MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY- ILIGAN INSITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

HIST1 PHILIPPINE HISTORY

U.S MILITARY BASES IN THE PHILIPPINES:

A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD?

GIO ALBERT BESA

JEPHUNNEH SALDIA
REINER BALDOMERO

JULY 22, 2016

I. Origin of the Treaty and Amendments

In December 1941 Japan attacked the US fleet at Pearl Harbor. On 10 December 1941
Japanese troops invaded the Philippines. They captured Manila on 2 January 1941. By 6 May
1942 all of the Philippines were in Japanese hands. However American troops returned to the
Philippines in October 1944. They recaptured Manila in February 1945.
On March 14, 1947, the Military Bases Agreement was signed by President Manuel A.
Roxas and Paul V. McNutt, the United States high commissioner in the Philippines and
concurred in by the Philippine Senate on March 26, 1947, and accepted and ratified by the US on
January 21, 1948.
There were 18 Philippine senators who voted in favor of the treaty and none opposed.
Three senators were recorded as absent for the vote, presumably as a protest. Three other
senators had been barred from the body on the grounds of vote fraud in the April 1946 election, a
concocted charge engineered by the Roxas administration.
In the United States, the administration decided to consider the bases pact an executive
agreement, thus requiring no Senate approval.
The agreement provides principally for the granting by the Philippines to the United
States the right to retain the use of the bases in the Philippines listed in Annex A (see below), the
Philippines also agreeing "to permit the United States, upon notice to the Philippines, to use such
of those bases listed in Appendix B (see below) as the United States determines to be required by
military necessity".

The Philippines further agreed "to enter into negotiations with the United States at the
latter's request, to permit the United States to expand such bases, to exchange such bases for
other bases, to acquire additional bases, or relinquish rights to bases, as any of such exigencies
may be required by military necessity".
As to mutual cooperation, the Agreement states:
1.

It is mutually agreed that the armed forces of the Philippines may serve on United

States bases and that the armed forces of the United States may serve on Philippine military
establishments whenever such conditions appear beneficial as mutually determined by the armed
forces of both countries.
2.

Joint outlined plans for the development of military bases in the Philippines may

be prepared by military authorities of the two Governments.

The Agreement was set for a period of 99 years subject to extension thereafter as agreed
by the two Governments.
This agreement would undergo amendments over the years. Notably in the 1966
amendment, the agreement was cut down to 25 years of the unexpired portion of the 99 years,
expiring in 1991.
The 1979 amendments would reaffirm Philippine sovereignty over the bases and
provided for a thorough review of the agreement every five years. The first review, in 1983,
resulted in several further concessions to Philippine demands for increased sovereignty. The
United States also pledged its best efforts to provide the Philippines with US$900 million in

economic and military aid over the next five years (1984-88), up from US$500 million over the
previous five years.
On September 16, 1991, in a vote of 12-11, the Philippine Senate rejected a negotiated
treaty that would allow an extension of the stay of the U.S. bases in the country. The 11 senators
who voted in favor of the new treaty were 5 short of the two-thirds majority needed for
ratification.
As a result, the Philippine Government informed the U.S. on December 6, 1991, that it
would have one year to complete withdrawal. That withdrawal went smoothly and was
completed ahead of schedule, with the last U.S. forces departing on November 24, 1992. On
departure, the U.S. Government turned over assets worth more than $1.3 billion to the
Philippines, including an airport and ship-repair facility. Agencies formed by the Philippine
Government have converted the former military bases for civilian commercial use, with Subic
Bay serving as a flagship for that effort.
The Philippine government on July 16, 2015 announced that it will revive a US-built
deep-water naval base in Subic Bay that was closed more than 20 years ago. The said facility
faces the flashpoint South China Sea, where we will station our own military hardware at the
facility. The announcement comes as the Philippines is embroiled in a bitter dispute with China
over rival claims to parts of the sea, including a rich fishing shoal close to the military base.

I. Treaty (The Original Bases Agreement of 1947)

ARTICLE I: Grant of Bases
1.

