See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222743690

Factors Affecting Resuspension by Road

Traffic
Article in Science of The Total Environment April 1990
DOI: 10.1016/0048-9697(90)90126-F

CITATIONS

READS

47

73

2 authors, including:
Ken Nicholson
Nicholson Environmental
44 PUBLICATIONS 944 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE

All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate,

letting you access and read them immediately.

Available from: Ken Nicholson

Retrieved on: 14 September 2016

The Science of the Total Environment, 93 (1990) 349-358

349

Elsevier

FACTORS AFFECTING RESUSPENSION BY ROAD TRAFFIC

K W NICHOLSON and J R BRANSON

Environmental and Medlcal Sciences Dlvlslon
Harwell Laboratory, Oxon, OXll ORA. (UK)

SUMMARY
Fluorescent particles have been used to determine the effects of vehicle
activity on resuspenslon rates. The dependences of resuspenslon on particle
size and vehicle speed have been determined for a dry road. The experiments
have Included an examination of the change In surface concentration of
particulate species, when a vehicle is driven directly over an area of
deposited particles and when a lyre is allowed to pass through such an area.
Atmospheric levels of trace species (Na+ and Cl-) have been used to make a
separate assessment of resuspenslon by tyre spray from a wet road.

INTRODUCTION
Surface materials may become entrained in the atmosphere due to the
shearing action of the wind, or as a consequence of mechanical actions (e.g.
brushing).

If the surface materials were previously deposited on the surface,

the term resuspenslon is usually used, irrespectively of whether the

deposition episode occurred via an atmospheric process (i.e. accidental
spillages may also lead to resuspenslon effects).
The effects of resuspenslon can be two-fold.

Firstly, resuspension can

result in the transfer of material to adjacent areas.

This effect was noted

to be of significance after the recent Chernobyl accident, when decontaminated

areas quickly regained levels of contamination (ref. i).
the occurrence of potential inhalation hazards.

The second effect is

This can be important for

toxic species and certain radlonucildes, such as actlntdes (ref.2).

Many early studies on wind resuspenslon included work on moll erosion
(refs. 3-6). This work is quite relevant, in some cases, since deposited
materlals may be most likely to become resuspended if they become associated
with (larger) host particles (ref. 7).

Other studies have Included a wide

range of resuspenslon processes (ref. 8).

The effects of traffic on resuspenslon have been noted for a number of
years Jref. 9) and, recently, the resuspenslon of Chernobyl derived material

350

has been assoclated with vehicular activity (refs. i0,ii).

Many studies on

resuspenslon due to vehicles have been concerned with dust emissions from
unmetalled roads (refs. 12,13). Influences on resuspenslon from dry roads have
included the effects of tyre stress and induced turbulence (ref. 9).

The

production of tyre spray has been noted as an important mechanism for the
resuspenslon of material from metalled roads, during wet conditions (ref. 14).
The influence of vehicle activity on the resuspenslon of material has special
significance, because roads and traffic densities are greatest in, and around,
urban areas, where large populations may be exposed to an inhalation hazard.

This paper reports some experimental investigations that have led to an

estimation of the relative importances of the processes associated with
traffic generated resuspension.

RESUSPENSION FROM DRY ROAD SURFACES

Exoerimental techniques
Resuspenslon due to induced turbulence and tyre stress has been
investigated by measuring surface concentrations of spherical particles of
known size.

The evaluation of resuspension in this manner is essentially

specific for the translocation of deposited species - that is the effects of

deposition close to the area of resuspension or, in fact, on the vehicle
itself, are not consldered.

However, such measurements are relevant for

defining source terms, and down-wind concentrations of alrborne material can

be predicted with the use of diffusion and deposition models.

In any case,

upper limits of inhalation doses could be inferred for a set of defined

meteorological conditions.
The particles used were made of porous silica (density ~i000 kg m-3) and
supplied by a commercial manufacturer (routinely manufactured for use In gas
chromatography). Four nominal sizes of particles were used and their measured
sizes determined by microscopy, are shown In Table i.
attached to the particles to enable their detection.

