INTRODUCTION

1.
1
2.

TheBulkPowerSupply
The
Bulk Power Supply
Reliabilitycriteria

3.
4.

Requirementsofareliableelectricservice
Systemdynamicperformance
y
y
p

5.

Powersystemstability
Definitions

Reliabilitycriteria

6.
7.
8
8.

The2components
Security assessment from operators view
Securityassessmentfromoperatorsview
NERC

Howaretheyused
Disturbanceperformancetable
Securitystates
Normal design vs extreme contingency
Normaldesignvs.extremecontingency

Typesofstabilitystudies
Stabilityissuestoday
Two important approximations
Twoimportantapproximations
1

INTRODUCTION
1
1.

The Bulk Power Supply

TheBulkPowerSupply

Elaborate,complex,interconnectionofpowercomponentswhich
p
p
y
makeupaninterconnectedpowersystem.

Whenwetalkaboutreliabilityandsecurityofpowersystems,weare
interestedinwhatwecallTHEBULKPOWERSUPPLYSYSTEM

Thepartofthenetworkwhichconnectsthepowerplants,themajor
substations,andthemainEHV/HVlines.

Interruptionsinthebulkpowersupplyareveryserious
Manyusersareaffectedbytheseinterruptions
Theycanbecostly

Theyaretobeavoided,andmucheffortisspenttodothat

2.RELIABILITY
Power Systems are built and operated with the following goal:
PowerSystemsarebuiltandoperatedwiththefollowinggoal:
TOACHIEVEARELIABLEandECONOMICELECTRICPOWERSUPPLY.
Fortheconsumertohaveareliableandeconomicelectricpower
supply,acomplexsetofengineeringanalysisanddesign
l
l
f
i
i
l i
dd i
solutionsneedtobeimplemented.
Reliabilityofapowersystemreferstotheprobabilityofits
R
li bilit f
t
f t th
b bilit f it
satisfactoryoperationoverthelongrun.Itdenotestheabilityto
supply adequate electric service on a nearly continuous basis
supplyadequateelectricserviceonanearlycontinuousbasis,
withfewinterruptionsoveranextendedtimeperiod.
IEEEPaperonTerms&Definitions,2004
3

Reliabilityhastwocomponents
Security istheabilityoftheelectric
systemstowithstandsuddendisturbances
suchaselectricshortcircuitsor
unanticipatedlossofsystemelements.

Focusof
ourcourse

Security ofapowersystemreferstothedegreeofriskinitsabilityto
surviveimminentdisturbances(contingencies)withoutinterruptionof
customerservice.Itrelatestorobustnessofthesystemtoimminent
i
l
b
f h
i
i
disturbancesand,hence,dependsonthesystemoperatingconditionas
wellasthecontingentprobabilityofdisturbances.(IEEETermsDefs04)
g
p
y

Adequacy istheabilityoftheelectricsystemstosupplythe
aggregateelectricaldemandandenergyrequirementsoftheir
aggregate
electrical demand and energy requirements of their
customersatalltimes,takingintoaccountscheduledand
reasonablyexpectedunscheduledoutageofsystemelements.

Anoperatorsviewofsecurity
S
Security
it

Overload
Security

TTrans
former
Overload

Line
Li
Overload

Staticsecurity

Voltage
Security

LLow
Voltage

Unstable
U
t bl
Voltage

Anyconsequenceofa
credibledisturbance
th t
thatrequiresalimit
i
li it
Angle/
Frequency
security

FFrequency
instability

Rotorangle
R
t
l
instability

Dynamicsecurity

AnotherViewofSecurity
Security=dynamicsecurity
y y
y
Adequacy=staticsecurity
q y
y
Thisviewisstronglyheldbyengineersthathavebeendeeply
involvedwithreliabilityassessmenttoolsforplanningsuchas
TRELLS,Tplan,etc.,whichcomputeprobabilisticindicesbasedon
static security assessment They will tell you that their tools are
staticsecurityassessment.Theywilltellyouthattheirtoolsare
concernedwithadequacy,notsecurity.
Youmustnotethepersonsbackground
You
must note the persons background whousesthetermSecurityin
who uses the term Security in
ordertounderstandthemeaningbeingimplied.
6