The Government of the Republic of the Philippines (hereinafter referred to as the

Philippines) grants to the Government of America (hereinafter referred to as the United States)
the right to retain the use of the bases in the Philippines listed in Annex A attached hereto.
2.

The Philippines agrees to permit the United States, upon notice to the Philippines,

to use such of those bases listed in Annex B as the United States determines to be required by
military necessity.
3.

The Philippines agrees to enter into negotiations with the United States at the

latter's request, to permit the United States to expand such bases, to exchange such bases for
other bases, to acquire additional bases, or relinquish rights to bases, as any of such exigencies
may be required by military necessity.
ARTICLE II: Mutual Cooperation
1.

It is mutually agreed that the Armed Forces of the Philippines may serve on the

United States bases and that the Armed Forces of the United States may serve on Philippine
military establishments whenever such conditions appear beneficial as mutually determined by
the armed forces of both countries.
ARTICLE III: Description of Rights
It is mutually agreed that that the United States shall have the rights, power, and authority
within the bases which are necessary for the establishment, use, operation and defense thereof or

appropriate for the control thereof and all the rights, power and authority within the territorial
waters and air space adjacent to, or in the vicinity of, the bases which are necessary to provide
access to them, or appropriate for their control.
Such rights, power and authority shall include, inter alia, the right, power and authority:
(a) to construct (including the dredging and filling), operate, maintain, utilize, occupy,
garrison and control the bases;
(b) to improve and deepen the harbors, channels, entrances and anchorages, and to
construct or maintain necessary roads and bridges affording access to the bases;
(c) to control (including the right to prohibit) in so far as may be required for the efficient
operation and safety of the bases, and within the limits of military necessity, anchorages,
moorings, landings, takeoffs, movements and operation of ships and waterborne craft, craft and
other vehicles on water, in the air or land comprising or in the vicinity of the bases;
(d) the right to acquire, as may be agreed between the two governments, such rights of
way, and to construct thereon, as may be required for military purpose, wire and radio
communications facilities, including submarine and subterranean cables, pipelines and spur
tracks from railroad to bases, and the right, as may be agreed upon between the two governments
to construct the necessary facilities;
e) to construct, install, maintain and employ on any base any type of facilities, weapons,
substance, device, vehicle or vehicle on or under the ground, in the air or on or under the water
that may be requisite or appropriate, including meteorological systems, aerial and water

navigation lights, radio and radar apparatus and electronic devices of any desired power, type of
emission and frequency.
ARTICLE VI. Maneuver and Other Areas
The United states shall, subject to previous agreement with the Philippines, have the right
to use land and coastal sea areas of appropriate size and location for periodic maneuvers, for
additional staging areas, bombing and gunnery ranges, and for such intermediate airfields as may
be required for safe and efficient air operations. Operations in such areas shall be carried on with
due regard and safeguards for the public safety.
ARTICLE XIII. Jurisdiction
1.

The Philippines consents that the United States shall have the right to exercise

jurisdiction over the following offenses:(a) Any offense committed by any person within any
base, except where the offender and the offended parties are both Philippine citizens, not
members of the Armed Forces of the United States on active duty or the offense is against the
security of the Philippines, and the offender is a Philippine citizen;(b) Any offense committed
outside the bases by any member of the Armed Forces of the United States in which the offended
party is also a member of the Armed Forces of the United States; and(c) Any offense committed
outside the bases by any member of the Armed forces of the United States against the security of
the United States.
2.

The Philippines shall have the right to exercise jurisdiction over all other offenses

committed outside the bases by any member of the Armed Forces of the United States. Not
withstanding the foregoing provisions, it is mutually agreed that in time of war the United States

shall have the right to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over any offenses which may be committed
by the members of the Armed Forces of the United States in the Philippines.
ARTICLE XXIV: Mineral Resources
All minerals (including oil), and antiquities and all rights relating thereto and to treasure
trove, upon, or connected with the land and water comprised in the bases or otherwise used or
occupied by the United States by virtue of this Agreement, are reserved to the Government and
inhabitants of the Philippines; but no rights so reserved shall be transferred to third parties, or
exercised within the bases, without the consent of the United States. The United States shall
negotiate with the proper Philippine authorities for the quarrying of rock and gravel necessary for
construction of the bases.
ARTICLE XXV: Grant of Bases to a Third Power
1.

