. If this occurs, it
represents a second mechanism that can cause lower viscosity
tar to be trapped underneath higher viscosity tar. For asphaltene concentrations below 30%, the viscosity is sufficiently
low that diffusion enables equilibration of the asphaltene in
the mobile heavy oil section.
CONCLUSIONS
Traditional EoS modeling of heavy oils has failed miserably
due to: (1) the previous lack of knowledge about asphaltene
colloidal sizes, and (2) the lack of a proper model to treat colloidal solids in crude oil. The Yen-Mullins model of asphaltene
nanoscience specifies the size of three distinct species of asphaltenes: molecules, nanoaggregates and clusters. This
nanoscience model enables accounting for the effects of gravity, which has been incorporated into the FHZ EoS for asphaltene gradients. Moreover, for mobile heavy oils, only the
gravity term contributes significantly to asphaltene gradients.
In a field in Saudi Arabia, a mobile heavy oil rim has been fit
to the model using a simple exponential equation (the Boltzmann distribution). Moreover, the asphaltene content varies by
a factor of six within this height. The simple Boltzmann distribution of asphaltene clusters accounts for this entire volume of
mobile heavy oil. SARA analysis of the crude oil confirms that
the mobile heavy oil column simply has added asphaltene into
a crude oil of fixed composition. A tar mat below the mobile
heavy oil does not show a monotonic increase of asphaltenes
towards the base. This is linked to the extraordinarily high
viscosities within the tar mat. SARA analysis of the tar establishes that, similar to the mobile heavy oil, there is variable
asphaltene added to a crude oil of fixed composition.
Gravitational accumulation of asphaltenes at the low points of
the reservoir is consistent with all observations. The application
of new asphaltene science to heavy oils is seen to greatly improve
the understanding and prediction of reservoir observations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management
for the permission to present and publish this article.
This article was presented at the Abu Dhabi International
Petroleum Exhibition and Conference (ADIPEC), Abu Dhabi,
U.A.E., November 11-14, 2012.
REFERENCES
1. Mullins, O.C.: The Modified Yen Model, Energy &
Fuels, Vol. 24, No. 4, January 19, 2010, pp. 2,179-2,207.
2. Mullins, O.C., Sabbah, H., Eyssautier, J., Pomerantz, A.E.,
Barr, L., Andrews, A.B., et al.: Advances in Asphaltene
Science and the Yen-Mullins Model, Energy & Fuels, Vol.
26, No. 7, April 18, 2012.
3. Freed, D., Mullins, O.C. and Zuo, J.Y.: Theoretical
Treatment of Asphaltene Gradients in the Presence of GOR
Gradients, Energy & Fuels, Vol. 24, No. 7, June 3, 2010,
pp. 3,942-3,949.
4. Pastor, W., Garcia, G., Zuo, J.Y., Hulme, R., Goddyn, X.
and Mullins, O.C.: Measurement and EoS Modeling of
Large Compositional Gradients in Heavy Oils, SPWLA
paper, presented at the 53rd Annual Logging Symposium,
Cartagena, Colombia, June 16-20, 2012.
5. Betancourt, S.S., Dubost, F.X., Mullins, O.C., Cribbs,
M.E., Creek, J.L. and Mathews, S.G.: Predicting
Downhole Fluid Analysis Logs to Investigate Reservoir
Connectivity, IPTC paper 11488, presented at the
International Petroleum Technology Conference, Dubai,
U.A.E., December 4-6, 2007.
6. Elshahawi, H., Shyamalan, R., Zuo, J.Y., Mullins, O.C.,
Dong, C. and Zhang, D.: Advanced Reservoir Evaluation
Using Downhole Fluid Analysis and Asphaltene FloryHuggins-Zuo Equation of State, paper prepared for the
53rd Annual Logging Symposium, Cartagena, Colombia,
June 16-20, 2012.
7. Mullins, O.C., Sheu, E.Y., Hammami, A. and Marshall,
A.G., eds.: Asphaltenes, Heavy Oils and Petroleomics, New
York: Springer, 2007.