3.REQUIREMENTSOFARELIABLEELECTRICPOWERSERVICE
Steadystateandtransientvoltagesandfrequencymustbeheld
withinclosetolerances
i hi l
l
Steadystateflowsmustbewithincircuitlimits
Synchronousgeneratorsmustbekeptrunninginparallelwith
y
g
p
g p
adequatecapacitytomeettheloaddemand
Maintaintheintegrityofthebulkpowernetwork(avoidcascading
outages)
NERC,NorthAmericanElectricReliabilityCorporation:Missionisto
ensurereliabilityofthebulkpowersysteminNorthAmerica.They
develop/enforce reliability standards; assess reliability annually via
develop/enforcereliabilitystandards;assessreliabilityannuallyvia
10yearandseasonalforecasts;monitorthebulkpowersystem;
evaluateusers,owners,andoperatorsforpreparedness;and
educate, train, and certify industry personnel. NERC is a self
educate,train,andcertifyindustrypersonnel.NERCisaself
regulatedorganization,subjecttooversightbytheU.S.Federal
EnergyRegulatoryCommission&governmentalauthoritiesin
Canada.Itiscomposedof9regionalreliabilitycouncils&
p
g
y
encompassesvirtuallyallpowersystemsinUS&Canada.NERCs
activitiesplayanessentialroleinpreventingcontingenciesand 7
mitigatingtheirconsequences.

Interconnections

4.SystemDynamicPerformance
Indesigningandoperatingtheinterconnectedpowernetwork,
systemdynamicperformanceistakenintoaccountbecause:
Thepowersystemissubjectedtochanges(smallandlarge).Itis
Th
t
i
bj t d t h
(
ll d l
) It i
importantthatwhenthechangesarecompleted,thesystem
settlestonewoperatingconditionssuchthatnoconstraintsare
violated.
i l d
Notonlyshouldthenewoperatingconditionsbeacceptable(as
revealedbysteadystateanalysis)butalsothesystemmust
survivethetransition totheseconditions.Thisrequiresdynamic
analysis.
ONEASPECTOFSYSTEMSECURITYISTHEABILITYOFTHESYSTEMTOSTAYTOGETHER.
THEKEYISTHATTHEGENERATORSCONTINUETOOPERATEINSYNCHRONISM,OR
NOTTOLOSESYNCHRONISMORNOTTOGOOUTOFSTEP.THISISTHEPROBLEMOF

POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

POWERSYSTEMSTABILITY
10

ImportanceofPowerSystemStability
Generatorsmustbekeptinsynchronism;iftheirrelative
motionbeginstochangetoomuch,uncontrollable
oscillationsmayappearinthegridcausingdamageto
generatorsandtoequipment.
Therefore,relaysareusedtodetectthisconditionand
Therefore relays are used to detect this condition and
tripgeneratorsbeforethedamageoccurs.Although
trippingpreventsthedamage,itresultsinunder
frequency,andpossiblyloadinterruption,andinthe
worstcase,cascadingoutagesandblackout.
11

Definitions
PowerSystem:Anetworkofoneormoreelectrical
Power System: A network of one or more electrical
generatingunits,loads,and/orpowertransmissionlines,
includingtheassociatedequipmentelectricallyor
mechanicallyconnectedtothenetwork.
h i ll
t d t th
t
k
OperatingQuantitiesofaPowerSystem:Physical
q
quantities,measuredorcalculated,thatcanbeusedto
,
,
describetheoperatingconditionsofapowersystem.
Operatingquantitiesincludereal,reactive,andapparent
powers, & rms phasors of alternating voltages & currents.
powers,&rmsphasorsofalternatingvoltages&currents.
SteadyStateOperatingConditionofaPowerSystem:An
operatingconditionofapowersysteminwhichallthe
operating quantities that characterize it can be
operatingquantitiesthatcharacterizeitcanbe
consideredtobeconstantforthepurposeofanalysis.
12

Definitions
SynchronousOperation:
SynchronousOperationofaMachine:Amachineis
insynchronousoperationwithanetworkoranother
machine(s)towhichitisconnectedifitsaverage
electricalspeed(productofitsrotorangularvelocity
l ti l
d ( d t f it t
l
l it
andthenumberofpolepairs)equalstheangular
frequency of the ac network or the electrical speed of
frequencyoftheacnetworkortheelectricalspeedof
theothermachine(s).
SynchronousOperationofaPowerSystem:Apower
Synchronous Operation of a Power System: A power
systemisinsynchronousoperationifallits
connectedsynchronousmachinesareinsynchronous
operationwiththeacnetworkandwitheachother.
13