The Philippines agrees that it shall not grant, without prior consent of the United

states, any bases or any rights, power, or authority whatsoever, in or relating to bases, to any
third power.
2.

It is further agreed that the United states shall not, without the consent of the

Philippines, assign, or under-let or part with the possession of the whole or any part of any base,
or of any right, power or authority granted by this Agreement, to any third power.
ARTICLE XXVII: Voluntary Enlistment of Philippine Citizens
It is mutually agreed that the United States shall have the right to recruit citizens of the
Philippines for voluntary enlistment into the United States Armed Forces for a fixed term of
years, and to train them and to exercise the same degree of control and discipline over them as is

exercised in the case of either members of the United States Armed forces. The number of such
enlistments to be accepted by the Armed Forces of the United states may from time to time be
limited by agreement between the two Governments.
ARTICLE XXIX: Term of Agreement
The present Agreement shall enter into force upon acceptance by the two Governments
and shall remain in force for a period of ninety-nine years subject to extension thereafter as
agreed by the two Governments.
Annex "A"
1.

Clark Field Airbase, Pampanga

2.

Fort Stotsenberg, Pampanga

3.

Mariveles Military Reservation, POL Terminal & Training Area, Bataan

4.

Camp John Hay Leave and Recreation Center, Baguio

5.

Army Communications System with the deletion of all stations in the Port of Manila Area

6.

U.S.AF Cemetery No.2, San Francisco, Delmonte, Rizal

7.

Angeles General Depot, Pampanga

8.

Leyte-Samar Naval Base including shore installations and air bases

9.

Subic Bay, No.West Shore Naval Base Zambales province and the existing naval
reservation at Olongapo and the existing Baguio naval reservation

10.

Tawi Tawi Naval Anchorage and small adjacent land areas

11.

Canacao-Sangley Point Navy Base, Cavite province

12.

Bagobantay Transmitter Area, Quezon city, and associated radio receiving and control

sites, Manila area

13.

Tarumpitao point (Loran Master transmitter Station), Palawan

14.

Talamputan Island, C.G. #354 Loran, Palawan

15.

Naule Point (Loran Station, Zambales)

16.

Castillejos, C.G.#356, Zambales

Annex "B"
1.

Mactan Island Army and Navy Airbase

2.

Florida Blanca Airbase, Pampanga

3.

Aircraft Service Warning Net

4.

Camp Wallace, San Fernando, La Union

5.

Puerto Princesa Army and Navy Air Base including Navy Section Base and Air Warning
Sites, Palawan

6.

Tawi Tawi Naval Base, Sulu Archipelago

7.

Aparri Naval Air Base

III. Relationship and Security

A. Visiting Forces Agreement
The post-U.S. bases era has seen U.S.-Philippine relations improved and broadened, with
a prominent focus on economic and commercial ties while maintaining the importance of the
security dimension. U.S. investment continues to play an important role in the Philippine
economy, while a strong security relationship rests on the 1951 U.S.-Philippines Mutual Defense
Treaty (MDT). In February 1998, U.S. and Philippine negotiators concluded the Visiting Forces
Agreement (VFA), paving the way for increased military cooperation under the MDT. The
agreement was approved by the Philippine Senate in May 1999 and entered into force on June 1,
1999. Under the VFA, the U.S. has conducted ship visits to Philippine ports and has resumed
large combined military exercises with Philippine forces. Key events in the bilateral relationship
include the July 4, 1996 declaration by President Ramos of Philippine-American Friendship Day
in commemoration of the 50th anniversary of Philippine independence. Ramos visited the U.S. in
April 1998, and then-President Estrada visited in July 2000. President Arroyo met with President
Bush in an official working visit in November 2001 and made a state visit in Washington on May
19, 2003. President Bush made a state visit to the Philippines on October 18, 2003, during which
he addressed a joint session of the Philippine Congressthe first American President to do so
since Dwight D. Eisenhower. There are regular U.S. cabinet-level and congressional visits to the
Philippines as well.
President Arroyo repeatedly stressed the close friendship between the Philippines and the
U.S. and her desire to expand bilateral ties further. Both governments tried to revitalize and
strengthen their partnership by working toward greater security, prosperity, and service to

