Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
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Received July 1997
Revised November 1997
Introduction
With increasing recognition of the importance of brands, academics (e.g. Aaker,
1996) and practitioners (e.g. Stobart, 1994) have proposed ways of more
effectively sustaining brands. Underlying such recommendations are
assumptions about brand differentiation through superiority on particular
aspects of the brands. As a consequence, models of the components of brands
are gaining more attention among practitioners (e.g. Dyson et al., 1996) and
academics (e.g. Kapferer, 1992), as a means of increasing managers
understanding of brands and achieving sustainable differentiation.
A strength of these models is that they simplify brand complexity into a
small number of parts. A parallel can be seen in the literature on managerial
sense making which shows how managers are able to manage complexity
through developing mental models which simplify complex issues by
reducing them into a smaller number of parts (Schwenk, 1988). However,
consensus is lacking on the brands components and on their relative
importance and, for commercial reasons, not all the details about practitioner
models are published.
A model of the components of a brand had earlier been proposed (de
Chernatony, 1993a, 1993b), referred to as the atomic model. It has proved
helpful in brand strategy workshops with managers and in MBA classes on
branding but, while grounded in the branding literature, it has not been
subjected to experts assessments. This paper reports on leading-edge brand
consultants evaluations of this model and as a consequence proposes a revised
model.
We open by reviewing why managers have a tendency to develop mental
models. An overview is then presented of the key published models of the
components of brands. Undertaking depth interviews with 20 brand experts,
we investigated their mental models of brands. We also evaluated their views
about the atomic model and, following these interviews, we propose the more
comprehensive double vortex model of the brand.
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Intangible elements
Aaker (1992)
Bailey and
Schechter (1994)
Biggar and
Selame (1992)
DMB & B (1993)
de Chernatony (1993a
and 1993b) (atomic
model)
de Chernatony and
McWilliam (1989)
Dyson et al. (1996)
(Millward-Brown)
Grossman (1994)
Kapferer (1992)
Table I.
Models of the brand
OMalley (1991)
Young and Rubicam
(1994)
Product delivery
Functionality
Representationality
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Brands start life with distinctive names, possibly endorsed by the corporate
reputation or sign of ownership. The brands functional capabilities become
recognised and, to build a relationship with consumers, the service component
becomes important. Legal protection is used to deter competitive infringement,
but the symbolic feature gives the brand a personality, making it more difficult
to copy. As consumer confidence increases, through skillful presentation as a
risk reducer, the brand becomes associated with unique added values and
becomes an effective shorthand notation representing a few high quality pieces
of information facilitating rapid consumer choice. At the nucleus of the brand is
strategic direction (Porter, 1985) which influences how these elements are
bonded together.
This model is grounded in the branding literature, but until now had not
been evaluated by brand consultants. One of the aims of our research was to
assess the extent to which the atomic model reflects brand consultants
conceptions of brands. Our third research proposition was therefore that:
Proposition 3: The atomic model of the brand represents a useful model and
can reflect brand consultants conceptions of brands.
Research aims and methodology
In view of the way that leading-edge brand consultants are influencing
tomorrows branding agenda, we wanted to explore how they make sense of
brands and whether they have similar views about the components of brands.
We were particularly concerned to gauge their views about the atomic model
and to use their comments to develop an improved model, which adheres to
Zaltmans (1977) contention that it be a simplified but organised and
meaningful reflection of the brand. The atomic model provides a basis for this
developmental work, since it satisfies some of the criteria Lunn (1978) identified
for an effective model, i.e. it provides an understanding of how brands influence
behaviour, it integrates disparate concepts, and facilitates communication.
In view of the exploratory nature of this research, and of the concern not to
impose our preconceptions, we opted for qualitative research, which enabled us
to fully explore and probe consultants models of brands, within their own
frame of reference. While the exploratory nature and the richness of qualitative
research usually entails small sample sizes (Sampson, 1986), we wanted to
uncover as wide a perspective as possible. Therefore we followed Gordon and
Langmaids (1988) suggestion about sample size and undertook 20 semistructured depth interviews with carefully selected brand consultants based in
the UK. To qualify, consultants needed to specialise in advising clients about
brands and had to be considered at the leading-edge of brand consultancy.