8. Sabbah, H., Morrow, A.L., Pomerantz, A.E. and Zare,
R.N.: Evidence for Island Structures as the Dominant
Architecture of Asphaltenes, Energy & Fuels, Vol. 25,
No. 4, March 8, 2011, pp. 1,597-1,604.
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
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BIOGRAPHIES
Douglas J. Seifert is a Petrophysical
Consultant with Saudi Aramco, where
he works as the Petrophysics
Professional Development Advisor in
the Upstream Professional
Development Center (UPDC). Doug
specializes in real-time petrophysical
applications and fluid analysis. Before joining Saudi
Aramco in 2001, he was the Western Hemisphere Regional
Petrophysicist for Pathfinder Energy Services in Houston,
TX, and the Eastern Hemisphere Regional Petrophysicist in
Stavanger, Norway. Doug also worked as the Senior
Petrophysicist for Mrsk Olie og Gas in Denmark; for
Halliburton Energy Services in various operational,
research and technical support functions; and for Texaco in
their Technical Services and Production Operations.
Doug is the President of the Saudi Petrophysical Society,
the Saudi Arabian Chapter of the Society of Petrophysicists
and Well Log Analysts (SPWLA), and he also serves on the
SPWLA Technology Committee.
He received a B.S. degree in Statistics and a M.S. degree
in Geology, both from the University of Akron, Akron,
OH.
Dr. Oliver C. Mullins is a Science
Advisor to Executive Management in
Schlumberger. He is the primary
originator of downhole fluid analysis
for formation evaluation. For this, he
has won several awards, including the
Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE)
Distinguished Membership Award and the Society of
Petrophysicists and Well Log Analysts (SPWLA)
Distinguished Technical Achievement Award; Oliver also
has been a Distinguished Lecturer four times for the
SPWLA and SPE.
He authored the book The Physics of Reservoir Fluids:
Discovery through Downhole Fluid Analysis, which won
two Awards of Excellence. Oliver has also co-edited three
books and coauthored nine chapters on asphaltenes. He
has coauthored >190 publications and has ~3,100
literature citations. Oliver has co-invented 80 allowed U.S.
patents. He is a fellow of two professional societies and is
Adjunct Professor of Petroleum Engineering at Texas A&M
University. Oliver also leads an active research group in
petroleum science.
Dr. Murat Zeybek is a Schlumberger
Reservoir Engineering Advisor and
Reservoir and Production Domain
Champion for the Middle East area.
He works on analysis/interpretation of
wireline formation testers, pressure
transient analysis, numerical modeling
of fluid flow, water control, production logging and
reservoir monitoring.
He is a technical review committee member for the
Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) journal Reservoir
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ABSTRACT
Cementing is one of the most important and crucial issues in
oil fields, especially for high-pressure and gas bearing formations. It is difficult to achieve a good zonal isolation in such
formation types because pressure is abnormal and formation
fluid contains corrosive fluids and gases. A common problem
associated with highly over-pressurized zones is cross flow
after cementing. Fluid flow from an over-pressured zone to a
low-pressure, high permeability zone can lead to deterioration
of the existing production hardware. Workover operations that
attempt to repair cement voids, including perforation, squeezing and use of casing patches or scab liners, are not recommended as they do not provide long-lasting results.
One onshore field in Saudi Arabia has experienced a persistent problem related to cementing at high-pressure zones. Recently, communication between Formation-A (an abnormally
over-pressurized zone) and Formation-B (a low-pressure zone)
is occurring with increasing frequency due to long-term seawater injection, which has resulted in production interruption in
several wells. This article addresses the problems by investigating field practices that include drilling, cementing and completion. It also reviews the field reports and cased hole logs for
the affected wells. Three-month and six-month studies were
conducted to evaluate the effects of Formation-A water on cement, where the cement was exposed to Formation-A water
under downhole conditions. Tests for mechanical properties,
including permeability, a thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
and tests using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF)
are presented, in addition to discussions of some of the preliminary findings.