Filipinos and Americans alike. Inaugurated into office on the same day as President Bush,
President Arroyo lent strong support to the Global War on Terrorism. In October 2003, the U.S.
designated the Philippines as a Major non-NATO ally. That same month, the Philippines joined
the select group of countries to have ratified all 12 UN counterterrorism conventions.
B. Annual military exercises
The annual Balikatan (Shoulder-to-Shoulder) bilateral military exercises contribute
directly to the Philippine armed forces' efforts to root out Abu Sayyaf and Jemaah
Islamiyahterrorists and bring development to formerly terrorist-plagued areas, notably Basilan
and Jolo. They include not only combined military training but also civil-military affairs and
humanitarian projects. The International Military Education and Training (IMET) program is the
largest in the Pacific and the third-largest in the world, and a Mutual Logistics Support
Agreement (MLSA) was signed in November 2002. Similarly, law enforcement cooperation has
reached new levels: U.S. and Philippine agencies have cooperated to bring charges against
numerous terrorists, to implement the countries' extradition treaty, and to train thousands of
Filipino law enforcement officers. There is a Senior Law Enforcement Advisor helping
the Philippine National Police with its Transformation Program.
The U.S. works closely with the Philippines to reduce poverty and increase prosperity.
The U.S. fully supports Philippine efforts to root out corruption, to open economic opportunity,
and to invest in health and education. USAID programs support the 'Philippines' war on poverty
as well as the government's reform agenda in critical areas, including anti-money laundering,
rule of law, tax collection, and trade and investment. Other USAID programs have bolstered the
government's efforts to heal divisions in Philippine society through a focus on conflict resolution,
livelihood enhancement for former combatants, and economic development in Mindanao and

the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, among the poorest areas in the country.
Meanwhile, important programs continue in modern family planning, infectious disease control,
environmental protection, rural electrification, and provision of basic servicesas well as PL
480 food aid programs and others, which together totaled $211.3 million. In 2006,
the Millennium Challenge Corporation granted $21 million to the Philippines for a threshold
program addressing corruption in revenue administration.
Nearly 400,000 Americans visit the Philippines each year. Providing government services
to U.S. and other citizens, therefore, constitutes an important aspect of the bilateral relationship.
Those services include veterans' affairs, social security, and consular operations. Benefits to
Filipinos

from

the U.S.

Department

of

Veterans

Affairs and

the Social

Security

Administration totaled $297,389,415 in 2006. Many people-to-people programs exist between

the U.S. and the Philippines, including Fulbright, International Visitors, and Aquino Fellowship
exchange programs, as well as the U.S. Peace Corps.
C. Security
U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs Kurt M. Campbell said in
January 2011 that the United States will help boost the capacity of the Philippines to patrol their
own waters, including the Spratly islands.
The 1951 mutual-defense treaty was reaffirmed with the November 2011 Manila
Declaration. United States Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Jonathan Greenert suggested that
LCS or surveillance aircraft may be deployed to the Philippines. And the Philippines is
considering the proposal. These "rotational deployments" will help replace some of the American
presence in the area that was given up when the permanent American bases in the Philippines
were closed under President Bush.

