Cat

This article is about the cat species that is commonly kept diverged around 8,000 BC in West Asia.[11][13] A 2016
as a pet. For the cat family, see Felidae. For other uses, study found that leopard cats were undergoing domestisee Cat (disambiguation) and Cats (disambiguation).
cation independently in China around 5,500 BC, though
this line of partially domesticated cats leaves no trace in
the domesticated populations of today.[14][15]
[1][5]
The domestic cat
(Latin: Felis catus) or the feral
cat[5][3] (Latin: Felis silvestris catus) is a small, typi- As of a 2007 study, cats are the second most popular pet
cally furry, carnivorous mammal. They are often called in the United States by number of pets owned, behind
house cats when kept as indoor pets or simply cats when freshwater sh.[16]
there is no need to distinguish them from other felids and
felines.[6] Cats are often valued by humans for companionship and for their ability to hunt vermin. There are 1 Taxonomy and evolution
more than 70 cat breeds; dierent associations proclaim
dierent numbers according to their standards.
Main article: Cat evolution
Cats are similar in anatomy to the other felids, with a The felids are a rapidly evolving family of mammals
strong, exible body, quick reexes, sharp retractable
claws, and teeth adapted to killing small prey. Cat senses
t a crepuscular and predatory ecological niche. Cats can
hear sounds too faint or too high in frequency for human ears, such as those made by mice and other small
animals. They can see in near darkness. Like most
other mammals, cats have poorer color vision and a better sense of smell than humans. Cats, despite being solitary hunters, are a social species and cat communication
includes the use of a variety of vocalizations (mewing,
purring, trilling, hissing, growling, and grunting), as well
as cat pheromones and types of cat-specic body language.[7]
Cats have a high breeding rate. Under controlled breeding, they can be bred and shown as registered pedigree
pets, a hobby known as cat fancy. Failure to control the
breeding of pet cats by neutering and the abandonment
of former household pets has resulted in large numbers of
feral cats worldwide, requiring population control.[8] This
has contributed, along with habitat destruction and other
factors, to the extinction of many bird species. Cats have
been known to extirpate a bird species within specic regions and may have contributed to the extinction of isolated island populations.[9] Cats are thought to be primarily, though not solely, responsible for the extinction of 33
species of birds, and the presence of feral and free ranging cats makes some locations unsuitable for attempted
species reintroduction in otherwise suitable locations.[10]

The African wildcat, Felis silvestris lybica, is the ancestor of the

domestic cat.

that share a common ancestor only 1015 million years

ago[17] and include lions, tigers, cougars and many others. Within this family, domestic cats (Felis catus) are
part of the genus Felis, which is a group of small cats
containing about seven species (depending upon classication scheme).[1][18] Members of the genus are found
worldwide and include the jungle cat (Felis chaus) of
southeast Asia, European wildcat (F. silvestris silvestris),
African wildcat (F. s. lybica), the Chinese mountain cat
(F. bieti), and the Arabian sand cat (F. margarita), among
others.[19]

Since cats were venerated in ancient Egypt, they were

commonly believed to have been domesticated there,[11]
but there may have been instances of domestication as
early as the Neolithic from around 9,500 years ago (7,500
BC).[12] A genetic study in 2007 concluded that domestic
cats are descended from Near Eastern wildcats, having

The domestic cat was rst classied as Felis catus by Carl

Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae published in 1758.[1][2] Because of modern phylogenetics,
domestic cats are usually regarded as another subspecies
of the wildcat, F. silvestris.[1][3][20] This has resulted in
mixed usage of the terms, as the domestic cat can be
1

2 NOMENCLATURE AND ETYMOLOGY

intelligence.[33]:1217 Several small felid species may have
an inborn tendency towards tameness.[30]
Cats have either a mutualistic or commensal relationship
with humans. Two main theories are given about how cats
were domesticated. In one, people deliberately tamed
cats in a process of articial selection as they were useful predators of vermin.[34] This has been criticized as
implausible, because the reward for such an eort may
have been too little; cats generally do not carry out commands and although they do eat rodents, other species
such as ferrets or terriers may be better at controlling
these pests.[3] The alternative idea is that cats were simply tolerated by people and gradually diverged from their
wild relatives through natural selection, as they adapted
to hunting the vermin found around humans in towns and
villages.[3]

An Indian domestic cat

2 Nomenclature and etymology

called by its subspecies name, Felis silvestris catus.[1][3][20]

Wildcats have also been referred to as various subspecies
of F. catus,[20] but in 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature xed the name for wildcats as F. silvestris.[21] The most common name in use for
the domestic cat remains F. catus, following a convention
for domesticated animals of using the earliest (the senior)
synonym proposed.[21] Sometimes, the domestic cat has
been called Felis domesticus[22] or Felis domestica,[1] as
proposed by German naturalist J. C. P. Erxleben in 1777
but these are not valid taxonomic names and have been
used only rarely in scientic literature,[23] because Linnaeuss binomial takes precedence.[24] A population of
Transcaucasian black feral cats was once classied as Felis
daemon (Satunin 1904) but now this population is considered to be a part of domestic cat.[25]

The English word 'cat' (Old English catt) is in origin a

loanword, introduced to many languages of Europe from
Latin cattus[35] and Byzantine Greek , including
Portuguese and Spanish gato, French chat, German Katze,
Lithuanian kat, and Old Church Slavonic kotka, among
others.[36] The ultimate source of the word is Afroasiatic,
presumably from Late Egyptian aute,[37] the feminine
of aus wildcat. An alternative word with cognates in
many languages is English 'puss' ('pussycat'). Attested
only from the 16th century, it may have been introduced
from Dutch poes or from Low German puuskatte, related
to Swedish kattepus, or Norwegian pus, pusekatt. Similar
forms exist in Lithuanian pui and Irish puiscn. The etymology of this word is unknown, but it may have simply
arisen from a sound used to attract a cat.[38][39]

All the cats in this genus share a common ancestor that

probably lived around 67 million years ago in Asia.[26]
The exact relationships within the Felidae are close but
still uncertain,[27][28] e.g. the Chinese mountain cat is
sometimes classied (under the name Felis silvestris bieti) as a subspecies of the wildcat, like the North African
variety F. s. lybica.[3][27]
In comparison to dogs, cats have not undergone major
changes during the domestication process, as the form
and behavior of the domestic cat is not radically dierent from those of wildcats and domestic cats are perfectly capable of surviving in the wild.[29][30] Fully domesticated house cats often interbreed with feral F. catus
populations.[31] This limited evolution during domestication means that hybridisation can occur with many
other felids, notably the Asian leopard cat.[32] Several
natural behaviors and characteristics of wildcats may
have predisposed them for domestication as pets.[30]
These traits include their small size, social nature, obvious body language, love of play and relatively high

