TOPIC 1 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Quadratic equations are of the form

numbers and

where a, b and c are real

. Quadratic equations have two solutions. It is possible that one

solution may repeat.
Some quadratic equations can be
solved by factoring. Set the
equation equal to zero and factor.

Solving by Factoring
Example 1:
Solve by factoring:

Example 2:
Solve by factoring:

Solving by Graphing

Example 2:
Solve by factoring:

ome quadratic equations

can be solved by
graphing. Setting the
equation equal to zero
will show the roots as
locations on the x-axis.

Example 1: Solve by graphing:

Method 1: Set the equation equal to zero,

if necessary. Find the roots using the ZERO
command tool of the graphing calculator.

Example 2: Solve by graphing:

Method 2: Graph each side of the equation

separately. Use the INTERSECT command
tool to find when the graphs cross. Repeat

this process for both intersection points.

Quadratic Formula:
Solving by Quadratic Formula

The solutions of some quadratic equations are not rational, and cannot be
factored. For such equations, the most common method of solution is the
quadratic formula. The quadratic formula can be used to solve ANY
quadratic equation, even those that can be factored.
Be sure you know this formula!!!
Note: The equation must be set equal to zero before using the formula.
Example:

As decimal values:

Solving by Competing the Square

Example:

Keep all terms containing x on one

side. Move the constant to the
right.
Get ready to create a perfect
square on the left. Balance the
equation.
Take half of the x-term coefficient
and square it. Add this value to
both sides.
Simplify and write the perfect
square on the left.
Take the square root of both sides.
Be sure to allow for both plus and
minus.
Solve for x.

TOPIC 2 PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Factor in

Term in partial

denominator

fraction decomposition

Partial-fraction decomposition is the process of starting with the simplified

answer and taking it back apart, of "decomposing" the final expression into
its initial polynomial fractions.

To decompose a fraction, you first factor the denominator. Let's work

backwards from the example above. The denominator is x2 + x, which factors
as x(x + 1).
Then you write the fractions with one of the factors for each of the
denominators. Of course, you don't know what the numerators are yet, so
you assign variables (usually capital letters) for these unknown values:

Then you set this sum equal to the simplified result:

Multiply through by the common denominator of x(x + 1) gets rid of all of the
denominators:

3x + 2 = A(x + 1) + B(x)
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Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2006-2011

Multiply things out, and group the x-terms and the constant terms:
3x + 2 = Ax + A1 + Bx
3x + 2 = (A + B)x + (A)1
(3)x + (2)1 = (A + B)x + (A)1
For the two sides to be equal, the coefficients of the two polynomials must be
equal. So you "equate the coefficients" to get:
3=A+B
2=A
This creates a system of equations that you can solve:
A=2
B=1
Then the original fractions were (as we already know) the following:

There is another method for solving for the values of A and B. Since the
equation "3x + 2 = A(x + 1) + B(x)" is supposed to be true for any value
of x, we can pick useful values of x, plug-n-chug, and find the values
for A and B. Looking at the equation "3x + 2 = A(x + 1) + B(x)", you can see
that, if x = 0, then we quickly find that 2 = A:
3x + 2 = A(x + 1) + B(x)
3(0) + 2 = A(0 + 1) + B(0)
0 + 2 = A(1) + 0
2=A
And if x = 1, then we easily get 3 + 2 = B, so B = 1.
I've never seen this second method in textbooks, but it can often save you a
whole lot of time over the "equate the coefficients and solve the system of
equations" method that they usually teach.

TOPIC 3 ARITHEMETIC PROGRESSION AND

GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
Arithmetic Progression, AP
Arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers in which the difference of
any two adjacent terms is constant. The constant difference is commonly
known as common difference and is denoted by d. Examples of arithmetic
progression are as follows:
Example 1: 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, 28 33, 38, 43, 48
The above sequence of numbers is composed of n = 10 terms (or elements).
The first term a1 = 3, and the last term an = a10 = 48. The common difference
of the above AP is d = 8 - 3 = 13 - 8 = ... = 5.
Example 2: 5, 2, -1, ...
This AP has a common difference of -3 and is composed of infinite number of
terms as indicated by the three ellipses at the end.