In 2012 the Philippines and the United States conducted joint military exercises. As of
2012, a U.S. military contingent of 600, including Navy Seals and Seabees are stationed
"indefinitely" in the Southern Philippines, in a declared non-combatant role to assist the Armed
Forces of the Philippines in operations against the al-Quaida-linked Abu Sayyaf terrorist group
primarily on the island of Basilan in western Mindanao and the Sulu islands, in particular Jolo, a
long-time stronghold of Abu Sayyaf.
The Scarborough Shoal standoff with China and the ongoing Spratly islands dispute has
caused the Philippines to consider stronger military ties with the United States. In 2012, a senior
Philippine defense official said that as long as they have prior clearance from the Philippine
government, American troops, warships and aircraft could once again use their former naval and
air facilities of Subic Bay Naval Base and Clark Air Base. In 2013, Foreign Secretary, Albert del
Rosario clarified that, due to constitutional constraints, establishment of a US military facility
could only be allowed if it would be under the control of the Philippine military. The deal will
reportedly include shared access to Philippines military but not civilian facilities.
During a 2013 visit to the Philippines, Deputy Defense Secretary, Ashton Carter said that
the main security issues that the USA was working with the Philippines were:

Maritime domain awareness,

building up the capacities of the Armed Forces of the Philippines,

and counter terrorism.

In April 2014, a ten-year pact (EDCA Enhanced Defence Co-operation Agreement) was
signed between the U.S. President, Barack Obama and the Philippine President, Benigno Aquino
III, allowing United States to increase military presence in the Philippines.

IV. EDCA (Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement)

With the threat to the sovereignty of the Philippines come into question regarding the
issue with Chins, a drastic measure was made in order to strengthen our military defenses,
making it a subject for critics of the previous administration. This so-called EDCA, or Enhanced
Defense Cooperation Agreement, gives access to Filipino military facilities (originally 8
locations, but 5 has been approved) to its defense ally the Unites States, as part of plans by the
poorly equipped Filipino forces to attain a deterrent capability. However this deal, under which
US forces could potentially have regained use of Subic Bay, has been postponed amid a legel
challenge now being heard by the Supreme Court.
The Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) is an agreement between
the United States and the Philippines intended to bolster the U.S.Philippine alliance. The
agreement allows the United States to rotate troops into the Philippines for extended stays and
allows the U.S. to build and operate facilities on Philippine bases, for both American and
Philippine forces. The U.S. is not allowed to establish any permanent military bases. It also gives
Philippine personnel access to American ships and planes.
According to Ambassador Goldberg, the goal of the EDCA is to "promote peace and
security in the region." While outlining new defense-cooperation measures, the agreement also
allows for the United States to respond more quickly to environmental and humanitarian
disasters in the region.

Designed to supplement the 1951 Mutual Defense Treaty and the 1999 Visiting Forces
Agreement, the EDCA reaffirms mutual cooperation between the United States and the
Philippines to develop their individual and collective capacities to resist armed attack by:
improving interoperability of the two country's armed forces, promoting long-term
modernization, helping maintain and develop maritime security, and expanding humanitarian
assistance in response to natural disasters.
The agreement allows for U.S. forces and contractors to operate out of "agreed
locations," which are defined as: "facilities and areas that are provided by the Government of the
Philippines through the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and that United States forces,
United States contractors, and others as mutually agreed". The Agreement hands over all
operational controls of these "Agreed Locations" to the United States, and allows U.S. forces to
preposition and store defense materiel, equipment, and supplies. The Agreement makes clear that
this materiel cannot include nuclear weapons.
The EDCA is effective for an initial period of ten years, and thereafter, it shall continue in
force automatically unless terminated by either Party by giving one year's written notice through
diplomatic channels of its intention to terminate the agreement (Article XII, Sec. 4 of EDCA).
While the US forces may exercise operational control, put troops and equipment, construct
facilities, and be accommodated in certain agreed locations, the Philippines shall still retain
ownership of the agreed locations (Article V, Sec. 1 of EDCA). Importantly, the United States is
not allowed to establish any permanent military bases, and must hand over any and all facilities
in the "agreed locations" to the Philippine government upon the termination of the agreement.

The agreement also stipulates that the U.S. is not allowed to store or position any nuclear
weapons on Philippine territory.

