Covalent Bonding

Molecular Compound made up of independent particles called molecules.

o Arrange in particular geometries
Electrostatic interactions between e- and p that form bond modeling
bonding btw atoms aka electrostatic model
As atoms get closer, strength of attractive interaction increases until reach a
point and then repulsive interactions btw charges dominate
o Bond Length distance at which average e-e and p=p repulsive forces
are balanced with e-p attractive force (none is dominated)
o Equilibrium distance
Bond strength (bond dissociation energy) energy needed to separate
atoms from the equilibrium position to an infinite distance
Atoms get closer, interactions btw e- in one atom and p in another atom pull
some e- toward the region between atoms.
Bond btw two neutral atoms with equilibrium distance is covalent bond
E- in 1 atom get farther away from that atoms nucleus, their PE increases
but KE decreases
E- moving to the region btw 2 atoms getting closer to nuclei PE decreases
Net decrease in total energy
If atoms get VERY close, repulsion causes KE and PE increase
The bond length is which energy of system is a minimum
Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle position and speed of e cannot be
defined at the same time
Delocalization: e occupying a larger region of space, so decreases their
average KE
o Remaining e thats not delocalize get closer to nuclei decrease PE
Covalent Bonding caused by delocalization between two bonded atoms and
cause electron density to redistribute (to the region between atoms)

Bonding Pattern

Frequency determined by atomic masses and bond strength

Molecules with more than 2 atoms will have vibrational motions
Eg: CH2 can be excited at specific wave numbers of IR.
o Can infer the molecular structure of chemical compound.
Four e delocalized = double bonds
Six e delocalized = triple bonds
Bond changes bond strength
Triple bonds has higher absorption bands (higher wavenumbers/higher
radiation energy) than double bonds and single bonds.
o Same with double bond, higher than single bond
More energy required to induce vibrational transition in bonds btw lighter
atoms because they vibrate at higher frequencies
o Mass in bonds.
More energy needed to induce equivalent vibrational transitions in stronger
bonds (like triple bonds)

Bonding capacity of atoms valence

Eg: valence of 1 form single bond with other atom.
Nonmetallic elements have fixed valence.

Atomic Patterns

Electron configurations how electrons distribute in both space and energy

levels within atoms
If define bond length (d) btw atomic nuclei of 2 atoms, this distance should
have a value close to the result of adding the atomic radius (r) of each of
the atom
Size of neutral atoms decreases as atomic number increase
Atomic size increase moving from right to left and from top to bottom.
First ionization energy (E1): energy need to remove an e from neutral atoms
of a gaseous state element
o M(g)M+(g) + e-

e- with lowest energy move close to atomic nucleus, occupies first shell
e- has higher energy means farther from nucleus
Moving from H to He, decrease in first ionization energy and smaller
radius
o Larger nucleus charge will exert a stronger attractive force on each
electron, keeping them closer to nucleus and lower PE. So quantized
state in He is lower than H, thus smaller radius.
Stronger attractive force means particles moving closer to
nucleus = smaller radius size = more energy to remove these eMoving from He to Li, increase in atomic radius and decrease in first
ionization energy
o Since only 2 e- can occupy the first shell, the third e- move to a region
farther from nucleus so total energy is higher.
So energy to ionize it is lower because the size increases
Addition e- in same shell WILL NOT result in larger atomic size

The more weakly the e- is held to atom, the more KE it will have when
ejected.
The more inner shell the e-, the mre energy photons to remove them from
atom.
Subshells within each shell
o Eg: n=2 has subshell s and p. S holds 2 e-, p holds 6 eo S, p, d, f (2, 6, 10, 14)
o P, d, f that can accommodate more than 2 e- are composed of subsubshells called orbitals
o S subshell is one s orbital,
o P subshell (6) is 3 p orbitals

You name by the Noble Gas element of the Period Table (Column 8) and
adding more.
Atoms in the same group of the Periodic Table have similar distributions of ein their higer energy states.
o Li = [He]2s1 and Na = [Ne]3s1
Valence electron
IMPORTANT. The middle metallic row is like this 4s 23d104p2

Understand Bonding

Core electrons occupy the low energy, inner orbitals

o Found closer to nucleus
o Not perturbed by presence of other atoms
Valence electrons occupy higher energy, outer orbitals
o Affected by neighboring particles
Bonding and delocalization lower valence e-s energy
O = [He]2s22p4
o Since p can hold 6 e-, O can induce 6-4=2 electrons when bonding with
other atoms
o So two bonds
Most nonmetallic atoms with a full valence shell of 8 e- is octet rule


Electron Spin

Spin measure of the rotational motion of an electron on its own axis - an

intrinsic property that constraints the number of particles to occupy the
same region of space.
o can only spin clockwise(+1/2 or ) or counterclockwise (-1/2 or )
o quantized property (its property can only take a certain specific value)
Pauli proposed: no two e- with the same properties could occupy the same
orbital simultaneously (The Pauli Exclusion Principle).
o CAN happen if electron had a different (opposite) spin
o Electrons with same spin will be found occupying different regions of
the space
Helps reduce PE of system by keeping e- far from each other and
allowing them to get closer to nucleus
Radicals reactive chemical species that occupied by one single electron

Fluorine is the most electronegative because its farthest to right and highest up.
Ionic radius: Element with negative has bigger radius overall.