Specifically, the sample was selected on the basis that they frequently present at
management conferences on branding, or had written books or papers on
branding, or be recommended by their peer group (only two were chosen this
way). The 20 consultants were either chairmen, partners or directors in brand
consultancies (9), advertising agencies (7), market research agencies (2) and
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Table II.
Experts models of
elements constituting
brand
Consultant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Mental model
(Intellectual property) (product) (personality)
(Tangibles) (intangibles)
(Physical) (metaphysical) (brand platform)
(Physical) (company behind brand) (interactive services)
(Performance excellence) (ethics) (added services)
Performance excellence personality people who care
(Emotional) (rational)
(Emotional) (product) (differentation) (price premium) (future vision)
(renewal energy)
(Product) (positioning) (Communicators about expectation)
(Product) (ethics) (positioning)
(Emotion) (Product image) (user image) (personality) (occasion image)
(Personality) (Mechanical parts)
(Name) (goodwill) (personality)
(Functional) (psychological) (evaluative)
(Functional) (image) (name)
Metaphor of person
(Functional) (emotion) (design) (price)
Elements progressing through purchase/consumption chain
(Functional) (identity) (place in market)
(Functions) (performance) (personality) (source of authority)
great product ... 90 percent plus of a brand is the What it does, ... the nonfunctional values, the personality values, have to flow from what it is. Another
brand consultant formulated his view by building in elements as the brand
proceeded through the purchasing and consumption chain, arguing that brands
have to add value to consumers lives. An advertising consultant had a different
model. He did not like the idea of conceiving a brand as a set of separate
elements and drew a distinction between the American school, which he saw
as adopting a scientific, deconstructionist perspective and the French school,
which conceptualises brands in poetic terms, not afraid to speak in
metaphors. Brands to him are illusions in consumers minds. By using the
metaphor of the brand as a person, it can be managed, since from a particular
person emanates a personality, a style of behaviour and scope for a particular
relationship.
These findings did not disprove our first research proposition that each
brand consultant would use a particular mental model to make sense of the
elements of brands.
Similarities of component parts of experts models of brands elements
Table III summarises the consultants mental models, by showing the frequency
with which each element of the brand is specified.
Frequency of
mentions
Equivalent component in
atomic model
Product functions
Performance excellence
Positioning/place in market
Physical characteristics
Design
Product usage
Tangibles
Rational aspects
8
3
3
2
1
1
1
1
Personality
Emotional values
Intangibles/metaphysical
Product image
Occasion image
User image
Metaphor of person
Psychological aspects
6
4
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
Name
Differentation
2
1
Interactive services/services
People who care
2
1
}
}
}
}
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Functional capabilities
Symbolic feature
Sign of ownership
Distintive name
Service
Shorthand notation
Intellectual property
Legal protection
Price premium/price
Brand platform
Goodwill
Renewal energy
Mechanical parts
Evaluative parts
Elements in purchase/consumption chain
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
Elements not
specified on the
atomic model
Table III.
Experts unprompted
views about elements
constituting brands
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the authority it brings through its competencies and experience, its ethical
stance, vision, employee policies and the staff. The other elements receive lower
mentions.
While there are commonalities within broad categories, there is no evidence
of perfect similarity. There are several reasons for this. Earlier research (de
Chernatony and DallOlmo Riley, 1997) reported no universally accepted
definition of the brand among brand experts. Rather, there is a spectrum of
brand definitions, which these results reflect. Second, individual consultancies
have particular philosophies about brands, to which their staff adhere.
Our second research proposition anticipated similarities between
consultants conceptualisations of brands elements. This is partially confirmed
by our findings, since while there are two elements common to virtually all
consultants, there are other elements which are unique to individuals.
Experts assessments of the atomic model of the brand
Table III highlights that, with the exception of risk reducer, all of the elements
of the atomic model were mentioned by the experts. However, as we later
address, the experts also mentioned new elements not previously included.
