MAKALAH PRINSIP STRATIGRAFI

Disusun sebagai Pemenuhan Tugas Pengganti Ujian Akhir Semester Mata Kuliah Prinsip
Stratigrafi Program Studi S1 Teknik Geologi Fakultas Teknik Geologi Univesitas Padjadjaran

Disusun Oleh :
MUHAMMAD HIKMATYAR
270110140013

PROGRAM STUDI S1 TEKNIK GEOLOGI FAKULTAS TEKNIK GEOLOGI

UNIVERSITAS PADJADJARAN
JATINAGOR
2015

DAFTAR ISI
STRUCTURAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION.....................................4
Lithostratigraphy................................................................................................. 4
STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIP........................................................................4
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNIT.............................................................................5
DESCRIPTION OF LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNIT..................................................7
Biostratigraphy.................................................................................................... 8
FOSSILS AND STRATIGRAPHY...........................................................................9
BIOZONES AND ZONE FOSSILS......................................................................10
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION................................................................15
Chronostratigraphy............................................................................................ 17
Geochronostratigraphy........................................................................................ 20
Lithodemic......................................................................................................... 23
SQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY.................................................................................25
Sequence Stratigraphy........................................................................................ 25
Historical Development of Sequence Stratigraphy.................................................27
Sequence Stratigraphy vs Tectonnic Controls on Sedimentation.............................30
Sequence Stratigraphy vs Lithostratigraphy and Allostratigraphy..........................32
VOLCANO-STRATIGRAPHY.................................................................................35
VOLCANIC ROCKS AND SEDIMENT.................................................................35
Transport and Deposition of Volcaniclastic Material..............................................36
PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS........................................................................36
PYROCLASTIC FLOWS.................................................................................... 37
PYROCLASTIC SURGES...................................................................................38
PYROCLASTIC FLOW, SURGE, AND FALL DEPOSITS........................................38
VOLCANIC DEBRIS-FLOW AVALANCHES.........................................................39
LAHARS......................................................................................................... 40
Facies Associations in Volcanic Successions..........................................................40
CONTINENTAL BASALT PROVINCES................................................................41
CONTINENTAL STRATOVOLCANOES...............................................................42
CONTINENTAL SILICIC VOLCANOES................................................................42
MID-OCEANIC RIDGE BASALTS.......................................................................42

SEAMOUNTS.................................................................................................. 43
MARINE STRATOVOLCANOES.........................................................................43
SUBMARINE SILICIC VOLCANOES...................................................................43
GEOLOGIC TIME................................................................................................. 45
Geologic Time..................................................................................................... 45
The Geologic Time Scale...................................................................................... 45
SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONTMENT AND FACIES...................................................48
Sedimentary Environtment and Facies.................................................................48
The Spectrum of Environtment and Facies...........................................................49
Facies Anlysis..................................................................................................... 50
Concepts of Depositional System, Facies, and Facies Models..................................50
Classification of Depositional Environments.........................................................52
TECTONO-STRATIGRAPHY.................................................................................55
Plates and Plate Tectonics...................................................................................55
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES...................................................................55
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES................................................................56
Tectonostratigraphy............................................................................................ 58
TECTONICCALY FORMED STRATIGRAPHY.......................................................58
EFFECT OF ACTIVE TECTONICS ON LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY..............................59
MEASURING SECTION........................................................................................ 61
Measuring a Stratigraphic Section with a Jacobs Staf..........................................61
SEDIMENTARY BASIN ANALYSIS.......................................................................64
Controls on Sediment Accumulation.....................................................................64
Tectonics of sedimentary basins....................................................................65
Tectonic setting classification of sedimentary basins....................................66
Basins Related to Lithospheric Extention.............................................................66
Rift basins...................................................................................................... 68
Intracratonic basins....................................................................................... 68
Ocean basins................................................................................................. 69
Basins Related to Subduction..............................................................................70
Trenches........................................................................................................ 71
Forearc basins............................................................................................... 71
Backarc basins.............................................................................................. 72
Sedimentary Basin Analysis................................................................................ 72

Stratigraphic analysis.................................................................................... 73
Sedimentological analysis.............................................................................73
DAFTAR PUSTAKA............................................................................................... 75

CHAPTER

STRUCTURAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC

INTERPRETATION
Lithostratigraphy
In lithostratigraphy rock units are considered interms of the lithological
characteristics of the strata and their relative stratigraphic positions. The
relative stratigraphic positions of rock units can be determined by considering
geometric and physical relationships that indicate which beds are older and
which ones are younger. The units can be classified into a hierarchical system of
members, formations and groups that provide a basis for categorising and
describing rocks in lithostratigraphic terms.
STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIP
Superposition
Provided the rocks are the right way up (see below) the beds higher in the
stratigraphic sequence of deposits
will be younger than the lower beds. This rule can be simply applied to a layercake stratigraphy but must be applied with care in circumstances where there is
a significant depositional topography (e.g. fore-reef deposits may be lower than
reef-crest rocks.

Unconformities
An unconformity is a break in sedimentation and where there is erosion of the
underlying strata this provides a clear relationship in which the beds below the
unconformity are clearly older than those above it. All rocks which lie above the
unconformity, or a surface that can be correlated with it, must be younger than
those below. In cases where strata have been deformed and partly eroded prior to
deposition of the younger beds, an angular unconformity is formed. A
disconformity marks a break in sedimentation and some erosion, but without any
deformation of the underlying strata.
Cross-cutting relationships
Any unit that has boundaries that cut across other strata must be younger than
the rocks it cuts. This is most commonly seen with intrusive bodies such as
batholiths on a larger scale and dykes on a smaller scale. This relationship is
also seen in fissure fills, sedimentary dykes that form by younger sediments
filling a crack or chasm in older rocks.
Included fragments
The fragments in a clastic rock must be made up of a rock that is older than the
strata in which they are found. The same relationship holds true for igneous
rocks that contain pieces of the surrounding country rock as xenoliths (literally
foreign rocks).
This relationship can be useful in determining the age relationship between rock
units that are some distance apart. Pebbles of a characteristic lithology can
provide conclusive evidence that the source rock type was being eroded by the
time a later unit was being deposited tens or hundreds of kilometres away.

Way-up indicators in sedimentary rocks

The folding and faulting of strata during mountain building can rotate whole
successions of beds (formed as horizontal or nearly horizontal layers) through any
angle, resulting in beds that may be vertical or completely overturned. In any
analysis of deformed strata, it is essential to know the direction of younging, that
is, the direction through the layers towards younger rocks. The direction of
younging can be determined by small-scale features that indicate the way-up of
the beds or by using other stratigraphic techniques to determine the order of
formation.
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNIT
There is a hierarchical framework of terms used for lithostratigraphic units, and
from largest to smallest these are: Supergroup, Group, Formation, Member
and Bed. The basic unit of lithostratigraphic division of rocks is the formation,
which is a body of material that can be identified by its lithological
characteristics and by its stratigraphic position. It must be traceable laterally,
that is, it must be mappable at the surface or in the subsurface. A formation
should have some degree of lithological homogeneity and its defining
characteristics

may

include

mineralogical

composition,

texture,

primary

sedimentary structures and fossil content in addition to the lithological

composition. Note that the material does not necessarily have to be lithified and
that all the discussion of terminology and stratigraphic relationships applies
equally to unconsolidated sediment.
A formation is not defined in terms of its age either by isotopic dating or in terms
of biostratigraphy. Information about the fossil content of a mapping unit is
useful in the description of a formation but the detailed taxonomy of the fossils
that may define the relative age in biostratigraphic terms does not form part of

the definition of a lithostratigraphic unit. A formation may be, and often is, a
diachronous unit, that is, a deposit with the same lithological properties that was
formed at diferent times in diferent places.
A formation may be divided into smaller units in order to provide more detail of
the distribution of lithologies. The term member is used for rock units that have
limited lateral extent and are consistently related to a particular formation (or,
rarely, more than one formation). An example would be a formation composed
mainly of sandstone but which included beds of conglomerate in some parts of
the area of outcrop. A number of members may be defined within a formation (or
none at all) and the formation does not have to be completely subdivided in this
way: some parts of a formation may not have a member status. Individual beds or
sets of beds may be named if they are very distinctive by virtue of their lithology
or fossil content. These beds may have economic significance or be useful in
correlation because of their easily recognisable characteristics across an area.
Where two or more formations are found associated with each other and share
certain characteristics they are considered to form a group. Groups are
commonly

bound

by

unconformities

which

can

be

traced

basin-wide.

Unconformities that can be identified as major divisions in the stratigraphy over

the area of a continent are sometimes considered to be the bounding surfaces of
associations of two or more groups known as a supergroup.
DESCRIPTION OF LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNIT
The formation is the fundamental lithostratigraphic unit and it is usual to follow
a certain procedure in geological literature when describing a formation to
ensure that most of the following issues are considered. Members and groups are
usually described in a similar way.

Lithology and characteristics

The field characteristics of the rock, for example, an oolitic grainstone,
interbedded coarse siltstone and claystone, a basaltic lithic tuf, and so on form
the first part of the description. Although a formation will normally consist
mainly of one lithology, combinations of two or more lithologies will often
constitute a formation as interbedded or interfingering units. Sedimentary
structures (ripple cross-laminations, normal grading, etc.), petrography (often
determined from thin-section analysis) and fossil content (both body and trace
fossils) should also be noted.
Definition of top and base
These are the criteria that are used to distinguish beds of this unit from those of
underlying and overlying units; this is most commonly a change in lithology from,
say, calcareous mudstone to coral boundstone.
Where the boundary is not a sharp change from one formation to another, but is
gradational, an arbitrary boundary must be placed within the transition. As an
example, if the lower formation consists of mainly mudstone with thin sandstone
beds, and the upper is mainly sandstone with subordinate mudstone, the
boundary may be placed at the point where sandstone first makes up more than
50% of beds. A common convention is for only the base of a unit to be defined at
the type section: the top is taken as the defined position of the base of the
overlying unit. This convention is used because at another location there may be
beds at the top of the lower unit that are not present at the type locality: these
can be simply added to the top without a need for redefining the formation
boundaries.

Type section
A type section is the location where the lithological characteristics are clear and,
if possible, where the lower and upper boundaries of the formation can be seen.
Sometimes it is necessary for a type section to be composite within a type area,
with diferent sections described from diferent parts of the area. The type
section will normally be presented as a graphic sedimentary log and this will
form the stratotype. It must be precisely located (grid reference and/or GPS
location) to make it possible for any other geologist to visit the type section and
see the boundaries and the lithological characteristics described.
Thickness and extent
The thickness is measured in the type section, but variations in the thickness
seen at other localities are also noted. The limits of the geographical area over
which the unit is recognised should also be determined. There are no formal
upper or lower limits to thickness and extent of rock units defined as a formation
(or a member or group). The variability of rock types within an area will be the
main constraint on the number and thickness of lithostratigraphic units that can
be described and defined. Quality and quantity of exposure also play a role, as
finer subdivision is possible in areas of good exposure.
Other information
Where the age for the formation can be determined by fossil content, radiometric
dating or relationships with other rock units this may be included, but note that
this does not form part of the definition of the formation. A formation would not
be defined as, for example, rocks of Burdigalian age, because an interpretation
of the fossil content or isotopic dating information is required to determine the
age. Information about the facies and interpretation of the environment of
deposition might be included but a formation should not be defined in terms of

depositional environment, for example, lagoonal deposits, as this is an

interpretation of the lithological characteristics. It is also useful to comment on
the terminology and definitions used by previous workers and how they difer
from the usage proposed.

Biostratigraphy
The occurrence of fossils in beds of sedimentary rocks provided the basis for
correlation of strata and the concept of a stratigraphic column when the science
of geology was still young. The fundamental importance of biostratigraphy has
not diminished through time, but has merely been complemented by other
stratigraphic techniques discussed in preceding and following chapters. The
evolution of organisms through time and the formation of new species provide
the basis for the recognition of periods in the history of the Earth on the basis of
the fossils that are contained within strata. In this way Earth history can be
divided up into major units that are now known to represent hundreds of
millions of years, some of which are familiarly known as the age of fish, the age
of reptiles and so on, because of the types of fossils found. Fossils also provide
highresolution stratigraphic tools that allow recognition of time slices of only
tens to hundreds of thousands of years that are important for building up a
detailed picture of events through time. Correlation between biostratigraphic
units and the geological time scale therefore provides the temporal framework for
the analysis of successions of sedimentary rocks.
FOSSILS AND STRATIGRAPHY
The importance of fossils as indicators of processes and environments of
deposition has been mentioned in previous chapters, but the study of fossils has
also provided fundamental information about the evolution of life on Earth.

Skeletons and shells of animals or pieces of plant that are found as fossils are
clear evidence of the fact that the nature of organisms living on the planet has
changed through time.
Some of these fossils resemble plants or animals living today and are evidently
related to modern lifeforms, whereas others are unlike anything we are familiar
with. The more spectacular of these fossils tend to capture the imagination with
visions of times in the past when, for example, dinosaurs occupied ecological
niches on land, in the sea and even in the air. Even casual fossil hunting reveals
the remains of aquatic animals such as ammonites and fragments of plants that
are unlike anything we see living around us now.
Cataloguing the fossils found in sedimentary rocks carried out in the 18th and
19th centuries provided the first clues about the passage of geological time. Early
scientists and naturalists observed that diferent rock units contained either
similar fossil remains or assemblages of fossils that were quite diferent from one
unit to another. Moreover, the units that contained the same fossils could
sometimes be traced laterally and shown to be part of the same layer. Those with
diferent fossils could be shown by general stratigraphic principles to be either
younger or older. The rocks that contained a particular fossil type were often the
same lithology, but, crucially for the development of stratigraphy, sometimes the
same fossil type was found in a diferent rock type.
With advances in the science of palaeontology it became evident that there were
patterns in the distribution of fossils. Certain types of organism were found to be
dominant in particular groups of strata. This led to the erection of the scheme of
systems that were initially grouped into deposits formed in three eras of
geological time: ancient life, the Palaeozoic, middle life, the Mesozoic and
recent life, the Cenozoic. The actual time periods that these represented were

pure speculation when these concepts were first introduced in the 19th century
and the numerical ages for these eras were not known until techniques for
radiometric dating were developed.
The occurrence of certain types of fossils in particular stratigraphic units was
simply an observation at this stage: an explanation for the distribution of the
fossils in the stratigraphic record came once ideas of the evolution of life were
developed.
BIOZONES AND ZONE FOSSILS
A biostratigraphic unit is a body of rock defined by its fossil content. It is
therefore fundamentally diferent from a lithostratigraphic unit that is defined
by

the

lithological

properties

of

the

rock.