A fluorescent dye was

The dye was illuminated

with an ultra-vlolet lamp (125 W~ peak emlssion wavelength - 365 nm) and the
resulting fluorescence detected using a photomultlpller protected by a narrow

TABLE 1
Nominal and microscopically measured particle diameters (mean standard

deviation)
Nomlnal size (~m)
5
10
15
20

Measureddiameter ( ~ )
4.2*0.6
9.5*1.5
12.0 . 1 . 9
20.0 * 2 . 6

351
band-pass filter (430-440 nm). The lllumlnatlon and detection equipment was
posltloned approximately 0.75 m above the road surface and was assembled as
part of a box type construction, which excluded background llght from entering
the area of road surface under investlgatlon.

Output from the photomultlpller

was measured using an oscilloscope.

Light penetratlon Into the detection equipment was minlmlsed, by the
Inclusion of a foam rubber seal between the portable equlpment and the road
surface, during measurements.

A small amount of light penetration was still

apparent, due to diffuse reflections, that orlglnated because It was necessary

to include some vents in the lamp housing to prevent overheating. However,
this contributed little to the output signal in comparison to the levels from
the fluorescent particles.
The surface area of roadway enclosed by the detectlon assembly was
0.25 m 2, although the fluorescent particles were deposited only on the central
0.16 m 2. The particles were dispersed over the road surface by the use of an
air ejector (ref.15) and by allowlng the particles to settle in an enclosed
volume. A typical surface coverlng was up to 25% of a monolayer (less for the
smaller particle sizes), if the road surface was considered flat and smooth.
The dlstrlbutlon of particles over the road surface was uniform.
wlthln the test

area

Illumlnatlon

was falrly uniform, although there was a tendency for the

detection equipment to be less sensitive to changes in concentration away from

the centre.

Heasurements were found to be qulte reproducible.

Typlcal slgnal

intensities were between several tlmes and an order of magnltude greater than
background levels.

Callbratlon of the detection equipment, using deposlts of

known mass (determlned by the collection of deposited materlal on glass slldes

and microscopic identification), suggested a near linear response of output
voltage according to levels of deposited material.

A calibration llne was

drawn for each experiment.

Experimental results
In each experiment, the surface amounts of fluorescent particles were
determined shortly after their deposition on the road surface.

Addltlonal

determlnatlons were then made In a perlod which Included the passage of a

vehlcle, a number of times over the test area.
In the flrst programme of measurements, the vehlcle (a medium slze car)
was driven over an area of fluorescent partlcles, so that the wheels passed
either side of the test area.

These measurements were considered to be

representative of resuspenslon due to induced turbulence.

The speed of the

vehicle was 64 km h -I and there was one dlrectlon of travel.

352

100,

o~ 80
-

~ 6o
4o

"<t--"- =--4---_. ~

--

--..__

~ . = _ % : ~ _ _

....

_zo_~_,

20
0

I
2

I
I
4
6
Number of vehicle posses

I
8

I
10

F i g . 1 The r e s u s p e n s i o n o f f l u o r e s c e n ~ p a r t i c l e s due t o t u r b u l e n c e from a

medium s i z e c a r t r a v e l l i n g
a t 64 km h (averaged f o r 3 s e p a r a t e e x p e r i m e n t s ) .

=o
E
*Z

I- ....

-N- ..........

-48- -

..... -'~--=-m--,~ =_::=...._~............

20
0

I
2

I
I
4
6
Number of vehicle posses

I
8

I
10

Fig. 2 Resuspenslon of 9.5 ~m dlamete[ particles due to turbulence from a

medium size car travelllng at 64 km h -= (indivldual experimental results).
The results of the first programme of measurements,
particle slze, are shown in Figure i.
expectations
size.

averaged according to

The results are concordant wlth

that resuspenslon becomes more difficult wlth decreasing particle

Thls would be expected slnce the smallest particles present the smallest

areas on which shear stresses could act. However, there Is conslderable overlap
of the resuspension curves for 12 ~m and 20 ~m diameter partlcles.
most surprlslng

Perhaps the

feature Is that large fractlons of deposited material are

removed after the single passage of a vehlcle.

throughout all of the measurements.
materlal resuspended

This observation was consistent

There was some variation

In duplicate experiments,

In the fraction of

for a given particle slze, that

353
100,
80

~ " ~

5mph

~ \

"''11-.... 41-...

\~..

-~--,

""~-

~.....q

20mph
........

30mph

...........

, ......

.---w

~6 40
o~

40 mph

-~"-

--

20
I

/*
6
Number of vehicle passes

10

Fig. 3 Resuspenslon of 12 ~ diameter particles due to t~rbulence generated

by a medium slze car at various speeds (i0 mph - 16 km h-~).

could only be explained by differences In environmental conditions. These

observations have been confirmed In a companion study ( r e f . 1 6 ) .