Definitions
Asynchronousornonsynchronousoperation:
AsynchronousOperationofaMachine:Amachineisin
sy c o ous Ope at o o a ac e
ac e s
asynchronousoperationwithanetworkoranothermachineto
whichitisconnectedifitisnotinsynchronousoperation.
AsynchronousOperationofaPowerSystem:Apowersystemis
in asynchronous operation if one or more of its connected
inasynchronousoperationifoneormoreofitsconnected
synchronousmachinesareinasynchronousoperation.
HuntingofaMachine:Amachineishuntingifanyofitsoperating
quantitiesexperiencesustainedoscillations.
14

Definitions
DisturbanceinaPowerSystem:Adisturbanceinapowersystemisa
suddenchangeorasequenceofchangesinoneormoreparameters
dd
h
f h
i
ofthesystem,orinoneormoreoftheoperatingquantities.
SmallDisturbanceInaPowerSystem:Asmalldisturbanceisadisturbance
forwhichtheequationsthatdescribethedynamicsofthepowersystem
maybelinearizedforthepurposeofaccurateanalysis.
LargeDisturbanceInaPowerSystem:Alargedisturbanceisadisturbance
f
forwhichtheequationsthatdescribethedynamicsofthepowersystem
hi h th
ti
th t d
ib th d
i
f th
t
cannotbelinearizedforthepurposeofaccurateanalysis.

SteadyStateStabilityofaPowerSystem:Apowersystemissteady
statestableforaparticularsteadystateoperatingconditionif,
t t t bl f
ti l t d t t
ti
diti if
followinganysmall disturbance,itreachesasteadystateoperating
conditionwhichisidenticalorclosetothepredisturbanceoperating
condition.ThisisalsoknownasSmallDisturbanceStabilityofa
di i
Thi i l k
S ll Di
b
S bili
f
PowerSystem.ItshouldNOTbecalleddynamicstability.
TransientStabilityofaPowerSystem:Apowersystemistransiently
stableforaparticularsteadystateoperatingconditionandfora
15
particulardisturbance if,followingthatdisturbance,itreachesan
acceptablesteadystateoperatingcondition.

Definitions
Powersystemstability:Powersystemstabilityistheabilityofan
electricpowersystem,foragiveninitialoperatingcondition,to
l
i
f
i
i ii l
i
di i
regainastateofoperatingequilibriumafterbeingsubjectedtoa
physicaldisturbance,withmostsystemvariablesboundedsothat
practicallytheentiresystemremainsintact.
ll h
Stabilityofapowersystemreferstothecontinuanceofintact
operationfollowingadisturbance.Itdependsontheoperating
p
g
p
p
g
conditionandthenatureofthephysicaldisturbance.
Anequilibriumsetofapowersystemisstableif,whentheinitial
state is in the given starting set the system motion converges to the
stateisinthegivenstartingset,thesystemmotionconvergestothe
equilibriumset,andoperatingconstraintsaresatisfiedforall
relevantvariablesalongtheentiretrajectory.
IEEETermsanddefinitions,2004.
IEEE Terms and definitions 2004

Iftheoscillatoryresponseofapowersystemduringthetransient
periodfollowingadisturbanceisdampedandthesystemsettlesina
fi i i
finitetimetoanewsteadyoperatingcondition,wesaythesystemis
d
i
di i
h
i
stable.Ifthesystemisnotstable,itisconsidered unstable.
16
Anderson&Fouad,pg.5.

Differencesbetweenreliability,security,andstability
Reliability is the overall objective in power system design and operation.
T be
To
b reliable,
li bl the
h power system must be
b secure most off the
h time.
i
T
To
be secure, the system must be stable but must also be secure against
other contingencies that would not be classified as stability problems
e g damage to equipment
e.g.,
eq ipment such
s ch as an explosive
e plosi e failure
fail re of a cable,
cable fall of
transmission towers due to ice loading or sabotage. As well, a system
may be stable following a contingency, yet insecure due to postfault
system conditions resulting in equipment overloads or voltage violations
System security may be further distinguished from stability in terms of
the resulting consequences. For example, two systems may both be
stable
t bl with
ith equall stability
t bilit margins,
i
b t one may be
but
b relatively
l ti l more
secure because the consequences of instability are less severe.
Security and stability are timevarying attributes which can be judged by
studying
d i the
h performance
f
off the
h power system under
d a particular
i l set off
conditions. Reliability, on the other hand, is a function of the time
average performance of the power system; it can only be judged by
consideration
id ti off the
th systems
t behavior
b h i over an appreciable
i bl period
i d off
time.
17
IEEEPaperonTermsandDefinitions,2004

IEEEpaperontermsanddefinitions,2004.