INTRODUCTION
Cement channeling is viewed as one of the major completion
issues in the petroleum industry. Several attempts have been
made by cementing companies and individual researchers to
tackle this problem; however, so far there is no reputable improvement. Fluid migration in cement happens in the course of
spotting cement or afterwards. The main cause of gas channeling is believed to be the inability of cement to maintain enough
pressure on the formation before it sets1. Fluid migration
68
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69
the two formations. As an undesirable consequence, Formation-B injectors are feeding Formation-A along with Formation-B. In addition, high injection volumes and velocities have
eroded the Formation-B anhydrite cap rock and established a
communication between the reservoirs. Formation-A pressure
is higher only in the central area. Formation-B pressure at the
flanks is higher than Formation-A pressure due to peripheral
injection. Formation-B pressure declines at the center because
of oil production; however, because Formation-A does not
have any production, Formation-A pressure builds up continuously in the center.
FIELD PRACTICES
A survey was made of the field practices implemented in wells
where the communication problem arose, including drilling,
hole conditioning and cementing. In addition, the cement bond
log (CBL) was reviewed. Two wells were chosen for this study:
Well-A and Well-C. Well-A is a horizontal well, while Well-C is
vertical.
DRILLING
Well-A
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This well was drilled and completed as a Formation-B horizontal open hole producer in mid-2007. In this well, a 8 curved
section (0 to 81) was drilled from two formations above Formation-A all the way down to a 2 ft true vertical depth (TVD)
inside Formation-B with full circulation, Fig. 1. Mud weight
was 64 pounds per cubic foot (PCF) at the start until Formation-A was hit, at which point the well started flowing at 40
barrel per hour (BPH). The well was then shut-in until pressure
stabilized. The stabilized shut-in pressure was 450 psi. The
mud weight was increased to 84 PCF to kill Formation-A. After that, the rest of the hole was drilled to a 2 ft TVD below
the top of Formation-B. The hole was swept with a Hi/Low
Vis pill to effectively clean the well by improving cutting lifting
efficiency. In addition, a wiper trip was performed from the
bottom up to the 9 casing shoe to boost the hole cleaning
efficiency before running the 7 liner.
Well-C
101 PCF
Thickening Time
5 - 5.5 hours
118 PCF
Thickening Time
4 - 5 hours
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72
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Initial Curing
Permeability CC/min
Sample-13
Sample-14
Sample-19
Sample-110
Sample-115
Sample-116
The permeability test is conducted using permeability equipment. It consists of a core holder in which the cement sample is
placed, a fluid cylinder for fluid injection, a beaker to collect
fluid, if any, a pump for injection purposes and a computer to
collect data. The sample is placed in the core holder after being
cleaned and trimmed. Then brine is injected into the cement
sample at 700 psi differential pressure and an injection rate of
2 cc/min. At the end, the amount of water collected is measured, Tables 3 and 4.
Fig. 5. Some cement samples after being exposed to Formation-A water for three
months.
Fig. 7. Some cement samples after being exposed to Formation-A water for six
months.