A group of cats is referred to as a clowder or a

glaring,[40] a male cat is called a tom or tomcat[41]
(or a gib,[42] if neutered), an unaltered female is called a
queen,[43] and a juvenile cat is referred to as a "kitten".
The male progenitor of a cat, especially a pedigreed cat, is
its sire,[44] and its female progenitor is its dam.[45] In
Early Modern English, the word 'kitten' was interchangeable with the now-obsolete word 'catling'.[46]
A pedigreed cat is one whose ancestry is recorded by a
cat fancier organization. A purebred cat is one whose
ancestry contains only individuals of the same breed.
Many pedigreed and especially purebred cats are exhibited as show cats. Cats of unrecorded, mixed ancestry
are referred to as domestic short-haired or domestic longhaired cats, by coat type, or commonly as random-bred,
moggies (chiey British), or (using terms borrowed from
dog breeding) mongrels or mutt-cats.
While the African wildcat is the ancestral subspecies from
which domestic cats are descended, and wildcats and domestic cats can completely interbreed (Being subspecies
of the same species), several intermediate stages occur

3.1

Anatomy

between domestic pet and pedigree cats on one hand and

those entirely wild animals on the other. The semiferal
cat, a mostly outdoor cat, is not owned by any one individual, but is generally friendly to people and may be fed
by several households. Feral cats are associated with human habitation areas and may be fed by people or forage
for food, but are typically wary of human interaction.[31]

3
3.1

Biology
Anatomy

Cat skull
Main article: Cat anatomy
Domestic cats are similar in size to the other members
Spinal cord
Brain

Diaphragm

Liver

Nasal cavity

Stomach
Kidney
Large intestine
Anus
Testis

Buccal cavity
Trachea
Esophagus

Urethra

Lung
Heart

Spleen
Gallbladder

Bladder

Diagram of the general anatomy of a male

of the genus Felis, typically weighing between 4 and 5

kg (9 and 10 lb).[27] Some breeds, however, such as the
Maine Coon, can occasionally exceed 11 kg (24 lb). Conversely, very small cats, less than 2 kg (4 lb), have been
reported.[47] The world record for the largest cat is 21 kg
(50 lb).[48] The smallest adult cat ever ocially recorded
weighed around 1 kg (2 lb).[48] Feral cats tend to be lighter
as they have more limited access to food than house cats.
In the Boston area, the average feral adult male will weigh
4 kg (9 lb) and average feral female 3 kg (7 lb).[49] Cats
average about 2325 cm (910 in) in height and 46 cm
(18 in) in head/body length (males being larger than females), with tails averaging 30 cm (12 in) in length.[50]

canine teeth, inserting them between two of the preys

vertebrae and severing its spinal cord, causing irreversible
paralysis and death.[54] Compared to other felines, domestic cats have narrowly spaced canine teeth, which is an
adaptation to their preferred prey of small rodents, which
have small vertebrae.[54] The premolar and rst molar together compose the carnassial pair on each side of the
mouth, which eciently shears meat into small pieces,
like a pair of scissors. These are vital in feeding, since
cats small molars cannot chew food eectively, and cats
are largely incapable of mastication.[53]:37 Though cats
tend to have better teeth than most humans, with decay
generally less likely because of a thicker protective layer
of enamel, a less damaging saliva, less retention of food
particles between teeth, and a diet mostly devoid of sugar,
they are nonetheless subject to occasional tooth loss and
infection.[55]
Cats, like dogs, are digitigrades. They walk directly on
their toes, with the bones of their feet making up the
lower part of the visible leg.[56] Cats are capable of walking very precisely, because like all felines, they directly
register; that is, they place each hind paw (almost) directly in the print of the corresponding fore paw, minimizing noise and visible tracks. This also provides sure
footing for their hind paws when they navigate rough terrain. Unlike most mammals, when cats walk, they use a
pacing gait; that is, they move the two legs on one side
of the body before the legs on the other side. This trait is
shared with camels and giraes. As a walk speeds up into
a trot, a cats gait changes to be a diagonal gait, similar
to that of most other mammals (and many other land animals, such as lizards): the diagonally opposite hind and
fore legs move simultaneously.[57]

Cats have seven cervical vertebrae, as do almost all

mammals; 13 thoracic vertebrae (humans have 12); seven
lumbar vertebrae (humans have ve); three sacral vertebrae like most mammals (humans have ve); and a variable number of caudal vertebrae in the tail (humans retain three to ve caudal vertebrae, fused into an internal coccyx).[51]:11 The extra lumbar and thoracic vertebrae account for the cats spinal mobility and exibility. Attached to the spine are 13 ribs, the shoulder, and
the pelvis.[51] :16 Unlike human arms, cat forelimbs are
attached to the shoulder by free-oating clavicle bones Like almost all members of the Felidae, cats have prowhich allow them to pass their body through any space tractable and retractable claws.[58] In their normal, reinto which they can t their head.[52]
laxed position, the claws are sheathed with the skin and
The cat skull is unusual among mammals in having fur around the paw's toe pads. This keeps the claws sharp
very large eye sockets and a powerful and specialized by preventing wear from contact with the ground and aljaw.[53]:35 Within the jaw, cats have teeth adapted for lows the silent stalking of prey. The claws on the fore feet
killing prey and tearing meat. When it overpowers its are typically sharper than those on the hind feet.[59] Cats
prey, a cat delivers a lethal neck bite with its two long can voluntarily extend their claws on one or more paws.

3 BIOLOGY

They may extend their claws in hunting or self-defense,

climbing, kneading, or for extra traction on soft surfaces.
Most cats have ve claws on their front paws, and four on
their rear paws.[60] The fth front claw (the dewclaw) is
proximal to the other claws. More proximally is a protrusion which appears to be a sixth nger. This special
feature of the front paws, on the inside of the wrists, is the
carpal pad, also found on the paws of big cats and dogs.
It has no function in normal walking, but is thought to be
an antiskidding device used while jumping. Some breeds
of cats are prone to polydactyly (extra toes and claws).[60]
These are particularly common along the northeast coast
of North America.[61]