In April 2015, the United States Government asked for access to eight bases in the Philippines,
including the formerly American Subic Bay Naval Base and Clark Air Base, as well as bases
on Cebu, Luzon, and Palawan.
On March 19, 2016, the Philippines and the United States government agreed on the 5
locations of military bases for the American troops under the EDCA:

Antonio Bautista Air Base. Located near the capital of the island province of Palawan,

which is strategically located near the contested Spratly Islands in the South China Sea.
Basa Air Base. Located about 40 miles northwest of the Philippines' capital, Manila, the
air base was originally constructed by the U.S. Army Air Corps before the Second World

War.
Fort Magsaysay. Located on the northern Island of Luzon, Fort Magsaysay is the largest
military installation in the Philippines, and is one of the primary training areas of the

Philippine Army.
Lumbia Air Base. Located on the southern island of Mindanao, the air base is connected
to a civilian airport. Local media reports say construction of a new U.S. facility will begin

soon.
Mactan-Benito Ebuen Air Base. Located on Mactan Island of the coast of Cebu in the
central Philippines. It was originally built by the U.S. Air Force before the American
pullout in the early 1990s.

V. Advantages of Military Bases in the Philippines

Assures the security of the Philippines against any form of foreign hostility
Strengthened capability to resist rebels
Allows the Philippines and other friendly nations to pursue economic growth without

disabling military expenditures

Heightened military modernization
Increased jobs for Filipinos situated near military bases
Being in good terms with the US grants higher possibility to be heard in the UN Council

VI. Disadvantages of Military Bases in the Philippines

The prerequisite to consult both parties before making implementations on military-based

decisions make the Philippines vulnerable to the US

Philippines will be a primary target for any nation/organization located in Asia that is in

bad terms with the US, should they resort to war by arms
Any offense made by a US military personnel in the Philippines will be handled by a US
court, thus having the possibility that the punishment will be lightened. This leads to the

sovereignty of the Philippines in question

Alleged abuse or exploitation of locals (especially women) by American troops in places

near military bases

Interoperability increases our dependability in US technology
Philippines becoming a neo-colony of the US due to our strong dependence in ways more
than just military but also in economics

VII. Conclusion

The treaties, starting from the original agreement down to its alterations and amendments,
have significant advantages despite that most of the benefits would be on the side of the US.
Despite the advantages of it, the Philippines have no choice but to rely on the latter party to help
resist any form of hostility by other countries. One good example would be the case of the
Philippines against China on ownership of the Scarborough Shoal, where even if having the US
troops would increase the probability that the Chinese would resort to arms, we have no choice
but to seek help from the US to have a fighting chance against the Chinese.
Other might say that our military facilities were now an empty shell of its former glory,
compared when we have the Americans backing us up in the past, where they reside in our
military facilities. Our country doesnt have enough capability to defend our own when others
might try to attack us. But the question lies here: do we really need to resort to these kinds of
desperate moves, initially threating our rights of sovereignty by letting other countries reside in
our country? Should we be focusing on fixing first the rotten system that we have, in order for us
to have a step by step improvement, that may even result into flourishing our country, thus giving
us enough capability to maintain our own military facilities? With the new president now
governing the Philippines, it will be a challenge to him on how to deal with the new agreement,
to turn the tide in favor of the Philippines, and not the other way around.

VIII. Bibliography
James A. Gregor. (January 1984). The Key Role of U.S. Bases in the Philippines
Kahimyang.com. https://kahimyang.com/kauswagan/articles/1007/today-in-philippine-historymarch-14-1947-the-military-bases-agreement-was-signed
Wikipedia.org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_Defense_Cooperation_Agreement
DefenseNews.com. http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/international/asiapacific/2015/07/16/philippines-re-open-former-us-military-base/30273327/
Bert M. Drona. US Military Bases & Assistance Agreements (1947) Independence with Strings: From U.S. Colony to U.S. Neocolony.
http://www.thefilipinomind.com/2012/10/us-military-bases-assistanceagreements.html
Wikipedia.org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines
%E2%80%93United_States_relations
Andrew Tilghman. Military Times.
http://www.militarytimes.com/story/military/2016/03/21/us-plans-use-fivenew-bases-philippines/82072138/