Visual Aids

Unit 4

Visual Aids
The visual aids are installed at the airport to achieve the
following purpose :
To convey to the pilot the ground to air visual information
required during landing.
To direct the pilot to make the landing of the aircraft in the
landing area only.
To avoid accidents during landing of the air craft.
To enable the pilot to locate and identify the particular feature
specified by the marking .
To grant safety to the persons and properties.
To maintain an orderly flow of aircraft without any congestion.
To satisfy the visual requirements for take off and taxiing.
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Requirements of pilots for visual aids :

Following are the two complaints given by the pilots about

many major airports:

Inadequate or faulty runway lighting

Poor navigational aids

AIRPORT MARKINGS
For assisting the pilots in guiding the aircraft on the runways
and taxiways , the pavements are marked with lines and
numbers .
During night and bad weather conditions lights are used to
indicate the different features of airport .

Runway is marked with white colour and taxiway and apron

are marked with yellow colour.

Runway Markings (1)

Runway markings vary between runways used
only for VFR and those that can be used both for
VFR and IFR.
A runway used for VFR alone usually is marked
with only the runway number and the dashed
white centerline.
A runway that can be used for IFR has markings
that allows pilots to navigate to the runway using
only the flight instruments
In this lecture we focus on runways that can be
used both for IFR and VFR.
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Runway Markings (2)

Precision & Nonprecision Approaches
Runways for IFR can have two types of approach
guidance - those using electronic glide slope to
guide landing are said to use precision
approaches.
IFR runways that do not have electronic
glideslope are said to use nonprecision
approaches. IFR runways with nonprecision
approaches also have somewhat different
runway markings from those for precision
approaches.
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Runway Markings (3)

Precision & Nonprecision Approaches
A runway using nonprecision instrument
approach has a threshold and aiming point
markings.
In addition to the threshold and aiming point
markings, precision approach runways also
include touchdown zone markings. (Fig 4-17)

Visual, Precision & Nonprecision runways (4-17)

Airport marking is divided in to six groups:

Apron marking

Landing direction indicator

Runway marking

Shoulder marking
Taxiway marking
Wind direction indicator

Apron marking :
Provides guide line for manoeuvring the critical aircrafts on

the apron.
The smaller aircrafts also can use the same path without
difficulty
The guide line indicates the path of the nose gear of the
aircraft.
Aprons are subjected to fuel spillage. So yellow paint is to be
of special fuel resistant variety.

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Landing indicator marking:

To indicate the landing direction , an arrow or tee is placed at
the centre of a segmented circle .( refer the figure )
It indicates to the pilot the direction of the active runway of the
air port .

It is painted by orange or white colour being spotted during

day time and is lighted during night time.
It is fixed at a distinct place.

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Runway Marking :
The marking on the runway are the following :
Runway threshold marking
Runway touch down zone or landing zone marking

Runway edge strip marking

Runway centre line marking
Runway number which indicates the direction.
Parallel runway marking
Runway shoulder marking
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Runway centre line marking:

The centre line of Runway is represented by a broken stirp

running along the full length of a runway. The width of

marking is 90 cm.

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Runway Threshold Marking:

Runway Threshold Marking is indicated by a serious of
parallel lines commencing from a distance of 6m from the
runway end.
The marking are in the form of stripes 3.60m and with a

spacing of 0.90m.
The marking are placed symmetrically on either side of the
runway centre-line.

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Displaced threshold marking :

Displaced threshold marking is one which is moved a certain

distance from the end of a runway.

Displacement reduces the length of the runway for landing,
such arrangement is made to clear obstructions in the flight
path.

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Runway end strip marking :

Edges of the runway are normally marked.
In case of runways with width exceeding 45m, the strip is made in

the form of long continuous lines of 90cm width marked near the
edges.
Runway Touch-down or Landing Zone:

Runway Touch-down marking identify the touch down zone for

landing operations. The coded marking are in white colour which
provides distinct information

Runway Touch-down marking consists of one, two and three

rectangular strips marked symmetrically about the centre line with
their number decreasing gradually in the direction of marking.
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Runway numbering :
The end of the runway is marked with a number which
indicates the indicates the magnetic azimuth.
Occasionally there may be parallel runways. 'L' and 'R' is then

added to the runway number. Even more rarely there are three
parallel runways. The central runway is called 'C'.

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Runway shoulder marking :

The shoulders on edges of a runway and taxiway are paved.

The colour of runway shoulder marking is yellow and are

located between the runway sides strips and the pavement
edge.
These marking consists of stripes of 1m width and spaces
30m apart.

The stripes are marked slanted at an angle of 45 degrees to

the centre line and apart at the runway mid point .