3.2

Physiology

seawater.[66]:29[68] While domestic cats are able to swim,

they are generally reluctant to enter water as it quickly
leads to exhaustion.[69]
Cats are obligate carnivores: their physiology has evolved
to eciently process meat, and they have diculty digesting plant matter.[22] In contrast to omnivores such as
rats, which only require about 4% protein in their diet,
about 20% of a cats diet must be protein.[22] Cats are
unusually dependent on a constant supply of the amino
acid arginine, and a diet lacking arginine causes marked
weight loss and can be rapidly fatal.[70] Another unusual
feature is that the cat cannot produce taurine, with taurine deciency causing macular degeneration, wherein
the cats retina slowly degenerates, causing irreversible
blindness.[22]
A cats gastrointestinal tract is adapted to meat eating, being much shorter than that of omnivores and having low
levels of several of the digestive enzymes needed to digest
carbohydrates.[71] These traits severely limit the cats ability to digest and use plant-derived nutrients, as well as certain fatty acids.[71] Despite the cats meat-oriented physiology, several vegetarian or vegan cat foods have been
marketed that are supplemented with chemically synthesized taurine and other nutrients, in attempts to produce
a complete diet. However, some of these products still
fail to provide all the nutrients cats require,[72] and diets
containing no animal products pose the risk of causing
severe nutritional deciencies.[73]

Thermograph

Cats do eat grass occasionally. A proposed explanation

is that cats use grass as a source of folic acid. Another
proposed explanation is that it is used to supply dietary
ber.[74]

Cats are familiar and easily kept animals, and their physiology has been particularly well studied; it generally resembles those of other carnivorous mammals, but dis- 3.3
plays several unusual features probably attributable to
cats descent from desert-dwelling species.[22] For instance, cats are able to tolerate quite high temperatures:
Humans generally start to feel uncomfortable when their
skin temperature passes about 38 C (100 F), but cats
show no discomfort until their skin reaches around 52 C
(126 F),[53]:46 and can tolerate temperatures of up to 56
C (133 F) if they have access to water.[63]
Cats conserve heat by reducing the ow of blood to their
skin and lose heat by evaporation through their mouths.
Cats have minimal ability to sweat, with glands located
primarily in their paw pads,[64] and pant for heat relief
only at very high temperatures[65] (but may also pant
when stressed). A cats body temperature does not vary
throughout the day; this is part of cats general lack of
circadian rhythms and may reect their tendency to be active both during the day and at night.[66]:1 Cats feces are
comparatively dry and their urine is highly concentrated,
both of which are adaptations to allow cats to retain as
much water as possible.[22] Their kidneys are so ecient,
they can survive on a diet consisting only of meat, with no
additional water,[67] and can even rehydrate by drinking

Senses

A closeup of a cats eye

Main article: Cat senses

Cats have excellent night vision and can see at only onesixth the light level required for human vision.[53]:43 This
is partly the result of cat eyes having a tapetum lucidum,
which reects any light that passes through the retina back
into the eye, thereby increasing the eyes sensitivity to

3.3

Senses

Cats whiskers are highly sensitive to touch.

Reection of camera ash from the tapetum lucidum

nepetalactone.[89] This response is also produced by other

dim light.[75] Another adaptation to dim light is the large plants, such as silver vine (Actinidia polygama) and the
herb valerian; it may be caused by the smell of these plants
pupils of cats eyes. Unlike some big cats, such as tigers,
and stimulating cats social or
[76]
domestic cats have slit pupils.
These slit pupils can mimicking a pheromone
sexual behaviors.[90]
focus bright light without chromatic aberration, and are
needed since the domestic cats pupils are much larger, Cats have relatively few taste buds compared to hurelative to their eyes, than the pupils of the big cats.[76] mans (470 or so versus more than 9,000 on the human
At low light levels a cats pupils will expand to cover most tongue).[91] Domestic and wild cats share a gene mutaof the exposed surface of its eyes.[77] However, domestic tion that keeps their sweet taste buds from binding to
cats have rather poor color vision and (like most nonpri- sugary molecules, leaving them with no ability to taste
mate mammals) have only two types of cones, optimized sweetness.[92] Their taste buds instead respond to amino
for sensitivity to blue and yellowish green; they have lim- acids, bitter tastes, and acids.[93] Cats and many other
ited ability to distinguish between red and green.[78] A animals have a Jacobsons organ located in their mouths
1993 paper reported a response to middle wavelengths that allows them to taste-smell certain aromas in a way
from a system other than the rods which might be due which humans have no experience of. Cats also have a
to a third type of cone. However, this appears to be an distinct temperature preference for their food, preferring
adaptation to low light levels rather than representing true food with a temperature around 100 F (38 C) which is
similar to that of a fresh kill and routinely rejecting food
trichromatic vision.[79]
Cats have excellent hearing and can detect an extremely presented cold or refrigerated (which would signal to the
dead and therefore possibroad range of frequencies. They can hear higher-pitched cat that the prey item is long
[91]
bly
toxic
or
decomposing).
sounds than either dogs or humans, detecting frequencies from 55 Hz to 79,000 Hz, a range of 10.5 octaves,
while humans and dogs both have ranges of about 9
octaves.[80][81] Cats can hear ultrasound, which is important in hunting[82] because many species of rodents make
ultrasonic calls.[83] However, they do not communicate
using ultrasound like rodents do. Cats hearing is also
sensitive and among the best of any mammal,[80] being
most acute in the range of 500 Hz to 32 kHz.[84] This
sensitivity is further enhanced by the cats large movable
outer ears (their pinnae), which both amplify sounds and
help detect the direction of a noise.[82]
Cats have an acute sense of smell, due in part to their welldeveloped olfactory bulb and a large surface of olfactory
mucosa, about 5.8 cm2 (0.90 in2 ) in area, which is about
twice that of humans.[85] Cats are sensitive to pheromones
such as 3-mercapto-3-methylbutan-1-ol,[86] which they
use to communicate through urine spraying and marking with scent glands.[87] Many cats also respond strongly
to plants that contain nepetalactone, especially catnip,
as they can detect that substance at less than one part
per billion.[88] About 7080% of cats are aected by

To aid with navigation and sensation, cats have dozens of

movable whiskers (vibrissae) over their body, especially
their faces. These provide information on the width of
gaps and on the location of objects in the dark, both by
touching objects directly and by sensing air currents; they
also trigger protective blink reexes to protect the eyes
from damage.[53]:47
Most breeds of cat have a noted fondness for settling in
high places, or perching. In the wild, a higher place may
serve as a concealed site from which to hunt; domestic
cats may strike prey by pouncing from a perch such as a
tree branch, as does a leopard.[94] Another possible explanation is that height gives the cat a better observation
point, allowing it to survey its territory. During a fall from
a high place, a cat can reexively twist its body and right
itself using its acute sense of balance and exibility.[95]
This is known as the cat righting reex. An individual
cat always rights itself in the same way, provided it has
the time to do so, during a fall. The height required for
this to occur is around 90 cm (3.0 ft). Cats without a tail
(e.g. Manx cats) also have this ability, since a cat mostly