Notation:
Number of terms in the series: n
First term: a1

Nth term: an
Sum of the first n terms: Sn
Difference between successive terms: d
Common ratio: q
Sum to infinity: S
Arithmetic Series Formulas:
an=a1+(n1)d
ai=ai1+ai+12
Sn=a1+an2n
Sn=2a1+(n1)d2n
Formulas for Geometric Progression
Common ratio
The common ratio can be found by taking the quotient of any two adjacent
terms.
r=am+1am=a2a1=a3a2=a4a3=...r=am+1am=a2a1=a3a2=a4a3=...
nth term of GP
The nth term of the geometric progression is given by
an=a1rn1an=a1rn1 or an=amrnman=amrnm

Sum of n terms of GP
The sum of the first n terms of geometric progression is
S=a1(1rn)1rS=a1(1rn)1r

Sum of Infinite Geometric Progression

A finite sum can be obtained from GP with infinite terms if and only if -1.0 r
1.0 and r 0.
S=a11rS=a11r

TOPIC 4 INEQUALITIES

Interval Notation: (description)

(diagram)

Open Interval: (a, b) is interpreted as a < x < b

(1, 5)
where the endpoints are NOT included.
(While this notation resembles an ordered pair, in this
context it refers to the interval upon which you are
working.)
Closed Interval: [a, b] is interpreted as a < x < b
where the endpoints are included.
Half-Open Interval: (a, b] is interpreted as a <
x < b where a is not included, but b is included.
Half-Open Interval: [a, b) is interpreted as a < x <
b wherea is included, but b is not included.

[1, 5]

(1, 5]

[1, 5)

Non-ending Interval:
is interpreted as x >
a where ais not included and infinity is always
expressed as being "open" (not included).
Non-ending Interval:
is interpreted
as x < b whereb is included and again, infinity is
always expressed as being "open" (not included).

A compound inequality is two simple inequalities joined by "and" or "or".

Solving an "And" Compound
Inequality:

Solving an "Or" Compound

Inequality:
2x + 3 < 7 or 5x + 5 > 25
Also written ...
[2x + 3 < 7]

[5x + 5 > 25]

Solve the first

inequality

3x - 9 < 12 and 3x - 9 > -3

Solve the second
inequality

Also written ...

The common
statement is
sandwiched between
the two inequalities.
Solve as a single unit
or solve each side
separately.

Or written ...

The solution is x < 2 or x > 4.

Interval notation:

The solution is 2 < x < 7,

which can be read x > 2 and x < 7.
Interval notation: [2, 7]

Inequalities are arguably a branch of elementary algebra, and relate slightly

to number theory. They deal with relations of variables denoted by four
signs:
.
For two numbers

and :

if

is greater than , that is,

is positive.

if

is smaller than , that is,

is negative.

if

is greater than or equal to , that is,

if

is less than or equal to , that is,

is either positive

or .

Note that if and only if

,
latter two signs: if and only if

is either negative or .

, and vice versa. The same applies to the

,
, and vice versa.

Some properties of inequalities are:

If

, then

, where

If

, then

, where

If

, then

, where

TOPIC 5 MATRIX
Types of matrices
Sometimes matrices are categorized according to the configurations of their
entries.
For instance, a matrix like this one, with all-zero
entries below the top-left-to-lower-right diagonal
("the diagonal") is called "upper triangular". (You can
have lower triangular matrices, too, but they aren't
of much use, so "triangular", without the "upper" or
"lower", is generally taken to mean "upper
triangular".)

A matrix with non-zero entries only on the diagonal

is called "diagonal".

A diagonal matrix whose non-zero entries are all 1's

is called an "identity" matrix, for reasons which will
become clear when you learn how to multiply
matrices.

There are many identity matrices. The previous

example was the 3 3identity; this is the 4
4 identity:

The 3 3 identity is denoted by I3 (pronounced as

"eye-three" or "eye-sub-three"); similarly, the 4
4 identity is I4 and the 2 2 identity matrix is I2:
Matrix Addition
Two matrices can be added if and only if they have the same number of rows
and the same number of columns. To add two matrices, add their
corresponding entries:

[A] +
[B]
=

Matrix Subtraction
As in addition, two matrices can be subtracted if and only if they have the
same number of rows and the same number of columns. To subtract one
matrix from another, subtract their corresponding entries:

[A] - [B]

=
Scalar Multiplication
To multiply a matrix by a scalar, that is, a single constant, variable, or
expression, multiply all the entries in the matrix by the scalar:

TOPIC 6: COMPLEX NUMBERS

Complex numbers
Imaginary and complex numbers. Abscissa and ordinate of a complex
number. Conjugate complex numbers. Pure imaginary number. Pure
imaginary number. Operations with complex numbers. Geometric
representation of complex numbers. Complex plane. Modulus and
argument of a complex number. Trigonometric form of a complex
number. Operations with complex numbers in the trigonometric form.
Moivre's formula.