Figure 2

shows the v a r i a t i o n in measurements made f o r a single p a r t i c l e size although

the v a r i a t i o n in the curves is not e a s i l y explained.

The measurements were

taken on d i f f e r e n t days, and parameters such as wind speed or d i r e c t i o n , and

r e l a t i v e humidity (experiments were only performed when there was an
apparently dry road surface), could be Important influences.
For a s i n g l e p a r t i c l e size (12 ;m diameter), a series o f resuspension
measurements were c a r r i e d out on a slngie day, during which environmental
conditions varied l i t t l e .
are shown in Figure 3.

The resuspenslon curves according to v e h i c l e speed

There is an obvious dependence o f resuspension with

v e h i c l e speed, although there is some overlap o f the slowest speeds (8 and

16 km h - l ) .

It

Is Important to note t h a t the measurements were c ar r ied out

in a random order, so t h a t no e f f e c t of a gradual change in environmental

conditions had been introduced.
In a second programme o f f i e l d measurements, the e f f e c t of running both
tyres through an area of fluorescent particles was investigated, for a vehicle
(medium size car) travelling at 64 km h-1.

The resuspension mechanlsms,

In

thls case, would Include turbulence, generated as air is squeezed from beneath
the tyre as It roils over the road surface, and a shearing action generated by
the rotation of the tyre.

Whilst It Is possible that particles could have

been removed from the test space because they had become adhered to the tyre,
It was not considered likely that they would remain In this situation for
long, unless the vehicle was travelling very slowly.

354

100~

60

"E 4O

'~

<

..... i ..... ,-__-?__. - """

~ ' - ' -

--------.

--

- ~i-- - - -

4 -

-~

20

I
2

I
4
Number of vehicle

I
6
posses

~-~

"

12)J.m

I
8

I
10

Flg. 4 Resuspenslon of fluorescent particles due to tyre action of a medium

size car travelling at 64 km h-~.

100

8o
'E

Induced turbulence

60

5E

~,,,......

/
f~
"%~.% .... m-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ....Z_

re sheer

i'i
20

I
2

I
I
4
6
Number of vehicle posses

I
8

J
10

Fig. 5 A comparison of the resuspension of 9.5 #m diameter partlcl~s by

induced turbulence and tyre action for a car travelling at 64 km h- .
For each partlcle diameter, the effects of tyre action were investigated
in at least three seperate experiments and the averaged results of the
programme are shown in Figure 4.

For the three largest particle sizes, there

was little difference In the resuspension curves to those found for vehicle
induced turbulence only (e.g. 9.5 ~m: see Figure 5).

There appears to be a

dependence of resuspenslon on particle size although this is much less evident

than for turbulence Induced resuspension only wlth, especially, the 4.2 ~m
particles being more easily resuspended with the action of tyres.

The

comparability of the resuspension curves for the two different resuspensIon

355

actions was not expected and reflects the fact that resuspension from roads
occurs quite readily.

The particles remaining on the road surface after a

number of vehicle passes are likely to be associated with depressions In the

road surface. However, this amount is unlikely to be large and will reduce
quickly with increaslng vehicle speed.

For a busy, fast road, therefore,

resuspension Is likely to be controlled by the rate of Incorporation of

deposited material with soil or dust that may be transl0cated onto the road
surface.

Such incorporation may be most rapid when the surface is moist such

that resuspenslon factors resulting from turbulence or tyre shear might be

greatest Immediately after a road becomes dry.

RESUSPENSION FROM WET ROAD SURFACES

Under very wet conditions, the production of tyre spray can be an
effective resuspenslon mechanism.

However, because the material is

resuspended in relatlvely large water droplets, deposltlon onto passing

vehicles or at the edge of the road Is correspondingly more Important than for
a dry road surface. The presence of moisture also Increases adhesion (for
insoluble particles), due to surface tension effects, and a spreading of
material along the road in the direction of the traffic is probable.

The

technique of examining surface concentrations of partlcles, used for dry road

surfaces, thus, would be clearly unsuitable.
Rock-salt is used as a de-lcing agent on many roads in the UK during the
winter months.

Al~borne concentrations of Na + and CI- have been considered in

relation to the amounts of salt applied to road surfaces in an attempt to make

an estimate of resuspension.