18

TheDisturbancePerformanceTableistheheartofreliabilitycriteria
Disturbance

19

20

5.HOWARERELIABILITYCRITERIAUSED?
A)InSystemPlanningorDesign
Makedecisionsonsize,typeandtimingofnewgeneration
andtransmissionfacilities
dt
i i f iliti
Designtransmissionnetworktowithstandnormal&
prescribedabnormalconditions
Thelatterincludessuchthingsasshortcircuits(faults)
followedbylossofmajorcomponents(toisolatethefault).
B)InSystemOperation
Establishmosteconomicoperatingconditionsundernormal
conditions
Operatethesystemsuchthatifanunscheduledeventoccurs,
y
itdoesnotresultinviolationofreliabilitycriteria.
EstablishSafeOperatingLimitsforallsituations
21

Themostsalientfeatureofreliabilitycriteriaisaphilosophy
capturedbythefollowingstatementtakenfromtheWSCC
criteriafortransmissionsystemplanning,whichdescribesits
disturbanceperformance
disturbance
performancetable:
table:
ThetableisbasedontheplanningphilosophythataHIGHER
level of PERFORMANCE is required for disturbances generally
levelofPERFORMANCEisrequiredfordisturbancesgenerally
havingahigherfrequencyofoccurrence.
Orstatedanotherway,
ThetableisbasedontheplanningphilosophythataLOWER
level of SEVERITY is required for disturbances generally
levelofSEVERITYisrequiredfordisturbancesgenerally
havingahigherfrequencyofoccurrence.
g
q
y severity,weseethatthecriteria
y,
Consideringrisk~frequency
suggestsauniformmaximumriskfordifferentkindsofcontingencies.
22

RELIABILITYCRITERIASHOULDNEVERBE
VIOLATEDINDESIGNINGTHESYSTEM.
RELIABILITYCRITERIASHOULDNEVERBE
RELIABILITY
CRITERIA SHOULD NEVER BE
INTENTIONALLYVIOLATEDINOPERATINGTHESYSTEM.
SOMETIMES,VIOLATIONSOCCURINOPERATIONS.

23

Powersystemoperationalstates&actions
Normal(secure)

Otheractions
(e g switching)
(e.g.switching)
Offeconomic
di
dispatch
h
Restorative

Extremeemergency.
Separation,cascading
d li
deliverypoint
i t
interruption,
loadshedding

Alert,
Notsecure

Emergency
Controlledload
C
t ll d l d
curtailment

Somecommentsaboutthepreviousslide:
Theuseofcriteriaensures(andthediagramillustratesthat),forall
credible contingencies,thesystemwill,atworsttransitfromthe
normalstatetothealertstate,ratherthantoamoreseverestate
suchastheemergencystateortheinextremis
g y
state.
Ifasystemisoperatedaccordingtocriteria,thesystemcan
transitionfromnormalstatetoemergencyorinextremisstate
only for a noncredible
onlyforanon
credible(extreme)contingency.
(extreme) contingency
Whenthealertstateisenteredfollowingacontingency,operators
cantakeactionstoreturnthesystemtothenormalstate,butsuch
actions should not include load shedding
actionsshouldnotincludeloadshedding.
Loadsheddingshouldonlybeperformedunderemergencies.

25

ExtremeContingencyAssessment(categoryD)
EExtremecontingencyassessmentrecognizesthattheinterconnected
t
ti
t
i th t th i t
t d
bulkpowersystemcanbesubjectedtoeventsthatexceedinseverity
thenormaldesigncontingencies.Theeffectofthesecontingencies
onsystemperformanceshouldbedeterminedinordertoobtainan
indicationofthesystemstrengthandtoidentifytheextentofa
widespread disturbance. After analysis and assessment of extreme
widespreaddisturbance.Afteranalysisandassessmentofextreme
contingencies,measuresaredevelopedtoreducethefrequencyof
occurrenceofsuchcontingenciesortomitigatetheconsequences
th t
thatareindicatedbythesimulationsofsuchcontingencies.
i di t d b th i l ti
f
h
ti
i