The initial information about imaginary and complex numbers has been
presented above, in the section Imaginaryand complex numbers. A
necessity of these new kind numbers has appeared at solving of quadratic
equations in the case of D < 0
(D a discriminant of a quadratic equation). During a long time these
numbers had no physical applications, therefore they were called
imaginary numbers. But now these numbers have various applications in
different physical and technical fields, such as: electrical engineering, hydroand aerodynamics, theory of elasticity and others.
Complex numbers are written in the shape: a+ bi. Here a and b real
numbers, and i an imaginary unit, i.e. i 2 = 1. A real number a is called
an abscissa of complex number a+ bi, and b an ordinate of complex
number a+ bi. Two complex numbers a+ bi and a bi are called
the conjugate complex numbers.
Main agreements:
1. A real number a can also be written in the shape of a complex
number: a+ 0 i or a 0 i. For example, the records 5 + 0 i and 5 0 i
mean the same real number 5 .

2. A complex number 0+ bi is called a pure imaginary number. The

record bi means the same as 0+ bi.
3. Two complex numbers a+ bi and c+ di are considered as equal ones,
if a=c and b=d. Otherwise, the complex numbers arent equal.

Addition. A sum of complex numbers a+ bi and c+ di is called a

complex number ( a+ c ) + ( b+ d ) i. So, at addition of complex
numbers their abscissas and ordinates are added separately. This
definition corresponds to the rules of operations at usual polynomials.
Subtraction. A difference of two complex numbers a+ bi ( a minuend )
and c+ di ( a subtrahend ) is called a complex number ( a c ) +
( b d ) i. So, at subtraction of two complex numbers their abscissas and
ordinates are subtracted separately.
Multiplication. A product of complex numbers a+ bi and c+ di is
called a complex number: ( ac bd ) + ( ad + bc ) i.

This definition follows from two requirements:

1) the numbers a+ bi and c+ di must be multiplied as
algebraic binomials,
2) a number i has a main property: i = 1.
E x a m p l e . ( a+ bi )( a bi )= a + b . Hence it follows, that
a product of two conjugate complex numbers is a real positive
number!

Division. To divide a complex number a+ bi ( a dividend ) by another c+

di ( a divisor ) means to find the third number e+ f i ( a quotient ), which
being multiplied by the divisor c+ di, results the dividend a+ bi. If divisor
isnt equal to zero, then division is always valid.
E x a m p l e. Find ( 8 + i ) : ( 2 3i ) .

S o l u t i o n. Rewrite this quotient as a fraction:

Multiplying its numerator and denominator by 2 + 3i and
executin all operations, well receive:

Geometric representation of complex numbers. Real numbers are

represented by points in a numerical line:

Here a point A means a number 3, a point B a number 2, and O zero. In

contrast this complex numbers are represented by points in a
numerical (coordinate) plane. For this we select a system of rectangular
(Cartesian) coordinates with the same scale in both axes. Then, a complex
number a+ bi will be represented by point P with abscissa aand ordinate b (
see figure ). This coordinate system is called a complex plane.

Modulus of a complex number is a length of vector OP, representing

this complex number in a coordinate(complex) plane. Modulus of complex
number a+ bi is signed as | a+ bi | or by letter r and equal to :

Conjugate complex numbers havethe same modulus.

Argument of a complex number is the angle
vector OP, representing this complex number.

between x-axis and

Trigonometric form of a complex number. Abscissa a and ordinate b of

the complex number a + bi can be expressed by its modulus r and
argument :

Operations with complex numbers, represented in the trigonometric form.

This is the famous Moivres formula.

Here k is any integer. To receive n different values of the n-th degree root
of z its necessary to give n consecutive values for k ( e.g., k = 0, 1, 2,
, n 1) .

SOURCES:
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/Alg/PartialFractions.aspx
http://www.purplemath.com/modules/partfrac.htm
http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/math/algtrig/ate3/quadlesson.htm
http://www.bymath.com/studyguide/alg/sec/alg26.html
http://www.purplemath.com/modules/matrices2.htm
http://www.regentsprep.org/Regents/math/ALGEBRA/AE8/CompoundLinequal.htm
http://www.sparknotes.com/math/algebra2/matrices/
http://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/algebra/arithmetic-geometric-and-harmonicprogressions
https://www.artofproblemsolving.com/wiki/index.php?title=Inequality
http://www.mathportal.org/formulas/series/aritgeo.php