The

fundamental

unit

of

biostratigraphy is the biozone. Biozones are units of stratigraphy that are

defined by the zone fossils (usually species or subspecies) that they contain.
In theory they are independent of lithology, although environmental factors often
have to be taken into consideration in the definition and interpretation of
biozones. In the same way that formations in lithostratigraphy must be defined
from a type section, there must also be a type section designated as a stratotype
and described for each biozone. They are named from the characteristic or
common taxon (or occasionally taxa) that defines the biozone. There are several
diferent ways in which biozones can be designated in terms of the zone fossils
that they contain.
Interval biozones These are defined by the occurrences within a succession of one
or two taxa. Where the first appearance and the disappearance of a single taxon
is used as the definition, this is referred to as a taxon-range biozone. A second
type is a concurrent range biozone, which uses two taxa with overlapping ranges,

with the base defined by the appearance of one taxon and the top by the
disappearance of the second one. A third possibility is a partial range biozone,
which is based on two taxa that do not have overlapping ranges: once again, the
base is defined by the appearance of one taxon and the top by the disappearance
of a second. Where a taxon can be recognised as having followed another and
preceding a third as part of a phyletic lineage the biozone defined by this taxon is
called a lineage biozone (also called a consecutive range biozone).
Assemblage biozones In this case the biozone is defined by at least three diferent
taxa that may or may not be related. The presence and absence, appearance and
disappearance of these taxa are all used to define a stratigraphic interval.
Assemblage biozones are used in instances where there are no suitable taxa to
define interval biozones and they may represent shorter time periods than those
based on one or two taxa.
Acme biozones The abundance of a particular taxon may vary through time, in
which case an interval containing a statistically high proportion of this taxon
may be used to define a biozone. This approach can be unreliable because the
relative abundance is due to local environmental factors.
The ideal zone fossil would be an organism that lived in all depositional
environments all over the world and was abundant; it would have easily
preserved hard parts and would be part of an evolutionary lineage that
frequently developed new, distinct species. Not surprisingly, no such fossil taxon
has ever existed and the choice of fossils used in biostratigraphy has been
determined by a number of factors that are considered in the following sections.
Rate of speciation
The frequency with which new species evolve and replace former species in the
same lineage determines the resolution that can be applied in biostratigraphy.

Some organisms seem to have hardly evolved at all: the brachiopod Lingula
seems to look exactly the same today as the fossils found in Lower Palaeozoic
rocks and hence is of little biostratigraphic value. The groups that appear to
display the highest rates of speciation are vertebrates, with mammals, reptiles
and fish developing new species every 1 to 3 million years on average (Stanley
1985). However, the stratigraphic
record of vertebrates is poor compared with marine molluscs, which are much
more abundant as fossils, but have slower average speciation rates (around 10
million years). There are some groups that appear to have developed new forms
regularly and at frequent intervals: new species of ammonites appear to have
evolved every million years or so during the Jurassic and Cretaceous and in parts
of the Cambrian some trilobite lineages appear to have developed new species at
intervals of about a million years (Stanley 1985). By using more than one species
to define them, biozones can commonly be established for time periods of about a
million years, with higher resolution possible in certain parts of the stratigraphic
record, especially in younger strata.
Depositional environment controls
The conditions vary so much between diferent depositional environments that no
single species, genus or family can be expected to live in all of them. The
adaptations required to live in a desert compared with a swamp, or a sandy
coastline compared with a deep ocean, demand that the organisms that live in
these environments are diferent. There is a strong environmental control on the
distribution of taxa today and it is reasonable to assume that the nature of the
environment strongly influenced the distribution of fossil groups as well. Some
environments are more favourable to the preservation of body fossils than others:
for example, preservation potential is lower on a high-energy beach than in a low-

energy lagoon. There is a fundamental problem with correlation between

continental and marine environments because very few animals or plants are
found in both settings. In the marine environment the most widespread
organisms are those that are planktonic (free floating) or animals that are
nektonic (free-swimming lifestyle). Those that live on thesea bed, the benthonic
or benthic creatures and plants, are normally found only in a certain water depth
range and are hence not quite so useful.
The rates of sedimentation in diferent depositional environments are also a
factor in the preservation and distribution of stratigraphically useful fossils.
Slow sedimentation rates commonly result in poor preservation because the
remains of organism are left exposed on the land surface or sea floor where they
are subject to biogenic degradation. On the other hand, with a slower rate of
accumulation in a setting where organic material has a higher chance of
preservation (e.g. in an anoxic environment), the higher concentration of fossils
resulting from the reduced sediment supply can make the collecting of
biostratigraphically useful material easier. It is also more likely that a first or
last appearance datum will be identifiable in a single outcrop section because if
sediment accumulation rates are high, hundreds of metres of strata may lie
within a single biozone.
Geographical distribution of organisms
Two environments may be almost identical in terms of physical conditions but if
they are on opposite sides of the world they may be inhabited by quite diferent
sets of animals and plants. The contrasts are greatest in continental
environments where geographical isolation of communities due to tectonic plate
movements has resulted in quite diferent families and orders. The mammal
fauna of Australia are a striking example of geographical isolation resulting in

the evolution of a group of animals that are quite distinct from animals living in
similar environments in Europe or Asia. This geographical isolation of groups of
organisms is called provincialism and it also occurs in marine organisms,
particularly benthic forms, which cannot easily travel across oceans. Present or
past oceans have been sufficiently separate to develop localised communities even
though the depositional environments may have been similar. This faunal
provincialism makes it necessary to develop diferent biostratigraphic schemes in
diferent parts of the world.
Abundance and size of fossils
To be useful as a zone fossil a species must be sufficiently abundant to be found
readily in sedimentary rocks. It must be possible for the geologist to be able to
find representatives of the appropriate taxon without having to spend an undue
amount of time looking. There is also a play-of between size and abundance.
In general, smaller organisms are more numerous and hence the fossils of small
organisms tend to be the most abundant. The problem with very small fossils is
that they may be difficult to find and identify. The need for biostratigraphic
schemes to be applicable to subsurface data from boreholes has led to an
increased use of microfossils, fossils that are too small to be recognised in hand
specimen, but which may be abundant and readily identified under the
microscope (or electron microscope in some cases).
Schemes based on microfossils have been developed in parallel to macrofossil
schemes. Although a scheme based on ammonites may work very well in the
field, the chances of finding a whole ammonite in the core of a borehole are
remote. Microfossils are the only viable material for use in biostratigraphy where
drilling does not recover core but only brings up pieces of the lithologies in the
drilling mud.

BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION
Biostratigraphy can provide a high-resolution basis for the division of strata and
hence a means of correlating between diferent successions. Certain conditions
are, however, required for the approach to be successful. The first and most
obvious is that the rocks must contain the appropriate fossils: this will be largely
dependent upon the environment of deposition because it may not have been
suitable for the critical taxa. The diagenetic history is also relevant because the
fossil material may be altered or completely removed by chemical processes such
as mineral replacement or dissolution, or physical processes such as compaction.
A second major factor is the relative rate of sedimentation in the successions and
the frequency of speciation events: rapid sediment accumulation and infrequent
speciation result in a situation where two thick successions may be shown to lie
within the same biozone, but no further subdivision and correlation is possible.
Correlating different environments
It is commonly the case that the rocks being studied contain fossils that have
biostratigraphic value, but do not contain representatives of the taxa used in the
worldwide biostratigraphic zonation scheme for that particular part of the
stratigraphic record. This may be because of provincialism, the tendency for
populations to occur only in a limited geographical area, or due to the
depositional environment. The fossils found in the deposits of contrasting
environments such as muds deposited in an ofshore setting compared with a
sandy foreshore are likely to be diferent, or on a larger scale, due to diferent
climatic conditions at diferent latitudes. Diferences in fossil content due to
provincialism are not related to the environment, but are a result of geographical
isolation of evolutionary lineages. Under these circumstances a more roundabout
method of correlating using fossils may be required in which a local or regional

zonation scheme is set up using the taxa that are found in the area. The strata
containing the fauna or flora of the local scheme must then be correlated with the
global scheme by finding a succession elsewhere in which taxa from both the local
and global schemes are preserved.
The appearance or disappearance of a zone fossil may be due to changes in
environment rather than be of stratigraphic importance. If the depositional
environment has remained the same, the appearance of a taxon may be due to a
speciation event and this will therefore have stratigraphic significance. However,
an alternative explanation may be that the species had already existed for a
period of time in a diferent geographical location before migrating to the area of
the studied section. The disappearance of a species from the stratigraphic
succession is likely to represent an extinction event if the depositional
environment has not changed: a population is unlikely to move away from a
favourable setting. Relative sea level is one of the factors that afects depositional
environment and hence fossil content: appearance and disappearance of taxa
within a succession may therefore be due to sea-level changes rather than to
speciation and extinction events.
Organisms that are tolerant of diferent conditions have the widest application
and most value as zone fossils. Taxa that are very sensitive to environmental
conditions, such as corals, are only useful in circumstances where the
environment of deposition has been constant.
Graphical correlation schemes
The thickness of a biostratigraphic unit at any place is determined by the rate of
sediment accumulation during the time period represented by the biozone. A
succession that is considered to have been a site of continuous, steady
sedimentation is chosen as a reference section and the positions of biozone

markers (appearance and disappearance of taxa) are noted within it. Another
vertical succession of strata containing the same biozone markers can then be
compared with this reference section (Carney & Pierce 1995). Tie-points are
established using the biostratigraphic information and intermediate levels can
be correlated graphically.
This approach is particularly efective at identifying changes in rates of
sedimentation and recognising the presence of a hiatus (period of erosion or
nondeposition) in a succession. The recognition of depositional hiatuses is
important in sequence stratigraphic analysis of successions and has been used
extensively in subsurface correlation.

Chronostratigraphy
Chronostratigraphy is the element of stratigraphy that deals with the relative
time relations and ages of rock bodies.
Chronostratigraphy, consistent with its general use today, is the establishing
of time relations in stratified rocks. The term is generally restricted to depositionrelated processes in which the superpositional properties are present, and hence
the detailed historical record is accessible. Chronostratigraphy is the application
of disciplines such as biostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy, chemo-stratigraphy,
cyclostratigraphy, sequence stratigraphy, and numerical dating to stratigraphic
successions in order to interpret temporal correlations. Furthermore, it involves
the development of formally named and defined chronostratigraphic units and
hierarchies, which comprise the ICS as well as regional chronostratigraphic
classifications. On Earth, chronostratigraphy efectively starts in the Archean,
ca. 3.8 Ma, when a stratal record begins.

Accordingly, a formal chronostratigraphic unit is the material stratal(timerock) body interpreted to have been deposited contemporaneously and with lower
and upper boundaries defined by GSSPs that aford the most reliable
stratigraphic signals for their temporal correlation. A formal geochronologic
unit is the continuous time interval between the deposition of the lowest and
highest strata within the unit. In the case of non-stratified rocks, the rock body is
referenced in terms of the time it formed (e.g., Early Cretaceous El Capitan
Granite). This does not mean that the rock is part of a time unit, for rock and
time are separate and distinct phenomena: It simply conveys that a dominant
event in the granites formation (crystallization of the component minerals) took
place during a particular time unit, as deduced, for instance, from radiometric
ages. The boundaries of the time unit in this example, the Early Cretaceous
Epoch (and simultaneously of the equivalent Lower Cretaceous Series), are
established

using

chronostratigraphic

methods

at

GSSP

sections

and

numerically calibrated, for example, by radiometric dating of volcanic ash layers

within fossiliferous, correlatable successions.
At the other end of the geologic time scale, the recognition of long oceanic
successions with efectively complete Milankovitch signatures has led to the
revival of the unit-stratotype concept (Hilgen et al., 2006). Neogene stages
(Zanclean and Piacenzian) with upper and lower boundaries defined by GSSPs in
the same section have within them all significant biostratigraphic and
magnetostratigraphic signals for the time encompassed and numerical ages that
are integrated and precisely dated at high resolution through astronomical
tuning. The Holocene, until recently defined only numerically, has been redefined
with a GSSP in a Greenland ice core (Walker et al., 2009), and this epoch in turn
leads to the present. Here geologic events are observed, recorded, and dated as
they occur using human time (year, month, day, hour). Superposition in deposits

analyzed at such high time resolution may commonly be compromised, for

example, by the blurring efects of bioturbation (cf. Zalasiewicz et al., 2007), and
this complicates the application of chronostratigraphy in such instances.
Early versions of the GTS were created, and functioned efectively, in the days
before radiometric dating (e.g., Jukes-Brown, 1902). Today, considerable efort is
expended to calibrate the GTS with numerical ages. Nevertheless, it remains
more common to convey geological time information in terms of GTS units rather
than by numbers of years. This is partly because of the familiarity and
convenience of the units (to geologists at least) and partly because it is usually
easier and more useful to establish relative correlations than to establish the
numerical ages of rock phenomena. More importantly, however, the rocks formed
during a time unit often encompass (and record) distinctive, time-constrained
global environments (e.g., the Hirnantian Stage). They provide a con-venient and
practical method of reference to the events and time intervals they represent,
just as with human history, when terms are used for a distinctive time interval
(e.g., Renaissance) and its human products (e.g., art, architecture, literature,
banking). Even informal terms, such as Caledonian and Grenvillian, are widely
used in the same way in geology. For circumstances in which global units are
difficult to apply, regional ones have been established (see Gradstein et al., 2004,
2012).
While traditionally chronostratigraphic

units

consist

of rocks, whereas

geochronologic units are spans of time, there has been debate over the necessity
of retaining a dual and parallel time scale with the same formal names. This
leads to terms such as Jurassic having two meanings, one an intangible unit
of time and the other a physical unit of rock (which also means that the
geochronologic term age may be confused with the word age used more

generally). Some (e.g., Zalasiewicz et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2007; Gong et al., 2004;
Odin et al., 2004; Carter, 2007; Jensen, 2004) have argued for unification of the
geochronologic and chronostratigraphic hierarchies, while others (e.g., Heckert
and Lucas, 2004; Bassett et al., 2004; Narkiewicz, 2004; Walsh, 2004; Aubry,
2007; Hilgen et al., 2006) have argued for retention of the long-established dual
hierarchy.
This debate represents subtle but distinct perspectives on the stratigraphic
record. The issue was discussed extensively at the GSA Penrose Conference
Chronostratigraphy: Beyond the GSSP held in Graz, Austria, in June 2006 and
at a workshop of the International Commission on Stratigraphy in Prague, Czech
Republic, in June 2010. In a formal ballot following the workshop, the ICS voting
members recommended overwhelmingly (15 yes, 2 no, 0 abstain) to maintain the
dual usage. Furthermore, the terms geochronology and chronostratigraphy
have acquired a variety of wider meanings. Next, we consider the definition and
application of these terms and of their units, discuss their proper usage, and
provide examples and explanations of good practice.

Geochronostratigraphy
We

propose

realignment

of

the

terms geochronology and chronostratigraphy that brings them broadly into line
with current use, while simultaneously resolving the debate over whether the
Geological Time Scale should have a single or dual hierarchy of units: Both
parallel sets of units are retained, although there remains the option to adopt
either a single (i.e., geochronological) or a dual hierarchy in particular studies, as
considered appropri-ate. Thus, geochronology expresses the timing or age of
events (depositional, diagenetic, biotic, climatic, tectonic, magmatic) in Earths
history (e.g., Hirnantian glaciation, Famennian-Frasnian mass extinction).