The salt Is applied as large crystals and it is

proposed that the major resuspenslon mechanism would be vla tyre spray.

In

fact, resuspension from Na + or CI- that is associated wlth small particles

probably makes a contribution, especially because roads can become dry even in
winter. Loss of salt from the road surface because of run-off Is likely to
some extent, also, although the salt is only applied to roads In the
likelihood of frost.
Figure 6 shows the 3-monthly mean air concentrations for Na + and CI- and
levels of rock-salt applied as a de-lclng agent in Manchester.
have been taken at 4 sites and the results averaged.

Measurements

The air samplers have

been described In detail prevlously and have been assessed as having a high
efflciency for sampling particles up to a few microns diameter (ref. 18).

The

samplers are positioned less than a few metres above ground level.
Distinct annual cycles of atmospheric concentratlon are apparent and the
winter peaks coincide wlth applications of rock-salt.

However, it must be

356

7.000

5.000

6.000

,:

E
E

5.000

',

. ,,

,C 4,000
.o

"'~:

c 3.000

~" i
'V

~'.,,.-",

"' i

\c,-co~l..
,,

,,/

'7

--'

Looo~

/',,

'

',,

~",,/'l ",,,i

\ i

[I

,~

"

3.ooo -

r~

~,ooo

,S 2.000
1,000 ""

.,_/
1,000
0

I
M

1 I
J S
1983

I I
D M J S
198&

I I I i# I
D M J S D M
1985

i
J

i /I i l k
S D M
1986

I
J

i/',l.
S D
1987

Fig. 6 Quarterly
averages of atmospheric concentrations
o f Na + and C l - f o r
Manchester (averaged over 4 stations)
and l e v e l s o f r o c k - s a l t
application.

stressed that annual cycles of pollutants have been observed and explalned by
a greater frequency of stable atmospheric condltlons in wlnter, whlch result
in low dlsperslon rates.

Lead orlginatlng from car exhausts has been observed

to follow this pattern (ref. 17), although there would not be an expected
annual emlsslon cycle.

In fact, for CI-, increased consumptlon of fossll

fuels, in wlnter, could contrlbute to the concentratlon peak also.

llmlts of a resuspension factor can, thus, be estimated only.

Upper

Such estlmates

of resuspension mlght be appropriate for potential resuspenslon doses for

large urban areas in winter conditions.
Given the area of 120 km 2 for the city of Manchester, an estlmate of
resuspenslon factor (atmospheric concentration/surface concentration) can be
gained, by assumlng that, firstly, appllcatlon of the salt was even,
throughout the 3 month period and that the average surface concentration would
be half the flnal surface concentration, assuming no salt loss.

Secondly, it

is assumed that the entire increases In atmospherlc concentrations for the

periods December to February (the maln periods of salt application) with
respect to the perlod June to August of the previous year, are due to road
salt application.

In fact, there Is likely to be some run-off during the

three month perlod, as well as the translocatlon of salt, to adjacent areas

and the undersldes of vehicles in large spray droplets. The first assumption
would be llkely, therefore, to result in an underestlmatlon of resuspenslon
factor.

The second assumption would, however, tend to overestlmate the

resuspenslon factor.

357
TABLE 2
Resuspenston factors calculated from rock-salt applications
Year
1983/4
1985/6
1986/7
1983/4
1985/6
1986/7

Resuspension factor (m-1)

(Na+)
(Na+)
(Na+)
(CI-)
(CI-)
(Cl-)

2
i
1
3
2
4

x
x
x
x
x
x

10 -7
10 -7
10-7
10-7
10 -7
10-7

The resuspenslon factors calculated in the above manner, are shown in

Table 2.

Values were found for Na+ to be i - 2 x 10 -7 m-1, and for Cl- to be

2-4 x 10 -7 m-I.

The differences between these values will be due to the

effects of seasonal variations in concentratlon not related to resuspension.

Clearly, the lifetime of the rock-salt on a busy road surface will depend on
the presence of surface moisture and the amount of trafflc.

However, these

values averaged over very long periods for sites close to busy roads might
give an indication of resuspenslon factors that could arise from tyre spray
over much shorter intervals and which result from a slngle deposition or
contamination episode.

CONCLUSIONS
Experlments on the resuspenslon of fluorescently labelled slllca
particles have demonstrated that the amount of material resuspended, due to
traffic activity, is strongly dependent on partlcle slze.