4 BEHAVIOR

moves its hind legs and relies on conservation of angular to humans[114] and must be administered cautiously.[109]
momentum to set up for landing, and the tail is little used Similarly, application of minoxidil (Rogaine) to the skin
for this feat.[96]
of cats, either accidentally or by well-meaning guardians
attempting to counter loss of fur, has sometimes been
fatal.[115] Essential oils can be toxic to cats and cases have
3.4 Health
been reported of serious illnesses caused by tea tree oil,
including ea treatments and shampoos containing it.[116]
Main article: Cat health
Other common household substances that should be used
with caution around cats include mothballs and other
The average lifespan of pet cats has risen in recent years. naphthalene products.[109] Phenol-based products (e.g.
In the early 1980s it was about seven years,[97]:33[98] rising Pine-Sol, Dettol/Lysol or hexachlorophene)[109] are ofto 9.4 years in 1995[97]:33 and 1215 years in 2014.[99] ten used for cleaning and disinfecting near cats feeding
However, cats have been reported as surviving into their areas or litter boxes, but these can sometimes be fatal.[117]
30s,[100] with the oldest known cat, Creme Pu, dying at Ethylene glycol, often used as an automotive antifreeze, is
a veried age of 38.[101]
particularly appealing to cats, and as little as a teaspoon[118]
Some human foods are toxic to cats;
Spaying or neutering increases life expectancy: one ful can be fatal.
for
example
chocolate
can cause theobromine poisoning,
study found neutered male cats live twice as long as inalthough
(unlike
dogs)
few cats will eat chocolate.[119]
tact males, while spayed female cats live 62% longer
than intact females.[97]:35 Having a cat neutered con- Large amounts of onions or garlic are also poisonous to
[109]
Many houseplants are also dangerous,[120] such
fers health benets, because castrated males cannot de- cats.
velop testicular cancer, spayed females cannot develop as Philodendron species and the leaves of the Easter lily
uterine or ovarian cancer, and both have a reduced risk (Lilium longiorum), which can cause permanent and
life-threatening kidney damage.[121]
of mammary cancer.[102]
Despite widespread concern about the welfare of freeroaming cats, the lifespans of neutered feral cats in
managed colonies compare favorably with those of pet 3.5 Genetics
cats.[103]:45[104]:1358 Neutered cats in managed colonies
Main article: Cat genetics
can also live long lives.[105][106][107][108]
3.4.1

Diseases

Cats can suer from a wide range of health problems,

including infectious diseases, parasites, injuries, and
chronic disease. Vaccinations are available for many of
these diseases, and domestic cats are regularly given treatments to eliminate parasites such as worms and eas.
3.4.2

Poisoning

In addition to obvious dangers such as rodenticides,

insecticides, and herbicides, cats may be poisoned by
many chemicals usually considered safe by their human
guardians,[109] because their livers are less eective at
some forms of detoxication than those of many other
animals, including humans and dogs.[22][110] Some of the
most common causes of poisoning in cats are antifreeze
and rodent baits.[111] Cats may be particularly sensitive
to environmental pollutants.[109][112] When a cat has a
sudden or prolonged serious illness without any obvious
cause, it has possibly been exposed to a toxin.
Many human medicines should never be given to cats. For
example, the painkiller paracetamol (or acetaminophen,
sold as Tylenol and Panadol) is extremely toxic to cats:
even very small doses need immediate treatment and can
be fatal.[113][114] Even aspirin, which is sometimes used
to treat arthritis in cats, is much more toxic to them than

The domesticated cat and its closest wild ancestor are

both diploid organisms that possess 38 chromosomes[122]
and roughly 20,000 genes.[123] About 250 heritable
genetic disorders have been identied in cats, many similar to human inborn errors.[124] The high level of similarity among the metabolism of mammals allows many of
these feline diseases to be diagnosed using genetic tests
that were originally developed for use in humans, as well
as the use of cats as animal models in the study of the
human diseases.[125][126]

4 Behavior
See also: Cat behavior and Cat intelligence
Outdoor cats are active both day and night, although they
tend to be slightly more active at night.[127][128] The timing of cats activity is quite exible and varied, which
means house cats may be more active in the morning
and evening, as a response to greater human activity at
these times.[129] Although they spend the majority of their
time in the vicinity of their home, housecats can range
many hundreds of meters from this central point, and are
known to establish territories that vary considerably in
size, in one study ranging from 7 to 28 hectares (1769
acres).[128]

4.2

Communication

Cats conserve energy by sleeping more than most animals,

especially as they grow older. The daily duration of sleep
varies, usually between 12 and 16 hours, with 13 and 14
being the average. Some cats can sleep as much as 20
hours. The term "cat nap" for a short rest refers to the
cats tendency to fall asleep (lightly) for a brief period.
While asleep, cats experience short periods of rapid eye
movement sleep often accompanied by muscle twitches,
which suggests they are dreaming.[130]

4.1

Sociability

Cat with an Alaskan Malamute dog

may express great aection toward humans or other animals. Ethologically, the human keeper of a cat may
function as a sort of surrogate for the cats mother,[136]
Social grooming
and adult housecats live their lives in a kind of extended
kittenhood,[137] a form of behavioral neoteny. The highAlthough wildcats are solitary, the social behavior of
pitched sounds housecats make to solicit food may mimic
domestic cats is much more variable and ranges from
the cries of a hungry human infant, making them particwidely dispersed individuals to feral cat colonies that
ularly hard for humans to ignore.[138]
form around a food source, based on groups of cooperating females.[131][132] Within such groups, one cat
is usually dominant over the others.[23] Each cat in a
4.2 Communication
colony holds a distinct territory, with sexually active
males having the largest territories, which are about 10 Main article: Cat communication
times larger than those of female cats and may overlap with several females territories.[87] These territories are marked by urine spraying, by rubbing objects Domestic cats use many vocalizations for comat head height with secretions from facial glands, and by munication, including purring, trilling, hissing,
defecation.[87] Between these territories are neutral areas growling/snarling, grunting, and several dierent
[7]
where cats watch and greet one another without territorial forms of meowing. By contrast, feral cats are generally
[139]:208
Their types of body language, including
conicts. Outside these neutral areas, territory holders silent.
usually chase away stranger cats, at rst by staring, hiss- position of ears and tail, relaxation of the whole body,
ing, and growling, and if that does not work, by short but and kneading of the paws, are all indicators of mood.
noisy and violent attacks. Despite some cats cohabiting The tail and ears are particularly important social signal
[140][141]
for example, a raised tail
in colonies, they do not have a social survival strategy, or mechanisms in cats;
[133]
acts as a friendly greeting, and attened ears indicates
a pack mentality, and always hunt alone.
hostility. Tail-raising also indicates the cats position in
However, some pet cats are poorly socialized. In partic- the groups social hierarchy, with dominant individuals
ular, older cats may show aggressiveness towards newly raising their tails less often than subordinate animals.[141]
arrived kittens, which may include biting and scratch- Nose-to-nose touching is also a common greeting and
ing; this type of behavior is known as feline asocial may be followed by social grooming, which is solicited
aggression.[134]
by one of the cats raising and tilting its head.[132]
Though cats and dogs are believed to be natural enemies, Purring may have developed as an evolutionary advanthey can live together if correctly socialized.[135]
tage as a signalling mechanism of reassurance between
Life in proximity to humans and other domestic animals mother cats and nursing kittens. Post-nursing cats often
has led to a symbiotic social adaptation in cats, and cats purr as a sign of contentment: when being petted, becom-