Geochronology can also qualify rock bodies, stratified or unstratified, with

respect to the time interval(s) in which they formed (e.g., Early Ordovician Ibex
Group). In addition, geochronology refers to all methods of numerical dating.
Chronostratigraphy

would

magnetostratigraphy,

include

all

methods

chemostratigraphy,

(e.g.,

biostrati-graphy,

cyclostrati-graphy,

sequence

stratigraphy) for (1) establishing the relative time relationships of stratigraphic

successions regionally and worldwide; and (2) formally naming bodies of
stratified rock that were deposited contemporaneously with units formally
defined at their base, ideally by a GSSP (Global Boundary Stratotype Section and
Point = golden spike) that represents a specific point in time. Geochronologic
units may be defined and applied generally by either GSSPs oras currently in
most of the Precambrianby Global Standard Stratigraphic Ages (GSSAs).
Geochronologic

units

would

eons/eras/periods/epochs/ages,

and

continue

chronostratigraphic

as

the time units

units

as

the time-

rock units eonothems/erathems/systems/series/stages. Both hierarchies would

remain available for use, as recommended by a formal vote of the International
Commission on Stratigraphy in 2010. Geological context helps determine the
appropriate usage of the component units.Geochronology denotes time relations
in all rocks, specifically when they formed, whether stratified or non-stratified. It
also denotes the time of processes in which rocks not only formed but also were
eroded

(unconformities)

and

deformed

(structural

and

cross-cutting

relationships). It is used to denote the timing of events throughout all of Earths

history that are interpreted from the rock record (e.g., climatic, biotic, tectonic,
and oceanographic). The geochronologic units for much of the Ediacaran to
Quaternary are the intervals in time during which corresponding chronostratigraphic bodies of strata were deposited. Thus, the boundaries of
chronostratigraphic units defined by GSSPs, chosen for their potential for precise

global correlation, mark the beginnings and ends of the respective geochronologic
units. Furthermore, geochron-ology is commonly used to denote the practice of
radiometric dating (the term geochronometry is available to separately denote
the process of numerical dating, though it has not been widely adopted). Thus,
geochronology can be expressed in numerical ages and durations, though the
dating of geologic events and intervals is most often expressed in terms of the
geo-chronologic units.
Geology is the natural science in which time plays a central role. The passage of
that time and its events (small and large) and intervals (short and long) are
recorded in Earths rocks, particularly in stratigraphic successions and by the
various lithologic, paleontologic, magnetic, and chemical signals within them.
Study of these rocks has yielded the 4.6-billion-year history of Earthstudy that
is ongoing and is now being extended to other planets. Stratigraphy is the means
of analyzing and ordering these phenomena, with chronostratigraphy and
geochronology dealing explicitly with the relations of rock and time.
The primary means by which geological time information is conveyed is by the
use of the Geological Time Scale (GTS = International Chronostratigraphic
Chart [ICC] of the International Commission on Stratigraphy [ICS]) and its
units. The most familiar of these units are the geological periods of
geochronology, sensu stricto, or, more simply, of time (e.g., Jurassic, Cambrian)
and the corresponding systems of chronostratigraphy, sensu stricto, or time-rock
on which they are based. Historically, the systems were built from, or subdivided
into, series and stages; the periods, epochs, and ages were then used to refer to
the intervals of time in which the strata encompassed were deposited. Thus,
conceptually,

there

has

been

dual

and

parallel

hierarchy

of

chronostratigraphic (time-rock) units used to designate rock bodies that formed

contemporaneously and geochronologic (or time) units used to designate intervals

in which they formed 1 or during which other events occurred (e.g., evolution,
extinction, deformation, transgression). Many of these units were originally set
up as (and remain fundamentally) relative time-rock units. These are typically of
the last half billion years (the Phanerozoic Eon), where there are good fossil
assemblages (i.e., biostratigraphy) that remain key to their definition,
recognition, and correlation. Wherever feasible, additional tools, such as
magnetostratigraphy,

chemostratigraphy,

sequence

stratigraphy,

cyclostratigraphy, and radiometric dating are employed (e.g., Strasser et al.,

2006; Weissert et al., 2008; Langereis et al., 2010; Catuneanu et al., 2011;
Gradstein et al., 2012). Most of the Precambrian units of the GTS, which largely
lack useful fossil assemblages, remain defined by Global Standard Stratigraphic
Ages (GSSAs); the ArcheanProterozoic boundary, for instance, is set at 2500
Ma. However, the Ediacaran System/Period was defined by a GSSP in 2004
(Knoll et al., 2006), and the Ediacaran and Cryogenian subcommissions are
considering a GSSP for the Cryogenian and subdivision of the Ediacaran by
GSSPs. Furthermore, the ICS Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy is
initiating eforts to define GSSPs for subdividing the Archean and Proterozoic by
their rock record (e.g., Bleeker, 2004) rather than by arbitrarily chosen numerical
ages. These projects will result in a Precambrian time scale that likely will be
very diferent from that presently used.
The succession of global geochronologic units, equivalent to the units of the ICC,
comprise the GTS, and these are calibrated by numerical ages. In some
instances, ash layers associated with GSSP sections have provided high-precision
ages for boundary levels (e.g., Brack et al., 2005, for the Ladinian Stage of the
Triassic). Astronomical tuning of complete, continuous Neogene and Quaternary
sections that include GSSPs provides very precise ages for boundaries as well as

for enclosed stratal packets within the sections, but these may be subject to
revision with alternative tunings and/or new astronomical solutions. Most GSSPs
lack such ash layers and need be calibrated with numerical ages (themselves
subject to revision and refinement) from elsewhere. For these reasons,
boundaries of the chronostratigraphic units are not defined by numerical ages;
instead, they are defined by GSSPs chosen within intervals with stratigraphic
signals that ofer the most reliable and most widespread time correlation. The
age of a GSSP is estimated using mainly a radioisotopic age determination in its
stratigraphic vicinity. In contrast, the Archean and Proterozoic were first defined
as, and subdivided into, geochronologic units defined by numerical ages chosen
as large round numbers (3600 Ma, 2500 Ma, 1200 Ma) rather than to reflect
accurately the Precambrian rock record and the global events it records. Now,
though, the ICS Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy has embarked on
a program of defining new chronostratigraphic units and corresponding
geochronologic units in the Precambrian stratigraphic record, to be defined by
GSSPs for which numerical ages will then be calculated.

Lithodemic
A lithodemic unit is a defined body of predominantly intrusive, highly deformed,
and/or highly metamorphosed rock, distinguished and delimited on the basis of
rock characteristics. In contrast to lithostratigraphic units, a lithodemic unit
generally does not conform to the Law of Superposition.
Lithodemic terms are necessary for rocks that cannot be successfully
accommodated in the lithostratigraphical scheme. They generally apply to
intrusive, highly deformed and/or highly metamorphosed and genetically mixed
assemblages of rocks. Only three ranks are formally defined -- supersuite, suite

and lithodeme; other ranks are used informally. Terms used for igneous
lithodemes include central complex, pluton, dyke-swarm, sill-complex.

CHAPTER

that our planet is a dynamic place,

where

plate

tectonics

creates

mountains and oceans and where

changes in the atmosphere afect the

SQUENCE

climate, perhaps even on a human

STRATIGRAPHY

time scale.
To understand how these global

Sequence Stratigraphy

systems work, we need a record of

Use of the term stratigraphy dates

their past behaviour to analyse, and

back to dOrbingy in 1852, but the

this is provided by the study of

concept of layers of rocks, or strata,

stratigraphy. Stratigraphy provides

representing a sequence of events in

the

the past is much older. In 1667 Steno

geological sciences. The relative ages

developed

of

of rocks, and hence the events that

of

are recorded in those rocks, can be

layered rocks, any layer is older than

determined by simple stratigraphic

the layer next above it. Stratigraphy

relationships

can be considered as the relationship

generally lie on top of older, as Steno

between rocks and time and the

recognised),

stratigrapher is concerned with the

preserved

observation,

and

measurements of processes such as

interpretation of direct and tangible

the radioactive decay of elements

evidence in rocks to determine the

that allow us to date some rock units.

history of the Earth. We all recognise

At one level, stratigraphy is about

superposition:

the
in

principle
a

sequence

description

temporal

framework

(younger

the
in

fossils
strata

for

rocks

that

are

and

by

establishing a nomenclature for rock

diferent places and relate them to

units of all ages and correlating them

each other. The character of the

all over the world, but at another

sedimentary rocks deposited might,

level it is about finding the evidence

for example, indicate that at one time

for climate change in the past or the

a certain area was an arid landscape,

movements of tectonic plates.

with desert dunes and with washes

One of the powerful tools we have for

predicting future climate change is
the record in the rock strata of local
and global changes over periods of
thousands

to

millions

of

years.

Furthermore our understanding of

evolutionary processes is in part
derived from the study of fossils
found in rocks of diferent ages that
tell us about how forms of life have
changed through time. Other aspects
of stratigraphy provide the tools for
finding new resources: for example,
sequence

stratigraphy

is

predictive technique, widely used in

the hydrocarbon industry, that can
be used to help to find new reserves
of oil and gas. The combination of
sedimentology

and

stratigraphy

allows us to build up pictures of the

Earths surface at diferent times in

of gravel coming from a nearby

mountain range. In that same place,
but at

a later time, conditions

allowed the formation of coral reefs

in a shallow sea far away from any
landmass, and we can find the record
of this change by interpreting the
rocks in terms of their processes and
environments

of

deposition.

Furthermore, we might establish

that at the same time as there were
shallow tropical seas in one place,
there lay a deep ocean a few tens of
kilometres away where fine sediment
was deposited by ocean currents. We
can thus build up pictures of the
palaeogeography, the appearance of
an area during some time in the
past,

and

establish

palaeogeography

changes

through

in

Earth

history. To complete the picture, the

distribution

diferent

genesis of sedimentary structures

environments and their Stratigraphy

and their predictable associations

3 changes through time can be

within the context of depositional

related to plate tectonics, because

systems.

mountain

of

building

provides

the

source for much of the sediment, and

plate movements also create the
sedimentary basins where sediment
accumulates.

Beginning

in

the

1960s,

the

incorporation of plate tectonics and

geodynamic

concepts

into

the

analysis of sedimentary processes at

regional scales, marked the second

Sequence

StratigraphyA

revolution in sedimentary geology.

Revolution in Sedimentary Geology

Ultimately, these first two conceptual

Sequence stratigraphy is the third of

breakthroughs or revolutions led to

a series of major revolutions in

the development of Basin Analysis in

sedimentary geology (Miall, 1995).

the late 1970s, which provided the

Each revolution resulted in quantum

scientific framework for the study of

paradigm shift that changed the way

the origins and depositional histories

geoscientists

interpreted

of

The

stratigraphy marks the third and

sedimentary

strata.

first

sedimentary

Sequence

breakthrough was marked by the

most

development

regime

sedimentary geology, starting in the

associated

late 1970s with the publication of

process/response facies models in the

AAPG Memoir 26 (Payton, 1977),

late 1950s and early 1960s (Harms

although its roots can be traced

and Fahnestock, 1965; Simons et al.,

much

1965). This first revolution provided

explained

below.

a unified theory to explain, from a

stratigraphy

developed

hydrodynamic

interdisciplinary

concept

of

and

the
the

flow

perspective,

the

recent

basins.

revolution

further

back

in

time

in

as

Sequence

method

as

an
that

blended both autogenic (i.e., from

Historical Development of

within the system) and allogenic (i.e.,

Sequence Stratigraphy

from outside the system) processes

into a unified model to explain the
evolution

and

stratigraphic

architecture of sedimentary basins

(Miall, 1995).
The

success

Sequence stratigraphy is generally

regarded as stemming from the
seismic stratigraphy of the 1970s. In
fact, major studies investigating the
relationship between sedimentation,

and

popularity

of

unconformities, and changes in base

sequence stratigraphy stems from its

level, which are directly relevant to

widespread

sequence

applicability

in

both

stratigraphy,

were

mature and frontier hydrocarbon

published prior to the birth of

exploration

data-

seismic stratigraphy (e.g., Grabau,

driven and model-driven predictions

1913; Barrell, 1917; Sloss et al.,

of lateral and vertical facies changes

1949; Wheeler and Murray, 1957;

can

respectively.

Wheeler, 1958, 1959, 1964; Sloss,

These predictive models have proven

1962, 1963; Curray, 1964; Frazier,

to

1974). As early as the eighteenth

be

be

basins,

formulated,

particularly

where

efective

in

reducing lithology-prediction risk for

century,

hydrocarbon exploration, although

periodic repetition through time of

there is an increasing demand to

processes

employ the sequence stratigraphic

transport, and deposition, setting up

method

the foundation for what is known

for

coal

and

resources exploration as well.

mineral

Hutton

of

recognized

erosion,

the

sediment

today as the concept of the geological

cycle. Huttons observations may be
considered as the first account of
stratigraphic

cyclicity,

where

unconformities

provide

basic

was largely overlooked in the early

subdivision of the rock record into

days of seismic stratigraphy. It is

repetitive

noteworthy

successions.

the

The

link

that

between unconformities and base-

sequence

level

unconformity-bounded

changes

was

explicitly

of

the

Sloss

original

referred

to

masses

of

emphasized by Barrell (1917), who

strata of greater than group or

stated that sedimentation controlled

supergroup rank (Krumbein and

by base level will result in divisions

Sloss, 1951), which restricted the

of the stratigraphic series separated

applicability of the sequence concept

by breaks.

only to regional-scale stratigraphic

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY 3 The
term sequence was introduced by
Sloss et al. (1949) to designate a
stratigraphic
subaerial

unit

bounded

unconformities.

by
Sloss

emphasized the importance of such

sequence-bounding

unconformities,

and subsequently

subdivided the

studies.

The

meaning

of

stratigraphic sequence has been

subsequently expanded to include
any

relatively

succession

of

conformable

genetically

related

strata (Mitchum, 1977), irrespective

of temporal and spatial scales.
In parallel with the development of
the

sequence

concept

in

entire Phanerozoic succession of the

stratigraphic

interior craton of North America into

sedimentologists in the 1960s and

six major sequences (Sloss, 1963).

1970s have redefined the meaning of

Sloss

the

the term sequence to include a

the

vertical succession of facies that are

and

organized

also

importance
generation

emphasized
of
of

tectonism

in

sequences

context,

in

coherent

and

bounding unconformities, an idea

predictable way (Pettijohn, 1975),

which is widely accepted today but

reflecting the natural evolution of a

depositional environment. This idea

promoted

was further perpetuated in landmark

Wheeler (1964) in the pre-sequence

publications by Reading (1978) and

stratigraphy

Selley (1978a). Examples of facies

geological community with informal

sequences,

mappable units that could be used

sense,

in

would

sedimentological

include

by

Sloss

era

(1963)

provided

and

the

coarsening-

for stratigraphic correlation and the

upward successions of deltaic facies

subdivision of the rock record into

(which many stratigraphers today

genetically-related

would call parasequences), or the

strata.

repetition of channel fill, lateral

accretion and overbank architectural
elements

that

is

typical

of

meandering river systems (which

may be part of particular systems
tracts in a stratigraphic sense). The
development of seismic and sequence
stratigraphy in the late 1970s and
1980s revitalized the use of the term
sequence in a stratigraphic context,
which

remained

the

dominant

approach to date. It is therefore

important to distinguish between the
sequence of sequence stratigraphy
and

the

facies

sequence

of

sedimentology (see van Loon, 2000,

for

full

discussion).

unconformity-bounded

The

sequences

The

concept

packages

of

of

unconformity-

bounded unit (i.e., Sloss sequence)

was formalized by the European
International Stratigraphic Guide
in 1994. The limitation of this
method of stratigraphic analysis was
imposed by the lateral extent of
sequence-bounding

unconformities,

which are potentially restricted to

the

basin

margins.