Thls ls conslstent

wlth studles on resuspenslon by the wlnd (ref.19). However, for the largest
partlcle sizes, the amounts of materlal removed, due to the passage of a
vehicle, dld not appear to be dependent on whether the tyre intruded into the
area of deposited particles.

The importance of speed, In determining the

amount of materlal resuspended by induced turbulence has been demonstrated

also.

In all experiments, it has been found that a large fraction of

deposited partlcles were removed due to the first passage of a vehlcle.

An analysis of atmospheric Na + and CI- concentrations has been used to
evaluate upper limits for resuspenslon during predominantly molst condltlons.
Resuspension factors of i-4 x 10 -7 m-1 were found for periods of 3 months.
Such values may be Indlcatlve of the airborne concentrations that would
result, In wet conditions, from the widespread distribution of a soluble
contaminant over a city road network.

358

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded by the UKAEA RPR Core Programme.
grateful for the helpful comments of J A Garland and S Nalr.

The authors are

The practical

assistance of J B Hedgecock, P Giess and J Moreno Is gratefully

acknowledged.The authors would like to thank the Chief Environmental Health
Officers and their staff, in the City of Manchester, for operating the
sampling stations, and the staff of the Englneerlng Section for provldlng
rock- salt data.
REFERENCES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
i0
ii

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

A.E.J. Eggleton, Personal Communication, Harwell Laboratory, 1986.

R.A. Bulman, Concentration of actlnldes in the food chain, NRPB-R44,
HMSO, London, 1976.
R.A. Bagnold, The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes, Chapman and
Hall, London, 1941.
W.S. Chepil, Relation of wind erosion to the water stable and dry clod
structure of soils, Soil Sci., 55 (1943) 275-287.
W.S. Chepil, Dynamics of wind eroslon - I. Nature of movement of soil by
wind, Sol] ScI., 60 (1945) 305-320.
W.S. Chepil, Influence of moisture on erodiblllty of soll by wind, Soll
Scl. Soc. Am. Proc., 20 (1956) 288-292.
K.W. Nlcholson, A review of partlcle resuspenslon, Atmospheric
Environment, 22 (1988) 2639-2651.
G.A. Sehmel, Particle resuspenslon: a review, Environ. Int., 4 (1980)
107-127.
G.A. Sehmel, Particle resuspension from an asphalt road caused by car and
truck traffic, Atmospheric Environment, 7 (1973) 291-301.
K.W. Nlcholson, The deposition, resuspenslon and weathering of Chernobyl
derived material In the UK, J. Radlol. Prot., 9 (1989) 113-119.
J.A. Garland and R.S. Cambray, Deposition resuspenslon and the long term
varlatlon of airborne radioactivity from Chernobyl, Proc. of the 4th Int.
Symp. on Radloecology, 14-18 March, 1988, Cadarache, France, Cadarache,
Centre d'Etudes Nucleaires, 1988.
R.I.J. Dyck and J.J. Stukel, Fugitive dust emisslons from trucks on
unpaved roads, Environ. Sci. Technol, i0 (1976) 1046-1048.
K. Stewart, Surface Contamination, In: B.R. Fish (Ed.), Proc. of a Symp.
held at Gatlinburg Tennessee June 1964, Pergamon Press, Oxford, (1967),
pp. 63-74.
W.H. Smith, Salt contamination of white pine planted adjacent to an
interstate highway, Pl. Dis. Reprt., 54 (1970) 1021-1025.
K.W. Nicholson, J.R. Branson and P. Giess, Field measurements of the wet
deposition of particulate material, submitted to Atmospheric Environment.
K.W. Nlcholson, J.R. Branson, P. Giess and R.J. Cannell, The effects of
vehicle activlty on particle resuspension, to be published.
N.J. Pattenden and J.R. Branson, Relation between lead in alr and in
petrol in two urban areas of Britain, Atmospheric Environment, 21 (1987)
2481-2483.
N.J. Pattenden and R.D. Wlffen, The particle size dependence of the
collectlon efflclency of an envlronmental aerosol sampler, Atmospheric
Environment, ii (1977) 677-681.
J.A. Garland, Some recent studies of the resuspenslon of deposited
material from soil and grass, in, H.R. Pruppacher, R.G. Semonin and
W.G.N. Sllnn (Eds.), Precipitation Scavenging, Dry Deposition and
Resuspension, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1983, pp 1087-1097.