118 PCF
Thickening Time
4 - 5 hours
In the test conducted to calculate Poissons ratio, Youngs modulus and peak strength, axial stress is applied to a test specimen
until the cement starts to break or fracture. The cement samples
are cut into 3 length x 1.5 outer diameter size using the
trimming machine. Then the sample surfaces are finished or
ground using a surface grinding machine. The degree of
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
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Sample-117
Sample-118
Sample-125
Sample-126
10,944.9
11,548.6
12,656.7
13,093.8
Dynamic E, psi
1.809E+06
1.816E+06
2.005E+06
1.859E+06
Static E
3.084E+06
2.998E+06
2.904E+06
3.142E+06
Dynamic Y, psi
0.260
0.276
0.241
0.268
Static Y, psi
0.242
0.288
0.189
0.172
TGA Test
111
112
129
130
CaO
59.85
60.06
56.96
57.90
SiO2
19.65
19.71
17.58
17.93
Fe2O3
4.80
4.71
4.24
4.32
Al2O3
2.40
2.30
2.20
2.45
SO3
1.88
1.89
2.39
2.38
MgO
1.70
1.68
1.66
1.88
K2O
0.08
0.12
0.15
0.09
TiO2
0.22
0.20
0.20
0.21
Mn2O3
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
SrO
<0.05
<0.05
0.07
0.06
In this test, samples are tested to determine the elemental compositions that make up the cement system. The cement sample
is crushed and milled until it becomes a powder. Then the
powder is mixed with 0.5 grams of a chemical binder. The
mixture is poured into a pellet mold before being pressed at 15
psi by the X-Press machine. The pellet is then placed inside a
spectrometer that consists of a 400 watt X-ray tube, a computer
controlled high voltage generator for the X-ray tube, liquid N2,
a cooled Si(Li) detector, a multichannel analyzer and a computer for data acquisition. The EDXRF analyzes the sample
for elemental composition after entering the weights of the
sample and binder, Table 6.
74
Compounds
Initial Curing
Sample#
Short-term
Water Curing
111
112
Short-term
CO2 Curing
116
115
117
118
Mass loss %
13.06
12.98
Residual
Mass % (1501,000 C)
74.21
73.57
LOL %
(20-150 C)
25.8
26.4
Table 7. TGA results after initial setting, water curing and Formation-A water curing
Initial Curing
Sample-11
Sample-12
Sample-17
Sample-18
Sample-113
Sample-114
8,609.1
10,024.8
11,587.7
12,030.6
11,279.9
12,270.0
Dynamic E, psi
2.949E+06
2.930E+06
2.994E+06
2.933E+06
3.025E+06
3.001E+06
Static E
7.153E+05
2.322E+06
2.177E+06
2.120E+06
1.958E+06
2.400E+06
Dynamic Y, psi
0.282
0.281
0.275
0.276
0.174
0.219
Static Y, psi
0.125
0.125
0.298
0.275
0.290
0.258
Compressive
Strength, psi
Long-term Raw
Water Curing
Sample#
Long-term CO2
Curing
111
112
1,129
130
Mass Loss %
16.32
16.11
15.85
16.77
Residual Mass %
(150-1,000 C)
79.09
79.49
79.59
78.62
LOL % (20-150 C)
20.91
20.51
20.41
21.38
Table 9. TGA results after long-term water curing and Formation-A water curing
Fig. 8. TGA chart after initial curing.
water. The picture will be clearer after the end of the six month
test period.
Long-term Test
SPRING 2013
75
8948 1-5
(Initial Curing)
8948 1-6
(Initial Curing)
CaO
60.12
60.30
SiO2
19.85
19.76
Fe2O3
4.52
4.54
Al2O3
2.68
2.74
SO3
1.89
1.88
MgO
1.87
1.93
K2O
0.43
0.46
TiO2
0.20
0.20
Mn2O3
0.04
0.05
SrO
0.04
0.04
Short-term Water
Curing
CaO
58.89
59.32
60.92
60.88
SiO2
18.08
18.32
19.15
19.10
Fe2O3
4.37
4.38
4.59
4.57
Al2O3
2.5
2.54
2.52
2.51
SO3
2.53
2.49
1.94
1.94
MgO
1.9
1.86
1.76
1.79
K2O
0.19
0.17
0.06
0.05
TiO2
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.21
Mn2O3
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
SrO
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.04
Table 11. Chemical composition for cement after short-term Formation-A water
curing and raw water curing
SPRING 2013
good zonal isolation21. This supports the conclusion that centralization was not poor since the problem also occurred in
vertical wells where the standoff is as high as 95%. Liner rotation and reciprocation within 60 ft stroke, in addition to circulation at a rate of 4 bpm, helped clean filter cake and provide
uniform cement distribution around the casing. Conditioning
mud to reduce its viscosity improves mud displacement efficiency by enhancing fluid mobility. In addition, liner rotation
and reciprocation increases the muds ability to erode and
remove bypassed mud by reducing casing-to-mud and wellbore-to-mud drag forces. The presence of a spiral centralizer
improved the flow regime of cement across the horizontal sections. A compatible viscous spacer was used to separate the
cement and drilling fluid. The spacer helps avoid premature
setting of cement, cement channeling and cement contamination. The volume of the spacer was calculated to give a contact
time of 10 minutes, which is consistent with widely used cementing practices. The spacer density was higher than mud
and lighter than cement. This best practice in cementing helps
effectively displace mud and avoid mud bypassing cement.