26

6.TypesofStabilityStudies
A.Steadystateinstability
Uselinear systemanalysistechniquestostudymodalsystemresponse
Calculation input: (a) predisturbance
Calculationinput:(a)pre
disturbancesystemconditions(thepower
system conditions (the power
flowsolution);(b)thedynamicmodels.
Typicalpurposeofsuchstudies:
Obtainsafeoperatinglimitsandguidelines
Identifypoorlydampedmodesofoscillation
d
f
l d
d
d
f
ll
Settingofcontrols(e.g.,exciters,powersystemstabilizers)
27

B.Transientinstability
Useofnonlinear systemanalysistoolstostudythesystem
response to (large) disturbances
responseto(large)disturbances.
Traditionalmethodistousetimedomainsimulationtotrack
theevolutionofsystemstates&parametersduringthetransient
Simulationinput:(a)predisturbancesystemconditions(the
powerflowsolution),(b)thedynamicmodels.(c)theswitching
sequence.
sequence
Simulationresults:shortterm(220seconds)trajectoryofall
systemparametersandfinal(postdisturbance)conditions.
Any changeininputWILLchangetheresults,thequestionthat
oneneedstoanswerbasedonjudgmentishowmuch?
28

Transientinstability.
Switching sequences
Switchingsequences

Thesimplestswitchingsequenceisnodisturbance.
Whywouldweeverwanttodothat?
Thenextsimplestis:
0cycles:removecircuit1029
10seconds:endsimulation
10
d
d i l i

Thenextsimplest,andmostcommon,is:

0cycles:applyfaultatbus2339
0
cycles: apply fault at bus 2339
4cycles:clearfault
4cycles:removecircuit23392337
10seconds:endsimulation

Themostcomplicated(ever?)istheWECCislanding
scheme
h
44 t
44steps.
29

Transientinstability.
Firstswing
First swing or
or earlyswing
early swing (1
(15
5secs)isastandardproblem
secs) is a standard problem
forwhichanalysisisperformedwherealargedisturbance
(fault)isappliedtoseeifthesystemremainsinsynchronism
d i fi t
duringfirstoneortwoswings.Butoften,largedisturbancesalso
t
i
B t ft l
di t b
l
createdampingproblems(oscillatoryinstability)whichrequire
1020secondsofsimulationtime.
Whynotrunsimulationsfor3minutesofsimulationtime?
Buildupofnumericalerrorformostcommontypeofintegration
technique
Usually,modelsareforshort
Usually, models are for shortterm
termanalysisonlyanddonotinclude,for
analysis only and do not include, for
example,boilerdynamics,thermostaticloadmodels,loadtapchangers,
AGC,etc.
Ifyoueliminatenumericalerrorfromintegrationscheme,anduse
If you eliminate numerical error from integration scheme and use
appropriatemodels,youcanperformmid orlongtermsimulation
30
(EUROSTAG)

Manybooksusethewordstudytodenoteasinglerun
onthecomputer.
Iusesimulation(timedomainsimulation)and
l l i (
calculation(steadystatestability)forthis.
d
bili ) f hi
Iusethewordstudytodenoteasetof
simulations/calculationsfromwhichonedrawsa
relevant conclusion
relevantconclusion.

31

 Typicalpurposeofsuchstudies
Newgenerationstudies(tomeetreliabilitycriteria)
Transmissionplanningstudies(toanalyzeplansforfuture
transmissionexpansion,andtomeetreliabilitycriteria)
Operationsplanningstudies(tocheckthatagivensystem
configuration(andoperationsschedule)meetsreliabilitycriteria)
Specialcontroltomaintainstability(e.g.,generationtripping,
(
brakingresistorinsertion,etc.)
Severedisturbance(extremecontingency)studies
S
di t b
( t
ti
) t di
Specialpurposestudies(e.g.,verifyingknownsystemupsets,and
system restoration )
systemrestoration.)
32

Frequencyinstabilityistheabilityofapowersystemtomaintain
steadyfrequencyfollowingaseveresystemupsetresultingina
t d f
f ll i
t
t
lti i
significantimbalancebetweengenerationandload.Itdependson
theabilitytomaintain/restoreequilibriumbetweensystem
generationandload,withminimumunintentionallossofload.
Instabilitythatmayresultoccursintheformofsustainedfrequency
swings leading to tripping of generating units and/or loads
swingsleadingtotrippingofgeneratingunitsand/orloads.