The atomic model was then explained and the experts were asked for their
views. Of the 20 experts 17 were positive about the model, with comments such
as, its a very comprehensive model (advertising consultant), as a general
model about brands its probably quite valuable (brand consultant), it sounds
feasible and I think its a very neat way of focusing on all the different elements
that are part of the branding equation (corporate communications consultant),
as an academic model this will certainly do (advertising consultant), this
actually reflects most brands today (brand consultant) and it seems to fit the
fmcg [fast moving consumer goods] field (corporate communications
consultant). While being positive about this model, all these respondents
expressed views about how they would fine tune the approach, as it is later
considered.
Of the three less positive experts, one consultants agency adhered to its own
model, but he added we do checklists and I recognise all these things you are
talking about (advertising consultant). Another advertising consultant
explained the strengths of the metaphor model. The third brand consultant felt
the model is just taking one slice of the whole thing and describing something
in a particular way. In his opinion, brands are holistic, rather than atomistic
entities which connect peoples lives with their needs. In view of the majority
favourable view, our third research proposition that the atomic model is a useful
model which can reflect brand consultants conceptualisations finds support.
However, in view of the detailed probing, the model would benefit from
revisions, as we next discuss.
Missing elements
Several consultants felt that some elements are missing. A brand consultant
and an advertising consultant noted the absence of the brands vision and its
mission. The brand vision specifies the brands purpose, its philosophy and
view on the world, from which evolves its mission, indicating what the brand
needs to do to achieve its vision. The brand vision, argued these consultants,
should excite employees, who can appreciate the role they play in brand
building. As a consequence of their commitment, and ultimately pride in being
associated with the brand, they take ownership of the vision and it acts as one
of their motivating reasons for coming to work.
A corporate communications consultant felt the sign of ownership element
was not sufficiently explicit about the firms beliefs. Firms need a view about
what is ethically important, and therefore how they expect their employees
attitudes and behaviour to be projected through the brand. In an era of
increasing brand similarity, this can provide a basis for effective brand
differentiation, as seen by The Body Shop and the Co-op Bank.
Two brand consultants commented that the model did not explicitly show
the value systems underpinning the brand. There is an implicit notion of this
through the functional, service, risk and symbolic elements. One brand
consultant saw the brands values as the glue to stick the vision and mission in
your mind. Another spoke about values reflecting consumers needs and
identified functional, emotional and psychological categories of values. A
further brand consultant noted that from a managerial perspective, brands are
about enhancing shareholders value, and this is absent.
The issue of the functional element was raised by a brand consultant. In his
opinion, this evolved, in part, because of the firms heritage, giving rise to
particular competencies which, while enabling the brand gain dominance,
restricted brand extensions.
Two experts made the point that the atomic model is static, unable to
respond to market dynamics.
Relevance of elements
None felt that any of the elements in the model were irrelevant. Many worked
their way through the elements giving their interpretation of them, for example
the shorthand notation could be the law of four syllables any name more than
four syllables gets contracted by the consumer (brand consultant).
Another criticism was the model incorrectly implied each element is equally
important. A brand consultant commented that for conspicuously consumed
brands, the symbolic element is particularly important. Several spoke about the
importance of the elements changing as the brand develops. Others spoke about
the importance of the elements varying according to the audience, in particular
whether they are staff, the firms agencies or consumers.
Relationship between the elements
As Lunn (1978) observed, an effective model shows the relationship between its
individual elements. There is, as some observed, a relationship between several
of the elements due to the way they facilitate communication. As a brand
consultant noted, the symbolic element feeds into the shorthand notation
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Time/experience
Confidence
Rational
Performance
Corporate Culture
Heritage
Emotional
Psycho-social
match
Values
Mission
CONSUMER
PERCEPTIONS
Vision
STAKEHOLDER
VALUE
RESPONSE
RELATIONSHIP
Brand inside
consumers mind:
shorthand device
Figure 1.
Double vortex brand
model
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effect of this should enhance the value of the brand to all stakeholders, and the
virtuous branding cycle in Figure 1 should self-perpetuate.
Managerial implications
The double vortex brand model is a useful model to help managers build and
sustain their brands. Firstly, it indicates the sequential planning stages that
need addressing, i.e. starting by working as a management team to formulate a
vision then the brand mission, etc. Second, there is a strong linkage in terms of
cause and effect between each of the stages, and if the sequential stages are
followed through, it becomes easier to identify what the building blocks of the
brand should be and how they are interlinked. Thirdly, because this model
forces managers to consider the linkages between each stage, it should result in
a more integrated brand. Fourth, this model encourages managers to adopt a
more strategic approach to brand building, since if this process is followed, the
tactical resourcing of the brand (i.e. the seven resources from naming policy to
crisp communication) should tie in with the vision and mission.