The results of the survey of field practices were surprising
since they showed that all practices were perfect. Therefore, it
was advisable to go back to the literature and examine the
problem more deeply by focusing on the effect of a loss of hydraulic pressure while waiting on the cement to set and by ignoring the other factors after it was confirmed that they were
not linked to the problem completely. During the second look
at the literature, an interesting experiment conducted in the
field by Cooke7 to study the behavior of cement hydraulic
pressure during the first six hours after cement placement was
found. The results of this experiment showed that cement pressure decreases at 39 psi/ft during the first six hours after
pumping the cement. These results are supported by the experiment Levine2 conducted three years earlier that showed that
cement is able to transfer pressure during gelation time until
the cement gets set, after which the cement is not able to transmit pressure.
Such a finding was utilized along with field data to plot
pressure vs. depth charts to study the behavior of cement hydrostatic pressure while pumping cement and six hours later.
The red line up to the intersection point indicates the pressure
of the mud column, while the rest of it shows the pressure of
the cement and mud columns six hours following cement
placement. In contrast, the blue line shows the pressure of the
cement and mud columns right after cement placement. As
illustrated in Fig. 9, the hydrostatic pressure at the top of the
Formation-A pressure was 4,570 psi before it decreased to 700
psi below the Formation-A pressure, creating an underbalanced situation during which Formation-A water displaced cement into permeable zones above and below, leaving the liner
uncemented and allowing communication to take place while
waiting on the cement to set. As a result, communication was
established between these two zones.
Formation-A in this area has high reservoir pressure.
downward onto the annulus and formations below. This further encouraged the flow of influx from Formation-A into the
annulus. Use of 3,000 ft liner lap also contributed to the loss
of hydrostatic pressure, since the amount of loss in pressure is
higher there compared with a short cement column.
CONCLUSIONS
Fig. 9. Behavior of cement column pressure after 6 hours from cement placement
(Well-A).
REFERENCES
Fig. 10. Behavior of cement column pressure after 6 hours from cement placement
(Well-C).
Therefore, it was easy for the cement column to be underbalanced against Formation-A before it was able to develop the
required static gel strength of 500 lbf/100 ft2. When the underbalance occurred, the inflow of water from Formation-A contaminated the cement column in the annulus. Actual reduction
in hydrostatic pressure experienced by a cement column is
dependent on the development of its gel strength and reduction
in the slurry volume. To illustrate the occurrence of water flow
from Formation-A during the primary cementing job in Wells
A and C, the pressure loss profile calculated from Cookes7
data was used. As shown in Figs. 9 and 10, the loss in the
hydrostatic pressure likely caused the cement column to be
underbalanced against Formation-A.
Figures 9 and 10 also demonstrate that in the first six hours
following the cement placement, the hydrostatic pressure of
the cement column dropped by 700 psi, creating an underbalanced situation and allowing for communication between formations. Without doubt, the main factor that caused poor
primary cementing across Formation-A behind the 7 liner is
loss of hydrostatic pressure in the cement column after it was
spotted in place in the annulus. In addition, setting a 7 liner
top packer had isolated the hydrostatic pressure from acting
SPRING 2013
77
SPRING 2013
BIOGRAPHIES
Abdulla F. Al-Dossary joined Saudi
Aramco in December 2005. He began
his career as a Workover Engineer
working with the Workover
Department. In April 2012, Abdulla
went to work with the Northern Area
Oil Drilling Department as a Drilling
Engineer.