4 BEHAVIOR

ing relaxed,[142][143] or eating. The mechanism by which

cats purr is elusive. The cat has no unique anatomical feature that is clearly responsible for the sound.[144] It was,
until recent times, believed that only the cats of the Felis
genus could purr. However, felids of the Panthera genus
(tiger, lion, jaguar, and leopard) also produce sounds similar to purring, but only when exhaling.[145]

4.3

Grooming

The hooked papillae on a cats tongue act like a hairbrush to help

clean and detangle fur.

A tabby housecat uses its brush-like tongue to groom itself, licking

its fur to straighten it.

Cats are known for spending considerable amounts of

time licking their coat to keep it clean.[146] The cats
tongue has backwards-facing spines about 500 m long,
which are called papillae. These contain keratin which
makes them rigid[147] so the papillae act like a hairbrush. Some cats, particularly longhaired cats, occasionally regurgitate hairballs of fur that have collected in their
stomachs from grooming. These clumps of fur are usually sausage-shaped and about 23 cm (0.81.2 in) long.
Hairballs can be prevented with remedies that ease elimination of the hair through the gut, as well as regular
grooming of the coat with a comb or sti brush.[146]

4.4

for cat ghting is competition between two males to mate

with a female. In such cases, most ghts are won by the
heavier male.[149] Another common reason for ghting in
domestic cats is the diculty of establishing territories
within a small home.[148] Female cats also ght over territory or to defend their kittens. Neutering will decrease
or eliminate this behavior in many cases, suggesting that
the behavior is linked to sex hormones.[150]

Fighting

Indicating aggression

When cats become aggressive, they try to make themselves appear larger and more threatening by raising their
fur, arching their backs, turning sideways and hissing or
spitting.[140] Often, the ears are pointed down and back
to avoid damage to the inner ear and potentially listen for
any changes behind them while focused forward. They
may also vocalize loudly and bare their teeth in an eort
to further intimidate their opponent. Fights usually consist of grappling and delivering powerful slaps to the face
and body with the forepaws as well as bites. Cats also
throw themselves to the ground in a defensive posture
to rake their opponents belly with their powerful hind
legs.[151]
Serious damage is rare, as the ghts are usually short in
duration, with the loser running away with little more than
a few scratches to the face and ears. However, ghts
for mating rights are typically more severe and injuries
may include deep puncture wounds and lacerations. Normally, serious injuries from ghting are limited to infections of scratches and bites, though these can occasionally
kill cats if untreated. In addition, bites are probably the
main route of transmission of feline immunodeciency
virus.[152] Sexually active males are usually involved in
many ghts during their lives, and often have decidedly
battered faces with obvious scars and cuts to their ears
and nose.[153]

4.5 Hunting and feeding

Cats hunt small prey, primarily birds and rodents,[154] and

Among domestic cats, males are more likely to ght than are often used as a form of pest control.[155][156] Domestic
females.[148] Among feral cats, the most common reason cats are a major predator of wildlife in the United States,

4.6

Play

A cat that is playing with a caught mouse. Cats play with their
prey to weaken or exhaust them before making a kill.

killing an estimated 1.43.7 billion birds and 6.920.7

billion mammals annually.[157][158] The bulk of predation
in the United States is done by 80 million feral and stray
cats. Eective measures to reduce this population are
elusive, meeting opposition from cat enthusiasts.[157][158]
In the case of free-ranging pets, equipping cats with bells
and not letting them out at night will reduce wildlife
predation.[154]

9
and texture; they dislike chilled foods and respond most
strongly to moist foods rich in amino acids, which are
similar to meat.[73][133] Cats may reject novel avors (a
response termed neophobia) and learn quickly to avoid
foods that have tasted unpleasant in the past.[133] They
may also avoid sugary foods and milk. Most adult cats
are lactose intolerant; the sugars in milk are not easily digested and may cause soft stools or diarrhea.[133][164] They
can also develop odd eating habits. Some cats like to eat
or chew on other things, most commonly wool, but also
plastic, cables, paper, string, aluminum foil, or even coal.
This condition, pica, can threaten their health, depending
on the amount and toxicity of the items eaten.[165][166]
Though cats usually prey on animals less than half their
size, a feral cat in Australia has been photographed killing
an adult pademelon weighing around the cats size at 4 kg
(8.8 lb).[167]
Since cats lack lips[168] to create suction, they use a lapping method with the tongue to draw liquid upwards into
their mouths. Lapping at a rate of four times a second,
the cat touches the smooth tip of its tongue to the surface of the water, and quickly retracts it, drawing water
upwards.[169]

Free-fed feral cats and house cats tend to consume many

small meals in a single day, although the frequency and 4.6 Play
size of meals varies between individuals.[133] Cats use two
hunting strategies, either stalking prey actively, or waiting Main article: Cat play and toys
in ambush until an animal comes close enough to be cap- Domestic cats, especially young kittens, are known for
tured. Although it is not certain, the strategy used may
depend on the prey species in the area, with cats waiting
in ambush outside burrows, but tending to actively stalk
birds.[159]:153
Perhaps the best known element of cats hunting behavior,
which is commonly misunderstood and often appalls cat
owners because it looks like torture, is that cats often appear to play with prey by releasing it after capture. This
behavior is due to an instinctive imperative to ensure that
the prey is weak enough to be killed without endangering the cat.[160] This behavior is referred to in the idiom
cat-and-mouse game or simply "cat and mouse".
Play ght between kittens, age 14 weeks
Another poorly understood element of cat hunting behavior is the presentation of prey to human guardians. their love of play. This behavior mimics hunting and is
Ethologist Paul Leyhausen proposed that cats adopt hu- important in helping kittens learn to stalk, capture, and
mans into their social group and share excess kill with kill prey.[170] Cats also engage in play ghting, with each
others in the group according to the dominance hierarchy, other and with humans. This behavior may be a way for
in which humans are reacted to as if they are at, or near, cats to practice the skills needed for real combat, and
the top.[161] Anthropologist and zoologist Desmond Mor- might also reduce any fear they associate with launching
ris, in his 1986 book Catwatching, suggests, when cats attacks on other animals.[171]
bring home mice or birds, they are attempting to teach Owing to the close similarity between play and hunting,
their human to hunt, or trying to help their human as if cats prefer to play with objects that resemble prey, such as
feeding an elderly cat, or an inept kitten.[162][163] Mor- small furry toys that move rapidly, but rapidly lose interest
riss hypothesis is inconsistent with the fact that male cats (they become habituated) in a toy they have played with
also bring home prey, despite males having no involve- before.[172] Cats also tend to play with toys more when
ment with raising kittens.[159]:153
they are hungry.[173] String is often used as a toy, but if
Domestic cats select food based on its temperature, smell it is eaten, it can become caught at the base of the cats