Hence,

the

number of sequences mapped within

a

sedimentary

basin

may

significantly decrease along dip, from

the basin margins towards the basin
centre (Fig. 1.4). This limitation
required a refinement of the early
ideas by finding a way to extend
sequence boundaries across an entire

sedimentary basin. The introduction

widespread adoption in the scientific

of correlative conformities, which

literature of the past two decades.

are extensions towards the basin

center

of

basinmargin

unconformities, marked the birth of

modern

seismic

and

sequence

Sequence

Stratigraphy

vs

Tectonnic

Controls

on

Sedimentation

stratigraphy (Fig. 1.5) (Mitchum,

Seismic stratigraphy emerged in the

1977). The advantage of the modern

1970s with the work of Vail (1975)

sequence, bounded by a composite

and Vail et al. (1977). This new 4 1.

surface

INTRODUCTION

that

may

include

Basin

margin

conformable portion, lies in its basin-

Basin center A B C D E F G

wide extent hence, the number of

unconformity

sequences

FIGURE

margin

mapped

equals

at

the

the

basin

number

of

1.4

The

sequences
concept

of

unconformity-bounded sequence of

sequences that are found in the basin

Sloss

center. Due largely to disagreements

unconformities

regarding

the

restricted to the basin margins, the

correlative conformity relative to a

number of sequences mapped in the

reference curve of base-level changes,

basin centre is often lower than the

this

by

number of sequences present in an

unconformities or their correlative

age-equivalent succession along the

conformities remains and informal

rim

designation insofar as has not yet

analyzing

been ratified by either the European

stimulated

or the North American commissions

stratigraphy, with an impact on the

on

nomenclature.

geological community as important

Nonetheless, this usage has seen

as the introduction of the flow regime

new

the

timing

sequence

stratigraphic

of

bounded

et

of

al.

the

(1949).
are

basin.

As

potentially

method

seismic-reflection
a

many

revolution

for
data
in

concept in the late 1950s early

towards a blend of eustasy and

1960s and the plate tectonics theory

tectonics, termed relative sea level.

in the 1960s (Miall, 1995). The

Nonetheless,

concepts of seismic stratigraphy were

model as initially proposed (Vail et

published together with a global sea-

al., 1977) posed two challenges to the

level cycle chart (Vail et al., 1977),

practitioners

based on the underlying assumption

stratigraphy:

that eustasy is the main driving force

stratigraphy, as linked to the global

behind sequence formation at all

cycle chart, constitutes a superior

levels

standard of geological time to that

of

stratigraphic

cyclicity.

the

global-eustasy

of

conventional

that

Seismic stratigraphy and the global

assembled

cycle chart were thus introduced to

chronostratigraphic

evidence,

and

the

that

processes

are

geological

community

as

from

sequence

stratigraphic

conventional

seemingly inseparable package of

dominated by the efects of eustasy,

new

to the exclusion of other allogenic

stratigraphic

methodology.

These ideas were then passed on to

mechanisms,

sequence stratigraphy in its early

(Miall and Miall, 2001). Although the

years,

stratigraphy

global cycle chart is now under

evolved into sequence stratigraphy

intense scrutiny and criticism (e.g.,

with the incorporation of outcrop and

Miall,

well data (Posamentier et al., 1988;

model is still used for sequence

Posamentier and Vail, 1988; Van

stratigraphic analysis in some recent

Wagoner et al., 1990). Subsequent

publications (e.g., de Graciansky et

publications (e.g., Hunt and Tucker,

al., 1998).

as

seismic

1992; Posamentier and James, 1993;

Posamentier and Allen, 1999) shift
the focus away from eustasy and

1992),

including

the

tectonism

global-eustasy

In parallel to the eustasy-driven

sequence stratigraphy, which held by
far the largest share of the market,

other

researchers

the

changes can be controlled by any

opposite end of the spectrum by

combination of eustatic and tectonic

suggesting

that

forces, and that the dominance of any

favored tectonism as the main driver

of these allogenic mechanisms should

of stratigraphic cyclicity. This version

be assessed on a case by case basis.

of

It

went

to

methodology

sequence

stratigraphy

was

became

clear

that

sequence

introduced as tectonostratigraphy

stratigraphy needed to be dissociated

(e.g.,

major

from the globaleustasy model, and

weakness of both schools of thought

that a more objective analysis should

is that a priori interpretation of the

be based on empirical evidence that

main

on

can actually be observed in outcrop

automatically

or the subsurface. This realization

attached to any sequence delineation,

came from the Exxon research group,

which

where

Winter,

1984).

allogenic

accommodation

gave

The

control

was

the

impression

that

the

global

cycle

chart

sequence stratigraphy is more of an

originated in the first place: Each

interpretation

an

stratal unit is defined and identified

empirical, data-based method. This a

only by physical relationships of the

priori

strata, including lateral continuity

artifact

interpretation

sequence

stratigraphy

than

facet

of

attracted

and

geometry

of

the

surfaces

considerable criticism and placed an

bounding the units, vertical stacking

unwanted shade on a method that

patterns, and lateral geometry of the

otherwise

strata within the units. Thickness,

represents

truly

important advance in the science of

time

sedimentary

the

interpretation of regional or global

sequence

origin are not used to define stratal

stratigraphy only requires the basic

units, [which] can be identified

understanding

in well logs, cores, or outcrops and

damaged

geology.
image

of

that

Fixing

base-level

for

formation,

and

used to construct a stratigraphic

Sequence Stratigraphy vs

framework

Lithostratigraphy and

regardless

of

their

interpreted relationship to changes

in eustasy (Van Wagoner et al.,

Almost any type of study of a

1990).
The switch in emphasis from sealevel changes to relative sea-level
changes in the early 1990s (e.g.,
Hunt and Tucker, 1992; ChristieBlick and Driscoll, 1995) marked a
major and positive turnaround in
sequence stratigraphy. By doing so,
no interpretation of specific eustatic
or tectonic fluctuations was forced
upon sequences, systems tracts, or
stratigraphic surfaces. Instead, the
key

surfaces,

and

implicitly

the

stratal units between them, are

inferred to have formed in relation to
a more neutral curve of relative sealevel (baselevel) changes that can
accommodate any balance between
the

Allostratigraphy

allogenic

accommodation.

controls

on

sedimentary basin fill requires the

construction of cross sections. The
lines

we

draw

on

these

two-

dimensional representations are of

two main types: (1) lines that build
the

chronostratigraphic

or

time

framework of the studied interval,

and (2) lines that illustrate lateral
changes of facies or lithology. The
chronostratigraphic

framework

is

constructed by the correlation of

surfaces of sequence stratigraphic
significance, or true time markers
such

as

bentonites

or

magnetic

polarity boundaries. This is where

some confusion can arise. Strictly
speaking,

sequence

stratigraphic

surfaces commonly are not true time

lines but in fact are to some degree
time transgressive, or diachronous.
However, because true time lines are
not

commonly

observed,

the

geoscientist is relegated to using

where

these surfaces as proxies for time

interpretation; in other words, what

lines, being pragmatic and accepting

lines should go first on a cross-

the notion that in most instances,

section. The sequence stratigraphic

within the confines of most study

approach

areas they are at least very close to

interpretation of basin fill, which

being time lines and therefore, are

clarifies by time increment how a

fundamentally useful.

basin has filled with sediment. To

Sequence stratigraphic surfaces are

not necessarily easier to observe than

to

begin

yields

accomplish

stratigraphic

genetic

this,

chronostratigraphic framework is

the more diachronous contacts that

mark lateral and vertical changes of
facies. Consequently the practitioner
can be faced with the dilemma of

Formation A - e.g., a fluvial system

Formation B - e.g., a coastal system
Formation C - e.g., a shallow-marine system

FIGURE

1.12

Conceptual

contrast

between

lithostratigraphy and sequence stratigraphy. Sequence

stratigraphic surfaces are event-significant, and mark
changes in depositional trends. In this case, their
timing is controlled by the turnaround points between

transgressions and regressions. Lithostratigraphic

surfaces are highly diachronous facies contacts. Note
that the system tract and sequence boundaries cross the
formation boundaries. Each systems tract is composed
of three depositional systems in this example, and is
defined by a particular depositional trend, i.e.,
progradational
or
retrogradational.
Asequence
corresponds to a full cycle of changes in depositional
trends. This example implies continuous aggradation,
hence no breaks in the rock record, with the cyclicity
controlled by a shifting balance between the rates of
base-level rise and the sedimentationrates.

first

established,

and

sequence

stratigraphic

surfaces

are

interpreted.

Subsequently,

the

sections

between

stratigraphic
interpreted

sequence

surfaces
by

recognizing

are
facies

contacts. These two types of surfaces

(i.e., time lines and facies contacts)

CHAPTER

VOLCANO-

STRATIGRAPHY

define sequence stratigraphy and

lithostratigraphy, respectively (Fig.
1.12).

The

between

inherent

diference

lithostratigraphy

and

sequence stratigraphy is important

to emphasize, as both analyze the
same sedimentary succession but
with

the

stratigraphic

focus

on

aspects

diferent
or

rock

properties. Lithostratigraphy deals

with the lithology of strata and with
their organization into units based
on lithological character (Hedberg,
1976).

sedimentary rocks on the Earths

surface. During eruption volcanoes
produce a range of materials that
include molten lava flowing from
fissures

in

the

volcano

and

particulate material that is ejected

from the vent to form volcaniclastic

VOLCANIC ROCKS AND

deposits (Cas & Wright 1987). The

SEDIMENT

location of volcanoes is related to the

Volcanic eruptions are the most

plate tectonic setting, mainly in the

obvious and spectacular examples of

vicinity of plate margins and other

the formation of both igneous and

areas of high heat flow in the crust.

The presence of beds formed by

a volcano is formed. The products of

volcanic

an

volcanic activity occur as lava that

important indicator of the tectonic

flows across the land surface or sea

setting in which the sedimentary

floor

succession formed. Lavas are found

volcaniclastic material consisting of

close to the site of the eruption, but

solid fragments of the cooled magma

ash may be spread Volcaniclastic

that are transported and deposited

Sedimentary

Rocks

by

hundreds

even

processes

or

can

be

41

tens,

thousands

of

kilometres away.

in

any

depositional

environment and hence may be found

associated with a wide variety of
other sedimentary rocks. Volcanic
rocks are also of considerable value
in stratigraphy as they may often be
dated radiometrically, providing an
absolute

time

constraint

on

the

processes

or

associated

as

with

eruption, gravity, air, water or debris

Volcanic rocks are formed by the

extrusion of molten magma at the
surface.

Molten

activity

the

dominate

eruption
the

environments
stratigraphic

products

depositional

and

hence

succession:

the

particles

ejected by explosive volcanism can be

carried high into the atmosphere and
distributed around the whole globe,
contributing some material to all
depositional environments worldwide
(Einsele 2000). The nature of the

sedimentary succession.

Earths

solidifying,

flows. Close to the site of the volcanic

Volcaniclastic material may therefore

occur

before

rock

is

erupted from fissures on land or

under the sea and where volcanic
material builds up a hill or mountain

products of volcanism is determined

by the chemistry of the magma and
the

physical

setting

where

the

eruptions occur, and a number of

diferent
recognised,

eruption

styles

each

producing

are
a

characteristic suite of volcanic rocks.

Transport and Deposition of

reverse graded because the larger

Volcaniclastic Material

fragments will take longer to become

There are some important diferences

between

the

volcaniclastic

way

that

material

primary
behaves

during transport and deposition and

the

terrigenous

clastic

detritus

considered in earlier chapters. An

important

physical

control

on

sedimentation is that the settling

velocity is proportional to fragment
size,

shape

and

density

(4.2.5).

Unlike terrigenous clastic material,

the density of pyroclastic particles is
very variable.

waterlogged and hence will be the

last to be deposited, resulting in
reverse

grading.

Three

primary

modes of transport and deposition

are

recognised:

falls,

flows

and

surges, but it should be noted that all

three can occur associated with each
other in a single deposit.
PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
When an explosive volcanic eruption
sends a cloud of debris into the air
the pyroclastic fragments may return
to the ground under gravity as a

In particular pumice pyroclasts may

shower of pyroclastic fall deposits.

have a very low density and can float

Volcanic blocks and bombs travel

until

only a matter of hundreds of metres

they

become

waterlogged

(Whitham & Sparks 1986). Grading

to

in pyroclastic deposits may show both

depending on the force with which

normal

of

they were ejected. Finer lapilli and

diferent components in the same

ash may be sent kilometres into the

bed. Lithic fragments and crystals

atmosphere and be distributed by

will be normally graded, with the

wind, and large eruptions can result

coarsest material at the base. Pumice

in

pyroclasts deposited in water may be

kilometres from the volcano.

and

reverse

grading

kilometres

ash

from

distributed

the

vent,

thousands

of

distinctive

feature

of

air-fall

of the volcanic edifice. They may

deposits is that they mantle the

move at very high velocities, up to

topography forming an even layer

300m

over all but the steepest ground

temperatures

surface. The deposits become thinner

apyroclastic flow made up of a hot

and are composed of finer grained

mixture

material with increasing distance

sometimes referred to as a nuee

from the volcanic vent. Pyroclastic

ardente, a glowing cloud (Cas &

falls range in size from small cinder

Wright 1987).

cones to large volumes mantling

topography over large areas.

gases can form masses of material

that move in the same way as other
mixtures,

as

sediment gravity flows, and if they

have a high concentration of particles
they are referred to as pyroclastic
flows (cf. pyroclastic surges, which
lower

density

mixtures).

Pyroclastic flows can originate in a

number

of

ways,

of

gas

can
over

and

have
10008C:

tephra

is

Flows that contain a high proportion

flow deposits: these poorly sorted

Mixtures of volcanic particles and

are

of

and

of large clasts form block- and ash-

PYROCLASTIC FLOWS

sedimentfluid

s_1,

including

the

collapse of a vertical eruption column

of ash, lateral or inclined blasts from
the volcano, and the collapse of part

agglomerates have a monomict clast

composition and cooling cracks in the
blocks may indicate that they were
hot

when

deposited.

Scoria-flow

deposits are a mixture of basaltic to

andesitic ash, lapilli and blocks that
are poorly sorted and commonly show
reverse grading. An ignimbrite is the
deposit of a pyroclastic flow composed
of pumiceous material that is a
poorly sorted mixture of blocks,
lapilli

and

ash.

Ignimbrites

commonly contain fragments that

are hot enough to fuse together when
deposited and form a welded tuf, but

it should be noted that not all

away from the eruption site. The

pumice-rich flow deposits are welded.

deposits of base surges are typically

In general pyroclastic flow deposits

stratified and laminated with low

do not show sedimentary structures

angle cross-stratification formed by

other than normal or reverse grading

the migration of dune and antidune

and

bedforms. Accretionary lapilli are a

the poorly sorted

reflects

their

character

deposition

from

relatively dense flows.

feature of wet base surges and near

to the vent large volcanic bombs may
occur

PYROCLASTIC SURGES

within

the

deposit.