He received his B.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering
from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
(KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, in 2005. In 2011,
Abdulla received his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering,
also from KFUPM.
He has published and presented four Society of
Petroleum Engineers (SPE) papers.
Scott S. Jennings is the Group Leader
for cementing at Saudi Aramcos
Exploration and Petroleum
Engineering Center Advanced
Research Center (EXPEC ARC). He
has 32 years of experience in
cementing. Prior to joining Saudi
Aramco in 1987, Scott assumed duties that included
stimulation, cementing and sand control with Halliburton
Co. in East Texas and the Middle East Region. His areas of
interest are developing standards and test equipment, well
construction, gas migration prevention and long-term
cement durability. Scott is the Saudi Aramco voting
member of the American Petroleum Institute Subcommittee
10 and a long-term member of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers (SPE).
In 1980, he received a B.S. degree in Chemistry from
Angelo State University, San Angelo, TX.
SPRING 2013
79
80
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SPRING 2013
81
Acknowledgments
Procedure
Author(s)/contributor(s)
Abstract
Format
Introduction
Editor
Main body
Submission deadlines
Different from the abstract in that it sets the stage for the
content of the article, rather than telling the reader what it
is about.
Conclusion/summary
82
Issue
Release date
Fall 2013
Winter 2013
Spring 2014
Summer 2014
June 1, 2013
September 1, 2013
December 1, 2013
March 1, 2014
ABSTRACT
The produced fluid of an oil field located in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia contains relatively high levels of H 2S. A pilot
test was conducted by Saudi Aramco to install a wireless gas detection system along an oil pipeline in this field. The pilot test
objectives included:
Determining the communication availability and reliability of the remote wireless sensors in areas where extending
hardwired and fiber optic networks proved impractical and expensive.
Evaluating the usefulness of this system for early notification of toxic gas releases or pipe leaks in and around critical
geographical areas by alerting the console operator via email and Short Message Service (SMS).
Intelligent Field Infrastructure Adoption: Approach and Best Practices
Soloman Almadi and Tofig Al-Dhubaib
ABSTRACT
The drive to implement the latest optimal intelligent field infrastructure (IFI) is a continuous goal for oil and gas operators. This
requires the right balance between technology, business drivers and evolving implementation requirements. A successful
intelligent field implementation relies on a robust real-time field to desktop data acquisition and delivery system designed with
clearly defined data acquisition requirements. The data acquisition requirements definition should include data type, acquisition
frequency, resolution, integrity, quality and reliability.
Real-Time Estimation of Well Drainage Parameters
Mohammad S. Al-Kadem, Faisal T. Al-Khelaiwi and Meshal A. Al-Amri
ABSTRACT
The well drainage pressure and radius are key parameters of real-time well and reservoir performance optimization, well test
design and location identification for new wells. Currently, the primary method of estimating the well drainage radius is buildup
tests and a subsequent well test analysis. Such buildup tests are conducted using wireline run quartz gauges for an extended well
shut-in period, resulting in deferred production and risky operations.
Solar Power Integration Challenges: Intermittency and Voltage Regulation Issues
Mahmoud B. Zayan
ABSTRACT
Grid-connected solar energy generation is expected to multiply over the coming decades. Solar power generation brings many
benefits, such as reduced greenhouse gases and pollutant emissions, diversity of fuel supplies and displacement of costly fossil
fuel generation. Consequently, achieving higher penetration levels of solar energy in the market depends primarily on the
viability and reliability of the integrated system. A considerable barrier to the sustainability of solar power generation is the
constrained ability to control voltage as a result of weather related intermittency and the heavy reliance on inverters and other
power electronic devices to interface with the grid. To overcome those barriers, distribution networks will have to be designed
differently, and innovative smart grid technologies will have to be developed so as to optimize contributions from solar resources
while preserving the integrity of the grid.