10

5 ECOLOGY

tongue and then move into the intestines, a medical emergency which can cause serious illness, even death.[174]
Owing to the risks posed by cats eating string, it is sometimes replaced with a laser pointer's dot, which cats may
chase.[175] There are several important issues related to
using a laser with a cat; rst most, lasers can cause blindness in cats, even lasers which are sold as eye safe[176]
can actually be of much higher power of that proclaimed
and can cause damages to the eyes.[177] In addition, the
cat thinks of the laser point as prey, but gets frustrated as
he is unable to catch it.[178]

4.7

male with which they mate.[181] Furthermore, cats are

superfecund; that is, a female may mate with more than
one male when she is in heat, with the result that dierent
kittens in a litter may have dierent fathers.[179]

Reproduction

A newborn kitten

At 124 hours after conception, the morula forms. At 148

hours, early blastocysts form. At 1012 days, implantation occurs.[182][183]

When cats mate, the tomcat (male) bites the scru of the females
neck as she assumes a position conducive to mating known as
lordosis behavior.

See also: Kitten

The gestation period for cats is between 64 and 67 days,

with an average of 66 days.[184] The size of a litter usually
is three to ve kittens, with the rst litter usually smaller
than subsequent litters. Kittens are weaned between six
and seven weeks old, and cats normally reach sexual
maturity at 510 months (females) and to 57 months
(males), although this can vary depending on breed.[179]
Females can have two to three litters per year, so may produce up to 150 kittens in their breeding span of around
ten years.[179]
Cats are ready to go to new homes at about 12 weeks
of age,[185] when they are ready to leave their mother.
They can be surgically sterilized (spayed or castrated)
as early as 7 weeks to limit unwanted reproduction.[186]
This surgery also prevents undesirable sex-related behavior, such as aggression, territory marking (spraying urine)
in males and yowling (calling) in females. Traditionally,
this surgery was performed at around six to nine months
of age, but it is increasingly being performed prior to
puberty, at about three to six months.[187] In the US, about
80% of household cats are neutered.[188]

Female cats are seasonally polyestrous, which means they

may have many periods of heat over the course of a year,
the season beginning in spring and ending in late autumn.
Heat periods occur about every two weeks and last about
4 to 7 days.[179] Multiple males will be attracted to a female in heat. The males will ght over her, and the victor
wins the right to mate. At rst, the female rejects the
male, but eventually the female allows the male to mate.
The female utters a loud yowl as the male pulls out of
her because a male cats penis has a band of about 120
150 backwards-pointing penile spines, which are about 1
mm long; upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake
the walls of the females vagina, which is a trigger for 5
ovulation. This act also occurs to clear the vagina of other
sperm in the context of a second (or more) mating, thus
giving the later males a larger chance of conception.[180] 5.1
After mating, the female washes her vulva thoroughly. If
a male attempts to mate with her at this point, the female
will attack him. After about 20 to 30 minutes, once the
female is nished grooming, the cycle will repeat.[179]

Ecology
Habitats

Cats are a cosmopolitan species and are found across

much of the world.[29] Geneticist Stephen James O'Brien,
of the National Cancer Institute in Frederick, Maryland,
remarked on how successful cats have been in evolutionBecause ovulation is not always triggered by a single ary terms: Cats are one of evolutions most charismatic
mating, females may not be impregnated by the rst creatures. They can live on the highest mountains and

5.2

Feral cats

11

5.2 Feral cats

Main article: Feral cat
Feral cats are domestic cats that were born in or have re-

A black cat in snowy weather.

Feral farm cat

verted to a wild state. They are unfamiliar with and wary

of humans and roam freely in urban and rural areas.[8]
The numbers of feral cats is not known, but estimates of
the US feral population range from 25 to 60 million.[8]
Feral cats may live alone, but most are found in large
Two pet cats under a car
colonies, which occupy a specic territory and are usually associated with a source of food.[195] Famous feral
cat colonies are found in Rome around the Colosseum
and Forum Romanum, with cats at some of these sites
[196]
[189]
in the hottest deserts.
They are extremely adaptable being fed and given medical attention by volunteers.
and are now present on all continents except Antarctica, Public attitudes towards feral cats vary widely, ranging
and on 118 of the 131 main groups of islandseven on from seeing them as free-ranging pets, to regarding them
isolated islands such as the Kerguelen Islands.[190][191]
as vermin.[197] One common approach to reducing the
Feral cats can live in forests, grasslands, tundra, coastal feral cat population is termed 'trap-neuter-return', where
areas, agricultural land, scrublands, urban areas, and the cats are trapped, neutered, immunized against rabies
wetlands.[192] Their habitats even include small oceanic and the feline leukemia virus, and then released. Before
islands with no human inhabitants.[193] Further, the close releasing them back into their feral colonies, the attendrelatives of domestic cats, the African wildcat (Felis sil- ing veterinarian often nips the tip o one ear to mark it as
vestris lybica) and the Arabian sand cat (Felis margarita) neutered and inoculated, since these cats may be trapped
both inhabit desert environments,[3] and domestic cats again. Volunteers continue to feed and give care to these
still show similar adaptations and behaviors.[22] The cats cats throughout their lives. Given this support, their lifesproblems
ability to thrive in almost any terrestrial habitat has led pans are increased, and behavior and nuisance
[195]
caused
by
competition
for
food
are
reduced.
to its designation as one of the worlds worst invasive
species.[194]
As domestic cats are little altered from wildcats, they can
readily interbreed. This hybridization poses a danger to
the genetic distinctiveness of some wildcat populations,
particularly in Scotland and Hungary and possibly also
the Iberian Peninsula.[32]

5.3 Impact on prey species

To date, little scientic data is available to assess the impact of cat predation on prey populations. Even well-fed
domestic cats may hunt and kill, mainly catching small

12

5 ECOLOGY

5.4 Impact on birds

Carrying half of a rabbit.