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Runway Surface Markings

Runway surface markings are white in colour

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Runway Surface Markings

The runway centerline is a broken white stripe which
indicates the center of the runway and provides
alignment guidance for aircraft.

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Runway Surface Markings

The runway edge-line is an unbroken white stripe indicating
the edges of the runway, and the edges of the fullstrength pavement.

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Runway Surface Markings

Runway threshold markings identify the beginning of the
runway which is available for landing.

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Runway Surface Marking

Displaced Threshold:
A threshold that is moved back usually due to
obstructions, such as trees, powerlines, or
buildings off the end of the runway.
This might prohibit you from making a normal
descent to landing on the initial portion of the
pavements.

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Runway Markings
Blast Pad/Stopway Area:
Sometimes referred to as an overrun, it is different from the
area preceding a displaced threshold because it cannot be
used for landing, takeoff, or taxiing.
The blast pad is where propeller or jet blast can dissipate
without creating a hazard to others.
The overrun aspect comes in the fact that the blast pad is
paved, allowing aircraft more room to come to a stop after
an aborted takeoff.
A paved blast pad about 45m to 60m in length is provided
adjacent to the runway end to prevent erosion of the soil.
The runway shoulders are marked with diagonal stripes
each having a width of 90cm .
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 The blast pad is marked with chevron pattern or V-shaped.

The taxiway and holding apron shoulders are marked with
stripes at right angles to the direction of travel of the aircraft.

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Runway Markings
Blast Pad/Stopway Area:

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Taxiway marking :
All taxiway should have centre line markings and runway holding
position marking wherever a taxiway intersects a runway .
yellow colour is used for all the taxiway marking.
Taxi way Centre Line Marking

Taxiway centre line marking helps to permit taxing along

designated path.
The centre line is marked with a single strip having 15 cm width.
the centre normally terminates at the runway edge.
In case of exit taxiway the taxiway centre line is curved.

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Taxiway edge marking:

In order delineate the edge of the taxiway , these marking are

made . They are basically used where the taxiway edge does
not correspond with the edge of the pavement.
Holding position marking on taxiway :
Holding position marking on taxiways identify the location as
a taxiway where an aircraft is supposed to stop.

Such marking should be located on all taxiways that intersect

runways.

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Taxiway shoulder marking :

In order to prevent blast and water erosion shoulders of

taxiways are stabilized but this area is not intended for use by
a aircraft.
This area is usually defined by taxiway edge marking.
The colour of marking is also yellow.
Stabilized area may be painted green which is also acceptable.

The stabilized area is marked with yellow stripes

perpendicular to the edges stripes.

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Taxiway Surface Markings

ALL taxiway surface markings are yellow.
Taxiway centerline markings indicate the center of the taxiway.

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Taxiway Surface Markings

Double yellow taxiway edge-lines indicate the edges of
the taxiway as well as the edge of full-strength pavement

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Taxiway Surface Markings

Taxiway Shoulder Markings consist of transverse stripes extending
from the taxiway edge markings into paved areas which are not
intended for aircraft use

paved areas which are unsuitable for

aircraft may be painted green.

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Taxiway Surface Markings

Runway Hold Lines are located on taxiways which
intersect runways

All aircraft and vehicles must hold short of the runway

at the hold line.

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Taxiway Surface Markings

Hold Lines are located at the intersection of a taxiway and a
runway.

Aircraft/vehicles must hold on the solid side of the hold

line.
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Wind Direction Indicators

Calm Wind Runway

Preferred runway when wind less than 5 kts
Wind Sock
Most common wind indicator
Wind intensity indicated by straightness of sock
Wind Tee
Sometimes locked in place to show active runway
Unable to indicate wind intensity
Tetrahedron
Sometimes locked in place to show active runway
Unable to indicate wind intensity
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Wind Direction Indicators

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Segmented Circle
Right Traffic
for runway 5

Left Traffic
for runway 23
Final

Base

Final

Base

Elephant Path Airport, Perkasie, PA (PS03)

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Segmented Circle

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Landing guidance :
Alignment guidance
Height information
Distance estimation

Roll guidance

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Airport Lighting :
During bad weather conditions and during night time it is

essential to provide adequate lighting in the airport. Such

lighting should covey similar information to the pilot during
good visibility conditions as the marking do in daytime.
All the airports need not be provided with the same type and
intensity of airport lighting.

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They depend on the following factors :

Airport classification

Traffic intensity
Types of aircrafts using the airport
Type of landing surfaces provided
Type of night operations planned

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Elements of Airport Lighting System :

Beacons

Boundary lighting
Approach lighting
Threshold lighting
Runway lighting
Taxiway lighting
Apron and hanger lighting
Lighting for wind and landing direction direction indicators
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