The

thickness of a base surge varies from

Low concentrations of particles in a

as much as a hundred metres close to

sediment gravity flow made up of

a phreatomagmatic vent to units only

volcanic particles and gas are known

a few centimetres thick further away.

as

are

It is common for low-density surges

flows

to occur associated with a high-

because of their dilute nature and

density pyroclastic flow, either as a

turbulent

characteristics

precursor to the main flow, and hence

(Sparks 1976; Carey 1991). Phreatic

forming a deposit underlying the flow

and

eruptions

unit (a ground surge deposit), or

commonly generate a low cloud made

(and) as an ash-cloud surge that

up of a low-density mixture of

forms at the same time as a flow but

volcanic debris and fluids, known as

above it and depositing a surge

a base surge: both wet and dry base

deposit on top of the flow unit.

surges are recognised, depending on

Ground-surge deposits at the base of

the amount of water that is involved

flow units are normally less than a

in the flow. They travel at high

metre

velocity in a horizontal direction

stratified,

pyroclastic

distinct

surges,

from

flow

and

pyroclastic

phreatomagmatic

thick

and

are

including

typically
cross-

stratification.

of

scoria fragments and normal grading

ash-cloud

in the more dense lithic clasts. The

surges also form thin stratified and

process of elutriation, the mixing of

cross-stratified

ash-size

the upper part of the sediment

material. They form by dilution by

gravity flow with the surrounding air

mixing with air at the top of a flow

and

and hence contain the same clast

dilution and formation of a turbulent

types as the underlying flow. An ash-

ash-cloud surge. Bedforms created by

cloud

similar

the flow result in cross-stratification

characteristics to a turbidity current

as well as horizontal lamination in

but instead of the clasts mixing with

the

water, the ash is in a turbulent

commonly capped by air-fall deposits

suspension of gas.

that show no depositional structures.

PYROCLASTIC FLOW, SURGE,

A depositional feature that is quite

AND FALL DEPOSITS

commonly

pyroclastic

At

flow

the

tops

units

beds

surge

of

has

A single eruption event may result in

a combination of surge, flow and fall
deposits.

Block-

and

ash-flow

deposits lack the ground-surge unit

that may be seen at the bottom of
scoria-flow and ignimbrite deposits.
Pyroclastic flow units are typically
structureless, although they may
display some grading, with reverse
grading

occurring

density

pumice

in
and

the

lower

vesiculated

volcanic

deposits.

deposits

gases,

Flow

found
but

leads

units

in

is

to

are

pyroclastic

very

rare

in

terrigenous clastic sediments is the

presence of antidune cross-bedding.
Antidunes may form in many high
velocity

flows,

destroyed

as

decreases

and

but

are normally

the

flow

the

velocity

sediment

is

reworked to form lower flow regime

bedforms. Preservation of antidunes
occurs

when

sedimentation

the

rate

of

from the flow is high enough to

a matrix of finer-grained volcanic ash

mantle the bedform before it can be

(Urgeles et al. 1997). The deposits of

reworked, and this occurs where

these vents are extremely poorly

there

material

sorted, chaotic masses of detritus

entrained in a turbulent gravity flow

that may be tens to hundreds of

in air (Schminke et al. 1973). The

metres thick and cover hundreds of

cross-stratification of antidunes dips

square kilometres. Where water is

in the opposite direction to dune

involved in the debris-flow avalanche

cross-stratification, that is, it is

it may pass into a lahar (see below).

is

volcaniclastic

directed in an up-flow direction.

LAHARS

VOLCANIC DEBRIS-FLOW

A lahar is a debris flow (4.5.1) that

AVALANCHES

contains a significant proportion of

Structural collapse of part of a

material of volcanic origin. They

volcano can result in catastrophic

form

avalanches of material downslope as

unconsolidated

a debris-flow avalanche. They may be

with

triggered

movement of the dense mixture as a

volcanic

by

explosive

earthquakes

eruptions,
or

a result

water

of mixing of

volcanic

and

the

material
subsequent

the

sediment gravity flow (Smith & Lowe

oversteepening of the side of a

1991). Lahars can form during or

volcanic edifice due to addition of

immediately after an eruption where

material during eruption, such that

pyroclastic material is erupted into

part of it fails under gravity. Large

or onto water, snow or ice and when

amounts

of

volcanic

heavy rains contemporaneous with

material

move

under

the eruption fall on freshly deposited

gravity including blocks that may be

ash. Mobilisation of wet ash can also

tens to hundreds of metres across in

result in a lahar in circumstances

unstable
downslope

by

as

where the ground is disturbed by an

Facies

earthquake or there is a failure of a

Volcanic Successions

temporary lake formed by erupted

material.

Remobilisation

of

wet

volcanic detritus can occur at any

time after eruption, and some lahars
may be unrelated to volcanic activity,
including

cases

where

epiclastic

volcaniclastic debris is involved.

Associations

in

The facies approach used in the

analysis of terrigenous clastic and
carbonate sediments can also be
applied

to

volcanic

successions.

Diferent processes of transport and

deposition of volcanic material have
been considered in the previous

The characteristics of a lahar are

sections and these can be recognised

essentially the same as those of other

as having variable importance in the

debris flows, with the distinction

diferent

being the composition of the material

volcanic activity is dominant. As

deposited. The deposits are very

with

poorly

environments, a general division can

sorted

and

matrixsupported

often

with

no

environments

all

other

where

depositional

be made between

sedimentary structures. Lahars can

be

readily

primary
where

distinguished

volcaniclastic
there

is

from

deposits

mixture

of

terrigenous clastic and volcaniclastic

detritus, but where all the material
is of volcanic origin, there can be
similarities

between

pyroclastic flow deposits.

lahars

and

Fig. 17.6 A small ash cone formed by a pyroclastic eruption.

those on land and others that are

marine:

further

subdivision

volcanic

successions

is

in

largely

determined by the characteristics of

composed of volcaniclastic material

the magma (Cas & Wright 1987).

are maars, which have steep-sided

craters and gentle outer slopes, tuf

CONTINENTAL BASALT

rings that have roughly equal slopes

PROVINCES

either side of the rim and tuf cones

In continental areas associated with

that have steep outer cones and

a mantle hot spot there may be

small

eruption of large amounts of lava and

relatively low preservation potential

pyroclastic material from multiple

because they are composed of loose

vents and fissures forming a flood

material

basalt province. Valleys become filled

reworked.

and

acting on basaltic material rapidly

pre-existing

completely

landforms

enveloped

when

craters.

and

These

are

all

hence

Weathering

have

readily

processes

flood

lead to breakdown and the formation

basalts cover many thousands of

of pedogenic profiles (9.7) that may

square kilometres, with successions

be recognised, often as reddened

that can be several thousand metres

units within the succession.

thick. Where individual vents build

up

volcano

by

the

repeated

eruption of basaltic magmas they

tend to have relatively gentle slopes
and are known as shield volcanoes.
Associated

eruptions

of

pyroclastic

material

form

basaltic
scoria

cones, circular landforms that may

be only a few hundred metres across
but

with

morphological

steep

sides.

types

of

Other
crater

Deposition of volcanic material over

wide areas afects the fluvial systems
and rivers tend to incise to form
valleys within the succession. The
fluvial deposits within these valleys
can

be

preserved

volcanic units.

by

overlying

CONTINENTAL

CONTINENTAL SILICIC

STRATOVOLCANOES

VOLCANOES

The classic volcanoes forming steep

Eruptions involving silicic material

conical mountains with a vent in a

are typically explosive resulting in

crater

are

the ejection of large amounts of

volcanic

magma. This can result in the

near

the

stratovolcanoes.
landforms

are

summit

These
composite

bodies

formation

of

caldera,

resulting from repeated eruptions of

approximately

pyroclastic falls, pyroclastic flows and

with steep walls formed by collapse

relatively short lava flows and they

associated

typically result from the eruption of

pyroclastic materials. The caldera

intermediate to acidic magmas. The

itself will be the site of accumulation

deposits

the

of lavas and ignimbrites along with

stratigraphic record close to the

epiclastic products of reworking by

volcanic centre are likely to be ash

mass flows, rivers and into lakes.

fall

Beyond

preserved

products

eruptions

large

the

the

rim

of

eruption

the

of

caldera

pumiceous pyroclastic flows and fall

ignimbrites.

deposits will be subject to epiclastic

Further away from the vent the

reworking by fluvial processes that

pyroclastic fall ashes are reworked to

may

form lahars and become mixed with

redeposition, especially of unwelded

terrigenous clastic material in rivers,

pyroclastic deposits.

resulting

welded

Plinian

with

depression

pumiceous

tufs

and

of

in

circular

an

from

lakes and on shorelines.

result

in

large-scale

MID-OCEANIC RIDGE BASALTS

The mid-ocean spreading ridges are
sites of voluminous extrusion of
basaltic

magma.

Most

of

the

extrusive material is in the form of

pillowed and nonpillowed lavas, with
hydroclastites/hyaloclastites forming
as a result of the rapid quenching of
the

lavas

in

contact

with

the

seawater. Non-volcanic material can

occur

between

pillows

where

eruption occurs on a sea floor of soft

sediment

and

during

periods

of

volcanic quiescence pelagic material

is deposited between units of lava.
The succession will therefore consist
of basaltic lava flows with variable
amounts

of

pillow

structures,

autobrecciated basaltic material and

either

fine-grained

limestones

or

cherty mudrocks occurring between

pillows and interbedded with the
basalts. Pyroclastic material only
occurs associated with the lavas in
places where the eruption occurs in
shallow water. These strata are
preserved where pieces of ocean floor
are

tectonically

emplaced

continental margins as ophiolites.

on

SEAMOUNTS
Seamounts are sites of volcanism
within areas of oceanic lithosphere
that develop into volcanic edifices
that are close to or above sea level.
They form where there is localised
magmatism, for example over hot
spots in the mantle, and may be
isolated from any plate boundaries.
The succession of volcanic rocks is
similar to that built up by mid-ocean
ridge volcanism but may be capped
by shallow-marine facies such as
limestone reefs that form atolls on
tops of the seamounts.
Preservation

of

seamount

in

ancient successions is only likely

where there has been obduction of
oceanic

crust

containing

these

edifices.
MARINE STRATOVOLCANOES
Large volcanoes build up from the
sea floor to above sea level in island
arcs

where

subduction-related

magmatism results in the extrusion

of large amounts of basaltic to

SUBMARINE SILICIC

andesitic

VOLCANOES

magma.

The

subaerial

parts of the volcanic edifice will

resemble

continental

stratovolcanoes,

consisting

of

assemblages of lavas, pyroclastic falls

and flows. The associated epiclastic
deposits will be diferent in this
setting because of the efects of
reworking

by

processes

and

shallow

marine

redeposition

of

sediment by mass flows to form an

apron

around

redeposited
products

the

volcano.

The

facies

include

the

of

avalanches,

slumps,
debris

slides,

flows

and

turbidity currents of volcaniclastic

material: they will occur in the
marine succession associated with
shallow to deep-marine carbonate
facies,

pelagic

pyroclastic

air-fall

deposits
ash

which

spread by wind from the volcano.

and
is

Eruptions within continental crust in

marine

settings

extrusion

of

result

magmas

in
of

the
silicic

composition. The confining pressure

of the water column above the
magma

means

that

underwater

eruptions are less explosive because

gases are less able to come out of
solution in the magma. Submarine
silicic volcanism therefore gives rise
to much more extensive lavas of
rhyolitic composition than is seen in
continental

successions.

Hyaloclastites

are

extensively

developed as lava is rapidly chilled in

contact with seawater or soft, wet
sediment, but pyroclastic products
only form where the eruptions occur
in

shallow

water,

where

the

processes are much more likely to be

explosive in character. Hydrothermal
activity

associated

with

silicic

volcanism results in the formation of

sulphide deposits.

CHAPTER

Earth were represented by the old

English measure of a yard, the
distance from the kings nose to the
end of his outstretched hand, all of

GEOLOGIC TIME

human history could be erased by a

single stroke of a file on his middle

Geologic Time
During

the

fingernail.

Middle

Ages,

the

intellectual climate in Europe was

ruled by the clergy, who tried to

The Geologic Time Scale

explain natural history by a literal

Geologists

interpretation of the Bible. In the

history into units displayed in the

middle

Archbishop James

geologic time scale (Table 11).

Ussher calculated the Earths age

The units are called eons, eras,

from the Book of Genesis in the Old

periods,

Testament. He concluded that the

identified primarily by the types of

moment of creation occurred at noon

life that existed at the various times.

on October 23, 4004 B.C.

The two earliest eons, the Hadean

1600s,

Hutton refuted this biblical logic and

deduced that the Earth was infinitely
old. Today, geologists estimate that
the Earth is about 4.6 billion years
old. In his book Basin and Range,
about the geology of western North
America, John McPhee ofers us a
metaphor

for

the

magnitude

of

geologic time. If the history of the

have

and

divided

epochs

and

Earth

are

and Archean, cover the first 2.5

billion years of Earth history. Life
originated

during

Archean

time.

Living organisms then evolved and

proliferated during the Proterozoic
Eon (protero is from a Greek root
meaning earlier or before and
zoon is from the Greek word meaning
life). However, most Proterozoic

organisms had no hard parts such as

ancestors, and many had shells and

shells and bones. Most were single

skeletons.

celled, although some multicellular

percent of geologic time, from 538

organisms existed. The Proterozoic

million years ago to the present, is

Eon ended about 538 million years

called

ago.

(phaneros is Greek for evident).

Then, within an astonishingly short

timeperhaps as little as 5 million
yearsmany new species evolved.
These organisms were biologically
more complex than their Proterozoic

The

the

most

recent

Phanerozoic

13

Eon

The Phanerozoic Eon is subdivided

into the Paleozoic Era (ancient life),
the Mesozoic Era (middle life), and
the Cenozoic Era (recent life) (Fig.
17).

Table 11 THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

TIME UNITS OF THE GEOLOGIC5 TIME SCALE

24
DISTINCTIVE PLANTS AND
37
ANIMALS

Period

Epoch

Quaternary

Recent or

Humans

Pleistocene
Pliocene
Tertiary

Cenozoic Era

Holocene

Miocene

Neogene

Oligocene
Eocene

Paleogene

Mesozoic Era

Cretaceous
144

Jurassic

208
245

320

Pennysylvanian
360

Mississippian

408

Devonian

438

Cambrian

505

Amphibians Age of

Carboniferous

Permian

Ordovician

and become
dominant.
Extinction of
dinosaur
greatest
development of
dinosaurs
First birds and
mammals,
abundant dinosaurs
First dinosaurs

286

Silurian

Mammals develop

First flowering plants,

Triassic

Paleozoic Era

(Phaneros _ evident; Zoon _ life) Phanerozoic Eon

66

Paleocene

Age of Mammals

58

Reptiles Age of

Er

Invertebrates Marine Age of Fishes Age of

Eon

Extinction of trilobites
and many
other marine animals
Great coal forests;
abundant
insects, first reptiles
Large primitive trees
First amphibians
First land plant fossils

First fish
First organisms with
shells,
trilobites dominant

538

First multicelled organisms.