33

7.StabilityImplicationsofChangingConditions
A.Stabilityisnowconsideredaproblemforsystemoperationsinmanysystems
HereisaquotefromarecentpaperbyB.C.HydroEngineersabouttheironlinedynamic
securityassessmentscheme:

Conventionally,dynamicsecurityassessmenthasbeenperformed
usingofflinecalculations.Inthisprocess,detailedstability
analysisisconductedforeachcrediblecontingencyundera
varietyofoperatingconditions.Inrealsystemoperations,
conditionsfrequentlydonotmatchthosestudiedoffline.
Consequently,theguidelinesandlimitsproducedareusually
provided on the conservative side Power system networks
providedontheconservativeside.Powersystemnetworks
nowadaysoperatemoreandmoreinastressedstatewhere
conservativeoperationoftenresultsinsignificantfinancial
consequences. A more effective approach is to assess only
consequences.Amoreeffectiveapproachistoassessonly
thosecontingencieslikelytocausedynamicviolationsforthe
operatingconditionencounteredinrealtime.ThenewB.C.
HydroEMSsystemofferedanopportunityforimplementation
ofanonlinetransientstabilityassessment(TSA).
f
l
bl
(
)
34

Theneedistoenableonlinedynamicsecurityanalysis.
Itisnotenoughtojustsayaparticularcontingencyis
acceptableornot wealsoneedtoknowthelimit.
Thusweneedto:
p
Usefasterormorecomputers
Parallelization
Continuouscomputing

Enhancealgorithmcomputationalefficiency
Directmethods
Smarterintegrationschemes

Limitcontingenciestobeanalyzed
Filteringtechniques
35

Importantapproximationsinherenttoallthatwewilldo:
Networkelectromagnetictransients(DCandhigherharmonics)
areneglected;wearethereforeonlyinterestedincurrentand
voltagevariationsassociatedwiththefundamental(60Hz).
o tage a at o s assoc ated t t e u da e ta (60 )
Weusephasor representationofvoltagesandcurrents.Thus,
weregardthenetwork,duringtheelectromechanical(as
opposedtoelectromagnetic)transientconditions,asthoughit
d
l
i )
i
di i
h
hi
werepassingdirectlyfromoneelectromagneticsteadystateto
another.Inotherwords,weconsideronlythevariationsinthe
amplitudeenvelopeofthefundamental.
Impedances:
arerepresentedusinglumped(notdistributed)parametermodels
t d i l
d ( t di t ib t d)
t
d l
areindependentoffrequencyvariation(computedat60Hz).

Wemaymodeldifferentfaulttypes,butwestudytheeffects
y
yp ,
y
ofdisturbancesononlythepositivesequencenetwork,
thereforethenetworkismodeledasaperphasenetwork. 36

B.ContextofStabilityAnalysisMayChange
The
Thenatureoftheproblems,andtherequiredanswersrequiredmaychange
nature of the problems and the required answers required may change
Enhancemodeling(e.g.,wind!)
Midtermandlongtermanalysis:needextendedmodelsforthis(boiler,tap
changers,thermostaticloads,inductionmotors)
h
h
l d
d
)
Largedisturbancevoltageinstability
Newtypesofanswersarerequired(e.g.,ifanewtransactionisrequested
thestabilityimplications,consequences,andtheamountofadditionalflow
whichcanreliablybetransactedwillneedtobeknowninarelativelyshort
intervaloftime)
Veryfastcomputationalcapabilityisneeded
y
y
y
Reliabilitycriteriaastheyexisttodayaredeterministic
Torelievetheconstraintsofconservativelimitsobtainedfromdeterministic
criteria,itmaybeessentialtoincorporateconceptsofprobabilityandrisk.
Newcriteriainvolvingprobabilityandriskwouldhavetobetranslatedinto
New criteria involving probability and risk would have to be translated into
meaningfuloperatingguidelinesinordertofindacceptancewithsystem
37
operators.

C.Yourandmygoals
Yourgoalistoobtainaclearunderstandingofthephysicalaspectsof
eachphenomena,beabletousetheappropriaterepresentationof
h h
b bl t
th
i t
t ti
f
thepowersystemtoanalyzethephenomena,andapplynewor
existingtoolsinanoriginalandcreativemannertoprovideneeded
answers.
Mygoalinthiscourseistomotivateandchannelyourthought
M
l i thi
i t
ti t
d h
l
th
ht
processtowardsyourgoalandprovidethevariousbuildingblocks,
tools,andrelevantreferencematerialyouwillneed.

38