A black cat eating a house sparrow

The domestic cat is a signicant predator of birds. UK

assessments indicate they may be accountable for an estimated 64.8 million bird deaths each year.[154] Certain
species appear more susceptible than others; for example,
30% of house sparrow mortality is linked to the domestic
cat.[207] In the recovery of ringed robins (Erithacus rubecula) and dunnocks (Prunella modularis), 31% of deaths
were a result of cat predation.[208] The presence of larger
carnivores such as coyotes which prey on cats and other
small predators reduces the eect of predation by cats
and other small predators such as opossums and raccoons
on bird numbers and variety.[209] The proposal that cat
populations will increase when the numbers of these top
predators decline is called the mesopredator release hypothesis. However, a new study suggests cats are a much
greater menace than previously thought and feral cats kill
several billion birds each year in the United States.[210]

mammals, but also birds, amphibians, reptiles, sh, and

invertebrates.[154][198] Hunting by domestic cats may be
contributing to the decline in the numbers of birds in urban areas, although the importance of this eect remains
controversial.[199] In the wild, the introduction of feral
cats during human settlement can threaten native species
with extinction.[193] In many cases, controlling or eliminating the populations of non-native cats can produce a
rapid recovery in native animals.[200] However, the ecological role of introduced cats can be more complicated.
For example, cats can control the numbers of rats, which
also prey on birds eggs and young, so a cat population
can protect an endangered bird species by suppressing
mesopredators.[201]
On islands, birds can contribute as much as 60% of a
In isolated landmasses, such as Australasia, there are of- cats diet.[211] In nearly all cases, however, the cat canten no other native, medium-sized quadrupedal predators not be identied as the sole cause for reducing the num(including other feline species); this tends to exacerbate bers of island birds, and in some instances, eradication of
the impact of feral cats on small native animals.[202] Na- cats has caused a 'mesopredator release' eect;[212] where
tive species such as the New Zealand kakapo and the Aus- the suppression of top carnivores creates an abundance
tralian bettong, for example, tend to be more ecologically of smaller predators that cause a severe decline in their
vulnerable and behaviorally naive, when faced with pre- shared prey. Domestic cats are, however, known to be a
dation by cats.[203] Feral cats have had a major impact on contributing factor to the decline of many species, a facthese native species and have played a leading role in the tor that has ultimately led, in some cases, to extinction.
The South Island piopio, Chatham Islands rail,[208] the
endangerment and extinction of many animals.[204]
Islands merganser,[213] and the common divEven in places with ancient and numerous cat pop- Auckland[214]
are a few from a long list, with the most
ulations, such as Western Europe, cats appear to be ing petrel
extreme
case
being
the ightless Stephens Island wren,
growing in number and independently of their environwhich
was
driven
to
extinction only a few years after its
ments carrying capacity (such as the numbers of prey
[215][216]
discovery.
[205][206]
available).
This may be explained, at least in part,
by an abundance of food, from sources including feeding by pet owners and scavenging. For instance, research
in Britain suggests that a high proportion of cats hunt
only recreationally.[206] And in South Sweden, where
research in 1982 found that the population density of
cats was as high as 2,000 per square kilometre (5,200/sq
mi).[205]

Some of the same factors that have promoted adaptive radiation of island avifauna over evolutionary time appear
to promote vulnerability to non-native species in modern time. The susceptibility of many island birds is undoubtedly due to evolution in the absence of mainland
predators, competitors, diseases, and parasites, in addition to lower reproductive rates and extended incubation

6.1

History and mythology

13

periods.[217] The loss of ight, or reduced ying ability

is also characteristic of many island endemics.[218] These
biological aspects have increased vulnerability to extinction in the presence of introduced species, such as the domestic cat.[219] Equally, behavioral traits exhibited by island species, such as predatory naivety[220] and groundnesting,[217] have also contributed to their susceptibility.

Interaction with humans

Main article: Human interaction with cats

A 19th century drawing of a tabby cat

Cats are common pets in Europe and North America, and

their worldwide population exceeds 500 million.[11] Although cat guardianship has commonly been associated
with women,[221] a 2007 Gallup poll reported that men
and women in the United States of America were equally
likely to own a cat.[222]

present-day domestic cats. This discovery, combined

with genetic studies, suggests cats were probably domesticated in the Middle East, in the Fertile Crescent around
the time of the development of agriculture and then they
were brought to Cyprus and Egypt.[241]

As well as being kept as pets, cats are also used in

the international fur[223] and leather industries for making coats, hats, blankets and stued toys;[224] and shoes,
gloves and musical instruments respectively[225] (about
24 cats are needed to make a cat fur coat).[226] This
use has now been outlawed in the United States, Australia, and the European Union.[227] Cat pelts have been
used for superstitious purposes as part of the practise of witchcraft,[228] and are still made into blankets in Switzerland as folk remedies believed to help
rheumatism.[229] In the Western intellectual tradition, the
idea of cats as everyday objects have served to illustrate
problems of quantum mechanics in the Schrdingers cat
thought experiment.

Direct evidence for the domestication of cats 5,300 years

ago in Quanhucun, China has been published by archaeologists and paleontologists from the University of Washington and Chinese Academy of Sciences. The cats are
believed to have been attracted to the village by rodents,
which in turn were attracted by grain cultivated and stored
by humans.[242]
In ancient Egypt, cats were sacred animals, with the goddess Bastet often depicted in cat form, sometimes taking
on the war-like aspect of a lioness.[243]:220 The Romans
are often credited with introducing the domestic cat from
Egypt to Europe;[243]:223 in Roman Aquitaine, a rst- or
second-century engraving of a young girl holding a cat
is one of two earliest depictions of the Roman domesticated cat.[244] However, cats possibly were already kept
in Europe prior to the Roman Empire, as they may have
been present in Britain in the late Iron Age.[34] Domestic cats were spread throughout much of the rest of the
world during the Age of Discovery, as they were carried
on sailing ships to control shipboard rodents and as goodluck charms (see Ships cat).[243]:223