Archean Proterozoic

2500

Sometimes collectively
called Precambrian

First one-celled organisms

Approximate age of oldest
rocks

Hadea3800
n

4600

Origin of the Earth

Time is given in millions of years (for example, 1000 stands for 1000 million, which is one billion). The table is not drawn
to scale. We know relatively little about events that occurred during the early part of the Earths history. Therefore, the
first four billion years are given relatively little space on this chart, while the more recent Phanerozoic Eon, which spans
only 538 million years, receives proportionally more spac

CHAPTER

confining the flow of fresh water that

carries
sandy

deposits

material

on

gravelly
bars

in

or
the

channel (Fig. 1.1). When the river

SEDIMENTARY
ENVIRONTMENT
AND FACIES

floods, water spreads relatively fine

sediment over the floodplain where it
is deposited in thin layers. Soils form
and

Sedimentary Environtment

vegetation

grows

on

the

floodplain area. In a succession of

sedimentary rocks (Fig. 1.2) the

and Facies
The environment at any point on the
land or under the sea can be
characterised by the physical and
chemical processes that are active
there and the organisms that live
under those conditions at that time.
As an example, a fluvial (river)
environment

and

includes

channel

channel may be represented by a lens

of sandstone or conglomerate that
shows internal structures formed by
deposition on the channel bars. The
floodplain

of its lithology, texture, sedimentary

structures and fossil content that can

Fig. 1.2 Sedimentary rocks interpreted as the deposits of a river

channel (the lens of sandstones in the centre right of the view)
scoured into mudstone deposited on a floodplain (the darker,
thinly bedded strata below and to the side of the sandstone lens).

aid in determining the processes of

formation.
Fig. 1.1 A modern depositional environment: a sandy river
channel and vegetated floodplain.

setting will be represented by thinly

bedded mudrock and sandstone with
roots and other evidence of soil
formation.

rocks

in

terms

of

depositional

environments, the term facies is

often used. A rock facies is a body of
rock with specified characteristics
that reflect the conditions under
which it was formed (Reading &
Levell 1996). Describing the facies of
a

body

of

sediment

involves

documenting all the characteristics

recognising

associations of facies it is possible to

establish

the

combinations

of

processes that were dominant; the

characteristics

of

depositional

environment are determined by the

processes

In the description of sedimentary

By

that

are

present,

and

hence there is a link between facies

associations and environments of
deposition. The lens of sandstone in
Fig. 1.2 may be shown to be a river
channel if the floodplain deposits are
found associated with it. However,
recognition of a channel form on its
own is not a sufficient basis to
determine

the

depositional

environment because channels filled

environments

with sand exist in other settings,

convenient

categories

including deltas, tidal environments

pigeonholes,

and

and the deep sea floor: it is the

description of them tends to be of

association of diferent processes that

typical examples. The reality is that

provides

every delta, for example, is diferent

the

full

picture

of

depositional environment.

and the products of these processes,

the sedimentary rocks, will be a
assemblage.

For

description

and

interpretation,

depositional

environments are classified as, for

example, a delta, an estuary or a
shoreline, and subcategories of each
established,

aswavedominated,

such

tide-dominated

and river-dominated deltas.

the

geologists

deposit is likely to fall somewhere in

between these pigeonholes.
Sometimes

it

may not

even be

possible to conclusively distinguish

between the deposits of a delta and
an estuary, especially if the data set
is incomplete, which it inevitably is
when dealing with events of the past.
However, by objectively considering
each

bed

in

terms

of

physical,

chemical and biological processes, it

is always possible to provide some
indication of where and how a

This approach is in general use by

sedimentary

that

deltas into a number of types, our

a unique combination of processes,

are

or

unique, and although we categorise

Every depositional environment has

of

are

that every deltaic deposit will also be

Environtment and Facies

convenience

deposition

from its neighbour in space or time,

The Spectrum of

similarlyunique

of

and

is

followed in this book. It is, however,

important to recognise that these

sedimentary rock was formed.

Facies Anlysis

processes

Facies analysis is a fundamental

depositional systems in response to

sedimentological

baselevel shifts.

method

of

characterizing bodies of rocks with

unique lithological, physical, and
biological attributes relative to all
adjacent deposits. This method is
commonly applied to describe the
sediments and/or sedimentary rocks
observed in outcrops, core, or modern

Facies analysis is of paramount

importance

for

any

sequence

stratigraphic study, as it provides

critical clues for paleogeographic and
paleoenvironmental reconstructions,
as well as for the definition of
sequence stratigraphic surfaces. As
such, facies analysis is an integral
part

of

sequence

both

sedimentology

stratigraphy,

and
which

explains the partial overlap between

these disciplines. In the context of
sequence

Concepts

stratigraphy,

facies

analysis is particularly relevant to

the study of cyclic changes in the

of

form

individual

Depositional

System, Facies, and Facies

Models
A depositional system is the product
of sedimentation in a particular
depositional environment; hence, it
includes

environments.

that

the

three-dimensional

assemblage of strata whose geometry

and facies lead to the interpretation
of

specific

paleodepositional

environment.
Depositional

systems

form

the

building blocks of systems tracts, the

latter

representing

an

essential

concept for stratigraphic correlation

and the genetic interpretation of the
sedimentary basin fill. The study of
depositional systems is intimately
related to the concepts of facies,
facies
models.

associations,

and

facies

Facies

analysis

is

an

essential

associations are also essential for the

method for the reconstruction of

correct interpretation of sequence

paleodepositional environments, as

stratigraphic

well as for the understanding of

analysis is therefore a prerequisite

surfaces.

Facies

Principles of flow and sediment motion

All natural systems tend toward a state of equilibrium that reflects an optimum
use of energy. This state of equilibrium is expressed as a graded profile in
fluvial systems, or as a base level in coastal to marine systems. Along such
profiles, there is a perfect balance between sediment removal and accumulation.
Fluid and sediment gravity flows tend to move from high to low elevations,
following pathways that require the least amount of energy for fluid and
sediment motion.
Flow velocity is directly proportional to slope magnitude.
Flow discharge (subaerial or subaqueous) is equal to flow velocity times crosssectional area.
Sediment load (volume) is directly proportional to the transport capacity of the
flow, which
reflects the combination of flow discharge and velocity.
The mode of sediment transport (bedload, saltation, suspension) reflects the
balance between grain size/weight and flow competence.
Principles of sedimentation
Walthers Law: within a relatively conformable succession of genetically related
strata, vertical shifts of facies reflect corresponding lateral shifts of facies.
The direction of lateral facies shifts (progradation, retrogradation) reflects the
balance between sedimentation rates and the rates of change in the space
available for sediment to accumulate.
Processes of aggradation or erosion are linked to the shifting balance between
energy flux and sediment supply: excess energy flux leads to erosion, excess
sediment load triggers aggradation.
climatic changes and subsidence
for any sequence stratigraphic
history of sedimentary basins. The
understanding of facies and their

studies.

FIGURE 2.1 Key first principles of sedimentary geology that are relevant to sequence stratigraphy (modified
from Posamentier and Allen, 1999).

Classification of

distinction can be made between the

Depositional Environments

steeper-gradient

Depositional

settings

may

be

classified into three broad categories,

as follows
(beyond

(Fig. 2.3): nonmarine

the

flooding),

reach

coastal

of

marine

(intermittently

flooded

by

marine

marine

(permanently

water),
covered

and
by

marine water). An illustration of the

subenvironments that encompass the
transition from nonmarine to fully
marine environments is presented in
Fig. 2.4. Note that in coastal areas,
the river-mouth environments (i.e.,
sediment entry points to the marine
basin) are separated by stretches of
open shoreline where the beach
environment develops. The glacial
environment is not included in the
classification scheme in Fig. 2.3
because it is climatically controlled
and may overlap on any nonmarine,
coastal, or marine setting. Within the
nonmarine portion of the basin, a

alluvial

plain,

which captures the upstream reaches

of fluvial systems, and the gently
sloping

coastal

plain

develop

within

the

that

may

downstream

reaches of the fluvial environment

(Fig.

2.5).

Coastal

plain

is

geomorphological term that refers to

a relatively flat area of prograded or
emerged

seafloor,

bordering

coastline and extending inland to the

nearest elevated land (Bates and
Jackson, 1987; Fig. 2.5). Figure 2.5
illustrates the situation where the
coastal plain forms by processes of
progradation of the seafloor, rather
than emergence. In this case, the
sediments that accumulate on the
coastal plain during the progradation
of the shoreline are part of the socalled coastal prism, which includes
fluvial

to

shallow-water

deposits

(Posamentier et al., 1992b; Fig. 2.5).

The coastal prism is wedge shaped,
and expands landward from the

coastal environment by onlapping

and basinward directions, until a

the pre-existing topography in an

coherent

basin-wide

upstream direction. The landward

includes

the

limit of the coastal prism was termed

expected in both fully fluvial and

bayline

al.

deep-marine successions was finally

(1992b), and it may shift upstream

established. The importance of the

when

by

the

shoreline

Posamentier

progradation
is

et

stacking

that

patterns

of

the

coastline, as the link between the

accompanied

by

marine and nonmarine portion of the

aggradation.

basin, is also reflected by the fact

Coastal environments are critical for

sequence stratigraphy, as they record
the history of shoreline shifts and
are most sensitive in providing the
clues for the reconstruction of the
cyclic changes in depositional trends.
In fact, the development of sequence
stratigraphic concepts started in the
first place with the study of the
transition zone between marine and
nonmarine environments, where the
relationship

model

of

facies

and

that the reference curve of base-level

changes that is used to define the
four main events of a stratigraphic
cycle, and implicitly the timing of all
systems tracts and stratigraphic, is
centered around the fluctuations in
accommodation at the shoreline
this issue, which is the key to
understanding

sequence

stratigraphic

principles,

is

elaborated in subsequent chapters.

A

reality

that

is

commonly

stratigraphic surfaces is easier to

overlooked is that coastlines may

observe.

change

From the shoreline, the application

of

sequence

stratigraphy

was

gradually expanded in both landward

their

transgressive

vs.

regressive character along strike, as

a function of the fluctuations in
subsidence and sedimentation rates
(Fig. 2.4). This means that the

predictable

architecture

age

reality of one dip-oriented profile to

relationships of depositional systems

other locations along the strike.

and systems tracts presented in 2D

Autocyclic shifts in the distribution

cross-sections

of

along

and

dip may

be

energy

and

sediment

within

environments,

which

altered in a 3D view, due to the high

depositional

diachroneity that may potentially be

could afect all settings in Fig. 2.3,

imposed on systems tract boundaries

are another reason why variations in

by

stratigraphic geometry should be

the

strike

variability

in

subsidence and sedimentation.

One should therefore keep an open

expected along strike from one diporiented profile to another.

mind when trying to extrapolate the

Facies (Bates and Jackson, 1987): the aspect, appearance, and characteristics of a
rock unit, usually reflecting the conditions of its origin; esp. as diferentiating the
unit from adjacent or associated units.
Facies (Walker, 1992): a particular combination of lithology, structural and
textural attributes that defines features diferent from other rock bodies.
Facies are controlled by sedimentary processes that operate in particular areas of
the depositional environments. Hence, the observation of facies helps with the
1. Nonmarine
environments
interpretation
of syn-depositional
processes.
Colluvial and alluvial fans

Facies Association
(Collinson, 1969): groups of facies genetically related to one
Fluvial environments
another and
which haveenvironments
some environmental significance. The understanding of
Lacustrine
facies associations
a critical element for the reconstruction of paleo-depositional
Aeolianisenvironments
environments. In turn, such reconstructions are one of the keys for the
interpretation
of sequence
stratigraphic
surfaces (see more details in Chapter 4).
2. Coastal
(marginal
marine) environments
River mouth environments
Facies model
(Walker,
a general
- regressive
river1992):
mouths:
Deltas summary of a particular depositional
system, involvingmany
examples
from recent sediments and ancient
- transgressive individual
river mouths:
Estuaries
rocks.
Open shoreline (beach)
A facies environments
model assumes predictability in the morphology and evolution of a
- foreshore
- backshore
3. Marine environments
Shallow marine environments
- shoreface

FIGURE 2.2 Concepts of facies,

facies associations, and facies

FIGURE 2.3

Classification of depositional
environments, based

on the relative contributions of nonmarine and

marine processes.
The coastal/marginal-marine environments, also
known as transitional,
are intermittently flooded by marine water during
tidal
cycles and storms. Note that both types of coastal
environments
(river-mouth or open shoreline) may be
transgressive or regressive.
Depositional systems refer to products (bodies of
rock in the stratigraphic

CHAPTER

record), whereas depositional environments refer

to active
processes in modern areas of sediment
accumulation. This is similar
to the conceptual difference between cycle and
cyclothem, or between
period and system, etc. The boundaries between
the various coastal
and shallow-marine environments are defined in
Fig. 2.4.models.

The plates move slowly, at rates

ranging from less than 1 to about 16
centimeters per year (about as fast as
a fingernail grows). Because the

TECTONO-

plates move in diferent directions,

STRATIGRAPHY

they bump and grind against their

neighbors at plate boundaries.

Plates and Plate Tectonics

In most places, the lithosphere is less

The great forces generated at a plate

dense

boundary build mountain ranges and

than

Consequently,

the
it

asthenosphere.
floats

on

the

cause

volcanic

eruptions

and

asthenosphere much as ice floats on

earthquakes. These processes and

water. Figure 21 shows that the

events are called tectonic activity,

lithosphere is broken into seven large

from the ancient Greek word for

tectonic plates and several smaller

construction.

ones.

as

constructs mountain chains and

irregularly shaped ice floes, packed

ocean basins. In contrast to plate

tightly together floating on the sea.

boundaries, the interior portion of a

Ice floes drift over the sea surface

plate is usually tectonically quiet

and, in a similar way, tectonic plates

because it is far from the zones

drift

where two plates interact.

Think

of

the

horizontally

asthenosphere.

plates

over

the

Tectonic

activity

DIVERGENT PLATE

asthenosphere is weak and plastic,

BOUNDARIES

but the cooler lithosphere is strong

At a divergent plate boundary, also

called a spreading center and a
rift zone, two lithospheric plates
spread

apart

(Fig.

25).

The

underlying asthenosphere then oozes

upward to fill the gap between the
separating

plates.

asthenosphere

As

rises

the

between

separating plates, some of it melts to

form molten rock called magma.
Most of the magma rises to the
Earths surface, where it cools to
form new crust, the top layer of the

Most of this activity occurs beneath

the seas because most divergent
plate boundaries lie in the ocean
basins. Both the asthenosphere and
lower

lithosphere

(the

part

beneath the crust) are parts of the

mantle

rises, it cools, gains mechanical

strength, and, therefore, transforms
into new lithosphere. In this way,
new lithosphere continuously forms
at a divergent boundary.
At a spreading center, the rising
asthenosphere is hot, weak, and
plastic. Only the upper 10 to 15
kilometers cools enough to gain the
strength and hardness of lithosphere
rock. As a result, the lithosphere,
including the crust and the upper
few kilometers of mantle rock, can be

lithosphere.

the

and hard. As the asthenosphere

and

thus

have

similar

chemical compositions. The main

diference between the two layers is
one of mechanical strength. The hot

as little as 10 or 15 kilometers thick

at a spreading center. But as the
lithosphere spreads, it cools from the
top downward. When the lithosphere
cools, it becomes thicker because the
boundary between the cool, strong
rock of the lithosphere and the hot,
weak

asthenosphere

downward.

migrates

Consequently,

the

thickness of the lithosphere increases

as it moves away from the spreading

center. Think of ice freezing on a

crust

pond. On a cold day, water under the

continental crust, (2) between two

ice freezes and the ice becomes

plates carrying oceanic crust, and (3)

thicker. The lithosphere continues to

between

thicken until it attains a steady state

continental

thickness of about 75 kilometers

density determine what

beneath an ocean basin, and as much

where two plates converge. Think of

as

a boat colliding with a floating log.