The model should encourage managers to take a more balanced approach to
brand building, since once they have completed their brand plans using the left
hand vortex, they then need to undertake market research to assess how their
intentions are perceived by consumers. Through customer interviews, gaps
between managers intentions for the brand and the way consumers perceive it
in the right hand vortex can be identified then, if necessary, appropriate
corrective action can be taken.
When developing their brand plan, managers need to consider the type of
relationship they want their brand to build with their customers. For example,
if there is a strong emphasis on the emotional values of the brand, the
relationship being sought may be one of the consumer saying to himself, this
brand helps communicate who I am. If, though, there is an on-going investment
to always be the technological leader, the relationship that might be sought
could be one of I dont need to bother considering anything else as this brand
will always be the best for my needs. The strength of the relationship and the
basis for it needs monitoring. If these do not reflect the desired relationship,
thought needs to be given to adjusting the brands tactical resources and also
fine tuning the brands personality.
By auditing their competitors brands using this model, managers can better
appreciate their strengths and weaknesses. From this analysis they can start to
consider how their brand can better protect its market position and identify
more appropriate strategies to gain more market share at their competitors
expense.
When communicating the nature of their brand to staff and to external
agencies, this model facilitates communication. It can also help managers to
identify any diversity in perceptions among key individuals in different
departments who contribute to the brand building process.
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Conclusions
It is evident that brand consultants make sense of brands using mental models.
While these generally had a rational, performance element and an emotional
element, the precise composition varied between experts. The atomic model of
the brand was favourably received, and while it generally reflected aspects of
each experts conceptualisation of brands, it benefited from further
enhancements, resulting in the double vortex model.
The attempt to model the elements of a complex construct such as the brand
(de Chernatony and DallOlmo Riley, 1997) from a managers perspective may
appear deconstructionist, negating the holistic perspective. An analogy can be
drawn with the attempts to differentiate between goods and services on the
basis of deconstruction to identify the tangible and intangible elements. In the
context of the goods versus services debate, Shostack (1977) objected to a
demarcation between the two. Rather, she proposed a new structural definition,
as combinations of discrete elements linked together in molecule-like wholes. In
her own words: Elements can be either tangibles or intangibles. The entity
may have either a tangible or intangible nucleus. But the whole can only be
described as having a certain dominance (page 74). This enables the offering to
be perceived in its totality, as partly tangible and partly intangible, without
diminishing the importance of either characteristic. Through the concept of
dominance, inferences can be drawn about the required priorities.
The concept of dominance emerged from some consultants, stressing that
different elements may assume different importance at different times,
according to the stage of the brands development and depending on what side
of the spectrum (i.e. manufacturer versus consumer) one was trying to model.
At the same time, the concept of dominance allows the model to be stretched
over different types of branding situations, ranging from umbrella to retail
brands. This is because the vortex structure of the model allows different
elements to take priority to suit different branding circumstances.
These general considerations, along with experts evaluations of the atomic
model have been incorporated into the more refined double vortex model. This
represents an advance on the previous model in several respects. Not only does
it incorporate the additional elements experts felt had been overlooked, but it
also indicates the inter-related nature of variables. In particular, by addressing
brands both from managers and consumers positions, the model shows the
managerial building block approach to brand planning interacting with the
gestalt perceptions of consumers. This is consistent with Corey (1974), who
noted how consumers perceive products as configurations of interactive
attributes. Furthermore, as noted earlier in the paper, the use of metaphors has
been advocated by researchers as useful means for model development (e.g. Hill
and Lavenhagen, 1995). Through the metaphor of the vortex, the new model
provides a dynamic perspective on brands, implying that some parts of the
gestalt may assume greater importance for the overall brand identity than
others, depending on the stage of development of the brand strategy, and as
expressed by the concept of dominance referred to above.
Finally, the next stage in this research should take us back to the same
consultants with the revised model to assess their views on the incremental
value that it offers.
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