A few attempts to build a cat census have been made over

the years, both through associations or national and international organizations (such as the Canadian Federation
of Humane Societies's one[230] ) and over the net,[231][232]
but such a task does not seem simple to achieve. General estimates for the global population of domestic cats
range widely from anywhere between 200 million to 600
Several ancient religions believed cats are exalted souls,
million.[233][234][235][236][237][238]
companions or guides for humans, that are all-knowing
but mute so they cannot inuence decisions made by hu6.1 History and mythology
mans. In Japan, the maneki neko cat is a symbol of good
fortune.[245]
Main articles: Cultural depictions of cats and Cats in anAlthough no species are sacred in Islam, cats are
cient Egypt
have stated
Traditionally, historians tended to think ancient Egypt revered by Muslims. Some Western writers
[246]
Muhammad
had
a
favorite
cat,
Muezza.
He is rewas the site of cat domestication, owing to the clear deported
to
have
loved
cats
so
much,
he
would
do withpictions of house cats in Egyptian paintings about 3,600
out
his
cloak
rather
than
disturb
one
that
was
sleeping
on
[3]
years old. However, in 2004, a Neolithic grave exca[247]
The
story
has
no
origin
in
early
Muslim
writers,
it.
vated in Shillourokambos, Cyprus, contained the skeleSu saint, Ahmed
tons, laid close to one another, of both a human and and seems to confuse a story of a later[248]
centuries
after
Muhammad.
ar-Rifa'i,
a cat. The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old,
pushing back the earliest known felinehuman associa- Freyja, the goddess of love, beauty, and fertility in Norse
tion signicantly.[13][239][240] The cat specimen is large mythology, is depicted as riding a chariot drawn by
and closely resembles the African wildcat, rather than cats.[249]

14

Many cultures have negative superstitions about cats. An

example would be the belief that a black cat crossing
ones path leads to bad luck, or that cats are witches
familiars used to augment a witchs powers and skills.
The killing of cats in Medieval Ypres, Belgium, is commemorated in the innocuous present-day Kattenstoet (cat
parade).[250]

REFERENCES

List of cat documentaries

List of ctional cats and other felines
Pet door including cat ap
Pet rst aid

Popular cat names

According to a myth in many cultures, cats have multiple lives. In many countries, they are believed to have
Trap-neuter-return
nine lives, but in Italy, Germany, Greece, Brazil and some
Spanish-speaking regions, they are said to have seven
lives,[251][252] while in Turkish and Arabic traditions, the Cats by location
number of lives is six.[253] The myth is attributed to the
natural suppleness and swiftness cats exhibit to escape
Cats in ancient Egypt
life-threatening situations. Also lending credence to this
Cats in Australia
myth is the fact that falling cats often land on their feet,
using an instinctive righting reex to twist their bodies
Cats in New Zealand
around. Nonetheless, cats can still be injured or killed by
[254]
a high fall.
Cats in the United States

Depictions in art
Jar with Small Looped Handles and Feline Design,
Chim c. 1100-1400. Brooklyn Museum
An Ancient Egyptian bronze statue featuring a cat
and a kitten.
Figure of a Cat made by Meissen Porcelain Factory,
Saxony c. 1800. Brooklyn Museum
Cats from Unai no tomo by Shimizu Seifu. Japan,
1891-1923. Brooklyn Museum
Pair of Cat Bookends manufactured by Chase Brass
& Copper Co., USA c. 1930-1935. Brooklyn Museum
Cat illustration by the German artist Fedor Flinzer,
called Raphael of Cats.

See also
Animal testing on cats
Animal track
Cancer in cats
Cat and mouse (cat-and-mouse game)
Cat lady
Cats on the Internet
Cat years
List of cat breeds
List of cats

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24

11

11
11.1

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Mahaexp, Candy-Panda, Bean64, Shne, Mountain valley, Muddypuddles, Browneyedgirlkp, Johnthesher, Flying Fish0, EVIL-C44, Kyle,
Jessewillem, PhilipBembridge, Jujumagumbo, Miranda, Getxsick, Justinb52, Hemi66, Swinland22, Peeplaja, Rgamsta, Khadharneth, Cihangir21, Telephone123, Nicks13, Lost Nothingness, T-bonham, Yovinedelcielo, Iceberg2229, Qxz, Someguy1221, WisJohnson, Liko81,
Syedklm, Yomach, Muleattack, Benyon3, ColinBoylett, Brie4381, Kittys little helper, Anna Lincoln, Una Smith, Vexperiential, Thecollegekid, WfordAggie, Bass shing physicist, Corvus cornix, Sandhillcrane, Tricky Wiki44, Armlnsn, Leafyplant, The dyer man, CanOfWorms, Brian Eisley, Thekittybomb, Mzmadmike, Abdullais4u, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, MarkMarek, Yiggum, Pj pentagram, Seb
az86556, Gingemonkey, Vgranucci, Isk84joy, Latulla, Esmehwp, Jeeny, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Atelaes, Ghamer01, WinTakeAll, Rosco
Jones, Xavcam, Chipmunk365, BrianAdler, Gurin Nicolas, Gitman00, Rakonas, Complex (de), Lerdthenerd, Warpigswitch, KurtKotzur,
Katwings, Earthistyouth, Magickid1000, Synthebot, Mike harap, Antixt, Harlemmepham, Zmiough, CoolKid1993, Anonymousboy04,
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Julio7492, Insanity Incarnate, Skunkmaster, Lily15, Gilby321, Loyalgame3, Wu-zi, Mary quite contrary, Bitbut, AlleborgoBot, Grapey29,
DarthBotto, Vahagn Petrosyan, Amago~enwiki, DrJoeOhrt, Sigroc, Grubish, Explosive lobotomy, Adams4num2, Radioactive akomen,
CloutierFan02, Boogersnot555, Prebsol, Hmwith, Laughingcat945, Demmy, Kbrose, TaylorLTD, Scoresby, Christine5797, Wot the jott,
SieBot, Neon Fox, Shona isbister, iginnte, DollieLlama, Afrothunder222, Nabiki87, Eeeasterbunny, Memories Past, Graham Beards,
Allbook, Oz Spinner, Eoghan888, Poopynoob, Umbreonsmom, Reggae111, Thebunnysmeow, Bradylvr123, NB-NB, Drapesx91, Virtual
Cowboy, Arpose, Gerakibot, Drake7595, Mbz1, Dawn Bard, Icobi, IH81107, Jennaelisha, The Parsnip!, SE7, Acps110, This, that and

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the other, Heartislove, Sicomadman, Yintan, Thecoolkid123, Ajd1091, Djscottish, Roidhrigh, Old school punk, Talaria20, Sashok00, Rutazere, Jenett x3, Annoyed with fanboys, Merotoker1, Calworth, Arda Xi, Voldemore, Kemdrath, Interchange88, Icedragon520, Aillema,
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8902317830, Starmerj14, Breeet, MichaelIvan, Freepic, Dabomb87, Florentino oro, Mapaboy, Cycle700, Lowell33, Felizdenovo, Savie
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