125

kilometers

beneath

continent.

and

another

two

carrying

plates

crust.

carrying

Diferences

in

happens

The log is denser than the boat, so it

sinks beneath the boat.
When

two

denser

plate

lighter

one

mantle.

plates
dives
and

This

converge,

the

beneath

the

sinks

process

into
is

the

called

subduction. Generally, only oceanic

Figure 25 Lithospheric plates move away from a
spreading center by gliding over the weak, plastic
asthenosphere. In the center of the drawing, new
lithosphere forms at a spreading center. At the sides of
the drawing, old lithosphere sinks into the mantle at
subduction zones.

lithosphere can sink into the mantle.

Attempting to stuf a low-density
continent down into the mantle
would be like trying to flush a
marshmallow down a toilet: It will

CONVERGENT PLATE
BOUNDARIES

not go because it is too light. In

certain

cases,

however,

small

amounts of continental crust may

At a convergent plate boundary, two
lithospheric plates move toward each
other. Convergence can occur (1)
between a plate carrying oceanic

sink into the mantle at a subduction

zone.

Figure 27 Red balls placed on the sea floor trace the

spreading and sinking of new oceanic crust as it cools

3.96 billion years are found on

continents

and migrates away from the mid-oceanic ridge.

because

subduction

consumes little continental crust.

A subduction zone is a long,

Convergence of Oceanic Crust with

narrow belt where a lithospheric

Continental Crust

plate is sinking into the mantle. On a

worldwide scale, the rate at which
old lithosphere sinks into the mantle
at subduction zones is equal to the
rate at which new lithosphere forms
at spreading centers. In this way,
global balance is maintained between
the creation of new lithosphere and
the destruction of old lithosphere.

When an oceanic plate converges

with a continental plate, the denser
oceanic plate sinks into the mantle
beneath the edge of the continent. As
a result, many subduction zones are
located

at

continental

margins.

Today, oceanic plates are sinking

beneath the western edge of South
America; along the coasts of Oregon,

The oldest sea-floor rocks on Earth

Washington, and British Columbia;

are only about 200 million years old

and at several other continental

because oceanic crust continuously

margins (see Fig. 21)

recycles

into

the

mantle

at

subduction zones. Rocks as old as

Convergence of Two Plates Carrying

Oceanic Crust

Recall that newly formed oceanic

Tectonostratigraphy

lithosphere is hot, thin, and light,

In geology, tectonostratigraphy refers

but as it spreads away from the mid-

either to rock sequences in which

oceanic

older,

large-scale layering is caused by the

cooler, thicker, and denser. Thus, the

stacking of thrust sheets or nappes

density

in areas of thrust tectonics or the

ridge,

of

it

becomes

oceanic

lithosphere

increases with its age.

efects

When two oceanic plates converge,

lithostratigraphy.

the denser one sinks into the mantle.

Oceanic

subduction

zones

are

common in the southwestern Pacific

Convergence of Two Plates Carrying

Continents
If

two

converging

because

plates

carry

of

their

low

densities. In this case, the two

continents

on

STRATIGRAPHY
example

of

tectonostratigraphy

such

a
is

the Scandinavian Caledonides. Withi

n the entire exposed 1800 km length

continents, neither can sink into the

mantle

tectonics

TECTONICCALY FORMED

One

Ocean.

of

collide

and

crumple

of this orogenic belt the following

sequence is recognised from the base
upwards:

Autochthon

against each other, forming a huge

undisturbed foreland of the Baltic

mountain chain. The Himalayas, the

plate

Alps,

and

the

Appalachians

all

formed as results of continental

collisions (Fig. 28).

Parautochthon

thrust sheets that have moved only a

short distance (up to 10s of km) from
their original position

Lower allochthon

This vertically stacked sequence thus

far travelled thrust sheets derived

from the Baltic plate passive margin,
mainly sediments associated with

Middle allochthon

thrust

plate, Proterozoic basement

together

and

hundreds

of

km

of

shortening.
Within this overall stratigraphy the

tectonostratigraphy of stacked thrust

including island

arc and ophiolitic sequences

and

individual layers have their own

Upper allochthon
sheets

Laurentia

intervening island arcs and back-arc

involving

and its psammitic cover

and

emplaced on top of the Baltic Shield,

also derived from the margin of the

Baltic

Baltica

basins telescoped

the break-up of Rodinia

represents the passive margins of

sheets.
EFFECT OF ACTIVE TECTONICS
ON LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY

Uppermost allochthon

thrust sheets containing sediments

Tectonic

events

with fossil assemblages indicating an

recorded

in

origin

deposited at the same time. In the

on

the

the Laurentian plate

margin

of

case

of

a rift,

are

typically

sediments

for

instance,

being

the

sedimentary sequence is normally

broken down into three parts:

The pre-rift includes a

sequence deposited before the
onset of rifting, recognised by
the lack of thickness and

sedimentary facies changes

rifting has finished, it may

across the rift faults.

still show thickness and facies

changes around the rift faults

The syn-rift includes a

due to the efects

sequence deposited during

of diferential compaction and

active rifting, typically

remnant rift topography,

showing facies and thickness

particularly in the earliest

changes across the active

part of the sequence.

faults, unconformities on the

fault footwalls may pass

This

laterally into continuous

nomenclature may become difficult to

conformable sequences in the

use,

hanging walls.

multiphase rifting with the post-rift

The post-rift includes a

sequence deposited after the

CHAPTER

relatively

however,

straightforward

in

the

case

of

from one event being the pre-rift to a

later event.
the Field. Wiley Press, New York, pp.
229-234.)
The

goal

of

measuring

MEASURING

stratigraphic column is to accurately

SECTION

characterize

Measuring a Stratigraphic

used

Section with a Jacobs Staff

environments, variations in sediment

Dawn Sumner 1/2005 (Based on

Compton, Robert R., 1985. Geology in

the

thickness

of

diferent rock types. This data can be

to

interpret

depositional

type, changes in sedimentation rate

in space and time, etc. Most detailed
interpretations require an accurate
measure of how much of each rock

type is present, bed thicknesses, etc.

align the staf at right angles to

It is easy to measure the thickness of

bedding

flat-lying beds; you can put a ruler

perpendicular to strike, to the beds.

next to them and measure from

The distance from the base of the

bottom to top. For beds that have

staf to the sight point on the

been tilted or folded, more care is

Brunton is equal to the thickness of

needed. Measurements need to be

strata between the base of the staf

made perpendicular to the bedding.

and the point sighted. There are a

Otherwise, results will depend on the

number of steps for doing this

amount of folding and the direction

measurement accurately: 1. Measure

you are looking rather than the

the strike and dip of bedding where

depositional processes that formed

you intend to measure the section;

the rock. Geologists often use a

record

Jacobs Staf to measure bedding

clinometer on the Brunton to the

thicknesses. A Jacobs Staf is a 1.5

angle of dip. 2. Place the Brunton

meter-long pole that is marked of in

securely in the attachment on the

suitable units, such as decimeters. It

Jacobs Staf, and open the compass

has an attachment for a Brunton at

lid about 60. 3. Place the staf at the

1.5 m above the base of the pole. The

base of the unit to be measured and

Brunton is used as a clinometer to

tilt it downdip (exactly perpendicular

measure the angle of the pole from

to strike) until the clinometer bubble

vertical and helps align the Jacobs

in the Brunton is centered. 4. Study

Staf perpendicular to bedding for

the point sighted on the ground and

accurate measurements. To measure

decide if the staf can be placed on it

bed thickness, place the Jacobs Staf

for your next measurement; if so,

on the bedding plane at the base of

note the point carefully by eye or

the beds you want to measure. Next

place an object at that point. You

and

the

data

sight

and

downdip,

set

the

have measured 1.5 meters of section.

errors

5. If the base of the Jacobs Staf can

through a series of measurements,

not be placed on the point you

giving a systematic over or under

sighted for your next measurement,

estimate

move the base of the staf along the

thicknesses.

lower

correctly

bedding

surface

until

that

tend

of

true
When

oriented

to

accumulate

stratigraphic
the

staf

with

is
the

suitable point can be sighted. 6.

clinometer, the error should be no

Draw

column,

more than a few centimeters per

describing the rocks in this unit.

measure and will tend to average out

Measure the positions of beds within

in successive measurements. Thus, it

this 1.5 meter-thick interval using

is

the Jacobs Staf or a ruler. 7. Move

accurately now; sighting becomes

the base of the Jacobs Staf to the

easier with practice. Figure 1: Errors

sited point, and make your next

in

measurement. Proceed similarly to

Compton, 1985, p. 231). Sighting

the top of the unit. Using a Jacobs

with

Staf and Brunton requires sighting

increasingly awkward as dips become

through a small hole, and it may be

steeper.

tempting to save time by estimating

become shorter, however, so accuracy

the alignment of the staf rather

is maintained (Fig. 2A). For dips

than using the clinometer. Moderate

greater than 70, the geologist can

errors in alignment, however, can

kneel and look along strike, viewing

cause large errors in measurements

the clinometer face on and making

(Fig. 1). In addition, when sighting

the projection to the ground by

up or down a slope, one tends to tilt

estimation (Fig 2B). If some beds

the staf so that it is perpendicular to

stick up significantly higher than

the

others,

your

grounds

stratigraphic

surface.

This

gives

worth

learning

measurement

it

may

measure

(Figure

Jacobs

Lines

to

Staf

of

sight

from

becomes

typically

be necessary

to

measure the thicknesses of the low-

the edge of the Jacobs Staf in the

lying beds and weathering-resistant

proper orientation. You can place the

beds

separately,

techniques.

The

using

modified

Brunton anywhere along the staf to

UCD

Geology

measure an arbitrary thickness. Be

Jacobs Stafs have a fixed mount for

careful

to

accurately

record

represented

by

the

the Bruntons. However, you can site

thickness

distances shorter than 1.5 meters by

measurement, especially if they are

removing the Brunton from the

diferent for each measurement.

each

mount and carefully holding it along

CHAPTER

setting and tectonic processes. Each

basin type has distinctive features,
and

are

valley can be seen to be distinctly

regions

where sediment accumulates into

successions hundreds to thousands of
metres in thickness over areas of
thousands to millions of square
kilometres.
The

underlying

of

succession that develops in a rift

BASIN ANALYSIS
basins

characteristics

sedimentation and the stratigraphic

SEDIMENTARY

Sedimentary

the

diferent from those of an ocean

trench. A stratigraphic succession
can therefore be interpreted in terms
of plate tectonics and places the
study of sedimentary rocks into a
larger

context.

The

sedimentary

rocks in a basin provide a record of

control

on

the

the tectonic history of the area. They

formation of sedimentary basins is

also provide the record of the efects

plate tectonics and hence basins are

of other controls on deposition, such

normally classified in terms of their

as climate, base level and sediment

position in relation to plate tectonic

supply.

Controls

on

Sediment

deltas and coasts is mostly only

Accumulation
The

issues

of

how

and

where

sediment is preserved could perhaps

have

been

discussion

considered
of

currently see in rivers, estuaries,

before

environments

a
of

passing through on its way to the

open

seas

where

they

may

be

preserved on the shelf or in the deep

seas.

deposition, because not every river,

The concept of the present being the

lake, delta, estuary or so on is

key

necessarily a place where sediments

Chapter 1, can be difficult to apply,

will

because

accumulate

and

form

to

the

past,

most

of

what

see

happening

preservation of deposits that will

environments of deposition is not

eventually

the

necessarily representative of events

sedimentary record is actually the

that will lead to the formation of

exception, rather than the rule. The

sedimentary

transitory nature of deposition is

tidal currents may form bars of

most obvious in upland areas.

cross-bedded sands in an estuary,

The

deposits

left

part

by

of

glaciers

retreating a few thousand years ago

may be familiar as lateral and
terminal moraines in some of our
modern landscapes, but they occur in
areas that are undergoing erosion,
and will not be preserved as glacial
features in the stratigraphic record.
Similarly, the sediment that we

rocks.

in

we

in

succession of strata. In fact, the

form

today

introduced

For

modern

example,

but those sands may be washed back

and forth by the tide for millennia,
with some material added by the
river, and somemoved out to sea. To
create a set of strata from these
processes, something else has to
happen, usually some form of change
in the environment. At a small scale
this may be the change in the
position of a river due to avulsion

leading to abandonment of the old

and they can range in size from a few

river course, or the shift in a lake

kilometres across to ocean basins

shoreline due to a change in climate

covering half the planet. A basin can

covering the old lake margin deposits

also be a geomorphological feature, a

with

and more sediment.

bowl-shaped depression on the land

However, at a larger scale it is

surface that may or may not be a

tectonic

place

water

subsidence,

local

and

where

sediment

is

regional changes in the vertical

accumulating in geology we are

position of the crust, that ultimately

really only concerned with basins

allows sediment to become preserved

that preserve strata, and provide us

as strata.

with

importance

of

record

of

depositional

environments through Earth history.

Tectonics of sedimentary basins

The

our

tectonic

Distinct

areas

of

sediment

for

accumulation were recognised by

creating accommodation space has

geologists in the late 19th and early

already

20th

subsidence

as

been

mechanism

considered

in

the

centuries.

They

were

then

context of sequence stratigraphy, but

referred to as geosynclines and

there is a broader implication of this

defined as broad down-folds in the

process.

crust where successions of strata

Put

simply,

without

tectonics creating areas that are

were

first

preserved

lows on the Earths surface, there

subsequently deformed. With the

would be no long-term accumulation

advent of plate tectonic theory the

of sediment, no sedimentary rocks

geosynclinal

and no stratigraphy as we know it.

redundant and it is now conventional

Places where sediment accumulates

to categorise sedimentary basins in

are known as sedimentary basins

terms of their plate tectonic setting

concept

and

then

became

(Ingersoll 1988; Busby & Ingersoll

In the following discussion the main

1995).

basin

Tectonic

setting

classification

of

sedimentary basins
The movement of tectonic plates
results in mountain belts where two
areas of continental crust collide,
subduction zones with associated
volcanic arcs where oceanic crust is
consumed at plate margins, oceans
form at places where plates are
moving apart and major fault zones
where plates move past each other.
All these diferent tectonic settings
are also areas where sediment can
accumulate, and at a simple level
three

main

settings

of

basin

formation can be recognised:

1 basins associated with regional
extension within and between plates;
2 basins related to convergent plate
boundaries;
3 basins associated with strike-slip
plate boundaries.

types

and

the

transitions

between them are considered in

terms of the plate tectonic setting.
An elementary knowledge of plate
tectonic processes and the nature of
continental and oceanic lithosphere
is assumed, as is an understanding
of the basic terminology of structural
geology.

more

detailed

consideration of the tectonic setting

of both modern and ancient basins
(Ingersoll 1988; Busby & Ingersoll
1995) indicates that at least 20 types
can be recognised. In addition hybrid
forms

exist

complexities

because
of

plate

of

the

tectonic

processes, for example where crustal

extension is oblique and resulting
basins have characteristics of both a
rift and a strike-slip setting.

Basins

Related

to

Lithospheric Extention
The motion of tectonic plates results
in some areas where lithosphere is
under extension and other places

where

it

is

under

compression.

One

tectonic

setting

Horizontal stress within continental

lithospheric

crust causes brittle fracture in the

associated with a hot spot, an area

surface layers while the stretching is

of increased heat flow in the crust

accommodated by ductile flow in the

generated by thermal plumes in the

lower part of the lithosphere. In the

mantle. Rupture of the continental

early stages of this extension, rifts

lithosphere over a plume creates

form

three

and are typically

sites

of

extension

where

branches

occurs

along

is

which

continental sedimentation. If the

extension occurs, a triple junction of

stretching continues, the continental

plates that can be seen today centred

lithosphere may rupture completely

on the Afar

and the injection of basaltic magmas

results in the formation of new
oceanic crust within the zone of
extension. This stage is known as a
proto-oceanic trough and is the first
stage in the initiation of an ocean
basin: the remnant flanks of the rift
become the passive margins of the
ocean basin as it develops. However,
not all crustal extension follows the
same path: continental rift basins
may exist for long periods without
making the rift to drift transition of
forming an ocean basin, especially if
the driving force for the extension
fades.

Triangle where the East African Rift

valley, the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aden meet. These three extensional
regimes are in diferent stages of
development continental rift, protooceanic trough and young ocean
basin respectively. On the other side
of Africa, an older triple junction now
centred on the Niger Delta had two
arms forming the South Atlantic,
while the third arm, the Benue
Trough, was a failed rift that
subsequently became an area of
intracratonic subsidence.

Not all lithospheric extension is

planar

related

displacement is greater on one side

to

hot

spots

and

the

or

and

formation of new ocean basins. Areas

they

of thickened crust and high heat flow

referred to as half-graben.

due to asthenospheric upwelling,

such

as

the

Basin

and

Range

Province in western USA, are also

regions of widespread rift basin
development as the upper layer of
the crust responds to the doming.
Furthermore, in arctrench systems
local tectonic forces lead to the
rifting of the crust and the formation
of

intra-arc

and

subsequently

backarc basins due to extension.

form

listric,

asymmetric

if

the

valleys

The structural weakness in the crust

and high heat flow associated with
rifting may result in volcanic activity.
Uplift on the flanks of rifts due to
regional high heat flow and the efect
of relative movements on the riftbounding

faults

creates

local

sediment sources for rift valleys.

The controls on sedimentation in rift
valleys are a combination of tectonic
factors that determine the rift flank

Rift basins

relief

In regions of extension continental

material, as well as the pathways of

crust

rifts,

sediment into the basin, and climate,

which are structural valleys bound

which influences weathering, water

by

faults

availability for transport and facies

(Leeder 1995). The axis of the rift

in the rift basin (Nichols & Uttamo

lies more-or-less perpendicular to the

2005). Connection to oceans is also

direction of the stress. The down-

important. Death Valley, California,

faulted blocks are referred to as

is a terrestrial rift valley, isolated

graben and the up-faulted areas as

from the sea and has an arid climate,

horsts. The bounding faults may be

such that alluvial fan, desert dune

fractures

extensional

to produce

(normal)

and

hence

availability

of

and evaporative lake environments

apparently

are dominant. In contrast, the Gulf

rifting episodes, whereas others are

of Corinth, Greece, is a maritime rift

not. After the cessation of rifting

and is the site of fan-delta and

within continental crust there is a

deeper

deposits

change in the thermal regime of the

1987).

area. When continental crust is

Extensional basins with low clastic

extended it is thinned and this

supply may be sites of carbonate

brings hotter mantle material closer

deposition.

to the surface.

marine

(Leeder

&

clastic

Gawthorpe

The

patterns

of

sedimentation in rifts evolve as the

basins

deepen,

separate

basins

combine and links to the marine

realm

become

established

(Gawthorpe & Leeder 2000).

related

to

antecedent

Rifts are therefore areas of high heat

flow, a high geothermal gradient
(rate of change of temperature with
depth).

When

rifting

stops

the

geothermal gradient is reduced and

Intracratonic basins

the crust in the region of the rift

Areas of broad subsidence within a

starts to cool, contract and sink

continental block (craton) away from

resulting

plate margins or regions of orogeny

Intracratonic basins that apparently

are known as intracratonic basins

have no precursor rift history may

(Klein 1995). The cratonic crust is

also

typically ancient, and with low relief:

subsidence.

the area may be very large, but the

temperature distribution within the

amount of subsidence is low and the

mantle associated with cold crustal

rate is very slow.

slabs

The mechanism of subsidence varies

between diferent basins, as some are

be

in

relict

thermal

product

subsidence.

of

Irregularities

from

thermal
in

the

long-extinct

subduction zones create areas where

there is downward movement.

Cratonic areas above these zones

decreases relative buoyancy, so as

may be subject to subsidence and the

crust moves away from the ridges, it

formation of a broad, shallow basin.

sinks. Mid-ocean ridges are typically

Long-wavelength

lithospheric

at depths of around 2500 m. The

buckling has also been suggested as

depth of the ocean basin increases

away from the ridges to between

mechanism

intracratonic

for

basins.

forming
and

4000 and 5000m where the basaltic

lacustrine sediments are commonly

crust is old and cool. The ocean floor

encountered in intracratonic basins,

is not a flat surface. Spreading ridges

although flooding from an adjacent

tend

ocean

transform faults that create some

may

result

epicontinental

Fluvial

in

sea.

broad

Intracratonic

basins in wholly continentalsettings

are

very

fluctuations
temperature

sensitive

to

as
may

climate
increased

raise

rates

of

evaporation in lakes and reduce the

water level over a wide area.

to

be

irregular,

ofset

by

areas of local topography.

Isolated volcanoes and linear chains
of

volcanic

activity

related

to

hotspots (mantle plumes) such as the

Hawaiian Islands form submerged
seamounts or exposed islands. In
addition to the formation of volcanic

Ocean basins

rocks in these areas, the shallow

Basaltic crust formed at mid-oceanic

water environment may be a site of

ridges is hot and relatively buoyant.

carbonate

As the basin grows in size by new

formation of reefs. In the deeper

magmas created along the spreading

parts

ridges, older crust moves away from

sedimentation

the hot mid-ocean ridge. Cooling of

consisting of fine-grained biogenic

the crust increases its density and

detritus and clays. Nearer to the

edges

production

of

of

and

the

the

ocean

basins

is

mainly

pelagic,

the

basins

terrigenous

clastic material may be deposited as

of subduction: at steep angles the

turbidites.

distance will be as little as 50 km

Basins

Related

to

Subduction
At

convergent

involving

plate

oceanic

margins
lithosphere

subduction occurs (Fig. 24.7). The

downgoing ocean plate descends into
the mantle beneath the overriding
plate, which may be either another
piece of oceanic lithosphere or a
continental

margin.

As

the

downgoing plate bends to enter the

subduction zone a trough is created
at the contact between the two
plates: this is the ocean trench. The
descending slab is heated as it goes
down

and

magmas

partially

generated

melts.
rise

to

The
the

surface through the overriding plate

to create a line of volcanoes, when
the downgoing slab reaches 90 to
150km depth. The arctrench gap
(distance between the axis of the
ocean trench and the line of the
volcanic arc) will depend on the angle

and where subduction is at a shallow

angle it may be over 200 km.
Arctrench systems are regions of
plate

convergence,

however,

the

upper plate of an active arc must be

in extension in order for magmas to
reach

the

surface

and

generate

volcanic activity. The amount of

extension is governed by the relative
rates

of

plate

convergence

and

subduction and this is in turn

influenced
subduction.

by

the

angle

of

If

the

angle

of

subduction is steep then convergence

is slower than subduction at the
trench, the upper plate is in net
extension and an extensional backarc
basin forms (Dickinson 1980). Steep
subduction occurs if the downgoing
plate consists of old, cold crust.
However, not all backarc areas are
under extension: some are neutral
and others are sites of the formation
of a flexural basin due to thrust

movements at the margins of the arc

flows, especially turbidity currents

massif (retroarc basins).

that may flow for long distances

along

Trenches
Ocean trenches are elongate, gently

the

axis

of

the

trench

(Underwood & Moore 1995).

curving troughs that form where an

Forearc basins

oceanic plate bends as it enters a

The inner margin of a forearc basin

subduction zone. The inner margin of

is the edge of the volcanic arc and the

the trench is formed by the leading

outer limit the accretionary complex

edge of the overriding plate of the

formed on the leading edge of the

arctrench system. The bottoms of

upper plate. The width of a forearc

modern trenches are up to 10,000m

basin will therefore be determined by

below sea level, twice as deep as the

the dimensions of the arctrench

average bathymetry of the ocean

gap, which is in turn determined by

floors.

the angle of subduction.

They

are

also

narrow,

sometimes as little as 5 km across,

although they may be thousands of
kilometres long. Trenches formed
along margins flanked by continental
crust tend to be filled with sediment
derived from the adjacent land areas.
Intra-oceanic

(Dickinson 1995). The thickness of

sediments that can accumulate in a
forearc setting is partly controlled by
the

height

of

the

accretionary

complex: if this is close to sea level

starved of sediment because the only

the forearc basin may also fill to that

sources

level.

material

are

oceanic crust or a continental margin

often

of

trenches

The basin may be underlain by either

apart

from

Subsidence

in

the

forearc

pelagic deposits are the islands of the

region is due only to sedimentary

volcanic arc. Transport of coarse

loading. The main source of sediment

material into trenches is by mass

to the basin is the volcanic arc and, if

the arc lies in continental crust, the

active volcanoes and is the site of

hinterland

accumulation of mainly volcanically

Intraoceanic

of

continental

arcs

are

rocks.

commonly

derived

sediment.

With

further

starved of sediment because the

extension the arc completely splits

island-arc volcanic chain is the only

into two parts, an active arc with

source of detritus apart from pelagic

continued volcanism closer to the

sediment. Given sufficient supply of

subduction zone and a remnant arc.

detritus a forearc basin succession

As divergence between the remnant

will consist of deepwater deposits at

and active arcs continues a new

the

spreading

base,

shallowing

up

to

centre

is

formed

to

shallowmarine, deltaic and fluvial

generate basaltic crust between the

sediments at the top (Macdonald &

two.

Butterworth

1990).

Volcaniclastic

debris is likely to be present in

almost all cases.

This backarc basin continues to grow

by spreading until renewed rifting in
the active arc leads to the formation
of a new line of extension closer to

Backarc basins
form

the trench. Once a new backarc basin

where the angle ofsubduction of the

is formed the older one is abandoned.

downgoing slab is steep and the

The lifespan of these basins is

rateof subduction is greater than the

relatively

rate of plate convergence. Rifting

Pacific Cenozoic backarc basins have

occurs in the region of the volcanic

existed for around 20 Myr between

arc where the crust is hotter and

formation

weaker. At this stage an intra-arc

Extensional backarc basins can form

basin forms, a transient extensional

in

basin that is bound on both sides by

plates

Extensional

backarc

basins

short:

either

in

and

oceanic

(Marsaglia

the

Western

abandonment.

or

continental
1995).

The

principal source of sediment in a

backarc basin formed in an oceanic

sedimentology and stratigraphy of an

plate will be the active volcanic arc.

area must take place in the context

Once the remnant arc is eroded down

of the basin setting. Sedimentary

to sea level it contributes little

basin analysis

further

geology

detritus.

More

abundant

that

is

the aspect

considers

all

of
the

supplies are available if there is

controls on the accumulation of a

continental crust on either or both

succession of sedimentary rocks to

sides of the basin. Backarc basins are

develop a model for the evolution of

typically

the sedimentary basin as a whole. A

mainly

underfilled,
deep-water

containing
sediment

of

volcaniclastic and pelagic origin.

comprehensive summary of basin

analysis is provided in texts such as

Sedimentary Basin Analysis

A succession of sedimentary rocks

Allen & Allen (2005) and a brief

introduction is outlined below.

can be considered first in terms of

Stratigraphic analysis

the

of

The relative or absolute dating of the

individual beds or associations of

strata in the basin. These provide a

beds , and second in the context of

time framework for the basin history,

changes

indicating

depositional

environment

through time by the application of a

time scale and means of correlation
of strata. The spatial distribution of
depositional facies and variations in
the

environment

of

deposition

through time will depend upon the

tectonic setting (see above), so a
comprehensive

analysis

of

the

when

the

basin

first

started to form (the age of the rocks

that lie at the bottom of the basin),
and when sedimentation ceased (the
youngest strata preserved), as well
as events in between. The rate of
sediment accumulation, that is, the
thickness of strata deposited between
two datable horizons, can be a

characteristic
setting:

for

indicator
example,

of

basin

surrounding cratonic area and are

rift

basin

likely to include clasts of plutonic

sediments will commonly accumulate

igneous

at a faster rate than passive margin

Peripheral foreland basins normally

deposits. On a shorter time scale,

contain

changes in sediment accumulation

reworked sedimentary rocks that

rate may reflect the relative sea level.

have been uplifted and subsequently

The nature and the distribution of

sediment present in a succession will
reflect the basin setting. Three main
of

the

metamorphic

high

origin.

proportion

of

eroded as part of the mountain-

Sedimentological analysis

aspects

or

sedimentological

analysis of basins can be considered:

provenance studies, the distribution
of facies and palaeoenvironments,

building process. Changes in clast

composition through time can be
used as an indicator of depth of
erosion in the hinterland source area
and hence provide a record of the
uplift and unroofing history of an
orogenic belt.

and the changes in these through

Once a stratigraphic framework for

time during the basin evolution.

the

Provenance

studies

are

key

element of the analysis of a basin,

providing

information

about

the

tectonic setting. Arc-related basins,

such as backarc and forearc basins,
are most likely to contain volcanic
material derived from the magmatic
arc. Rift basins in continental crust
contain material derived from the

basin

succession

has

been

established, the basin succession can

be divided up into packages of strata,
each deposited during an interval of
time.

The

within

an

distribution
individual

of

facies

package

provides a picture of the distribution

of palaeoenvironments for that time
interval,

and

hence

palaeogeography can be established.

Diferent basin types can be expected

to

show

diferent

patterns

of

time. Peripheral foreland basins and

sedimentation: for example, a rift or

forearc

strike-slip basin may be expected to

comprise deep-water facies in the

have coarse facies such as alluvial

lower part of the basin succession,

fans or fan-deltas at its margins, a

shallowing up to shallow-marine or

backarc basin would have an apron

continental deposits. In contrast,

of volcaniclastic deposits

at

one

rifts and backarc basins commonly

margin,

margin

show a progressive change from

succession would be dominated by

continental deposits formed in the

shallowmarine clastic or carbonate

early stage of rifting, followed by

facies.

shallow-marine

and

passive

The tectonic setting of the basin is a

major factor controlling the changes
in

the

facies

distributions

and

palaeogeographical patterns through

basins

deepermarine

both

and

sometimes

facies.

Changing

palaeogeography
therefore

typically

within

reflects

the

basin
tectonic

evolution of both the basin and the

surrounding area.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

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http://www.stratigraphy.org/upload/bak/chron.htm

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