Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2003) 92:923938

DOI 10.1007/s00531-003-0359-2

ORIGINAL PAPER

J
rgen Heinz Thomas Aigner

Hierarchical dynamic stratigraphy in various Quaternary

gravel deposits, Rhine glacier area (SW Germany):
implications for hydrostratigraphy
Received: 31 July 2002 / Accepted: 1 August 2003 / Published online: 16 October 2003

Springer-Verlag 2003

Abstract The approach of dynamic stratigraphy aims to

understand genetic processes that form stratigraphic units
in a hierarchy of spatial and temporal scales. This
approach was used to investigate Quaternary gravel
deposits in terms of their sedimentology and in order to
characterize the various sedimentary units in terms of
their hydrogeological properties. Facies analysis within
62 gravel pits, laboratory permeability measurements of
field samples and geophysical surveys (3-D georadar, 2-D
seismic reflection) led to the detection and classification
of sedimentary heterogeneity according to the following
six scales whereby each scale can be translated into
defined hydrostratigraphic units. (1) Particles and pores
(micro scale) that reflect depositional and diagenetic fluid
dynamics as well as source material behaviour (e.g. grainsize, roundness, lithological composition). This was found
to be important for the hydrogeochemistry of groundwater
in gravel aquifers (e.g. higher sorption capacity of carbonrich limestone particles for organic pollutants). (2) Strata
(meso scale) contain the recognition of sorting, fabric,
texture and stratinomic features, which can give an
indication of transport and depositional dynamics. Five
major lithofacies groups, for example, were distinguished
within fluvial gravel-bed deposits. Their variable hydraulic properties led to their subdivision into 12 hydrofacies types. They form the smallest mappable
hydrostratigraphic units, which may result in either
preferred pathways for fluid flow or flow barriers. (3)
Depositional elements (macro scale) enable reconstruction of sedimentary/geomorphic elements and their
dynamics within a depositional system (e.g. gravel-bed
braided river systems are dominated by gravel sheet,
gravel dunes and scour pool depositional elements).
Hydrostratigraphically, the architecture of depositional
elements influences the hydraulic connectivity and local
permeability structure/distribution within an aquifer body.
J. Heinz ()) T. Aigner
Geological Institute,
University of Tbingen,
Sigwartstr. 10, 72076 Tbingen, Germany
e-mail: juerg.heinz@web.de

Five types of depositional elements in fluvial gravel-bed

deposits were distinguished and their geometries/dimensions quantified. (4) Facies bodies (mega scale) composed
of a stack of depositional elements and strata recording
distinct environmental systems and their dynamics (e.g. a
coarse-grained prograding delta system). Hydrostratigraphically, facies bodies represent major compartments
of an aquifer. Six major types of meltwater-controlled
facies bodies were identified in the study area. (5) Genetic
sequences (mega scale) reflect the shifts of depositional
environments caused by allocyclic changes (e.g. glacial
advance recorded by a coarsening upward sequence) or
autocyclic changes of landscape shaping events. These
sequences may form separate hydrostratigraphic units or
aquifer storeys. (6) Basin fill (giga scale) comprising the
lateral and vertical stacking of facies bodies and genetic
sequences controlled by either long-term glacier dynamics or short term flood events. The regional distribution of
permeable gravel units and, for example, less permeable
diamicts builds the larger scale hydrostratigraphy.
Keywords Depositional elements Hydrofacies
Hydraulic connectivity Hydrostratigraphy Lithofacies

Introduction
In the past, hydrogeologists have acquired hydraulic data
from sedimentary strata by direct measurement of flow,
often without knowledge of fabric, arrangement, structure, distribution and architecture of the sediments.
Relating aquifer properties to sedimentary properties
measured by geologists has thus been difficult (Huggenberger and Aigner 1999).
Glacial and pro-glacial deposits are particularly heterogeneous and their hydraulic properties, like the
sediments, are very variable over a wide range of scales.
An understanding of the way in which these hydraulic
properties vary with sediment properties at these various
scales is extremely important in predicting the behaviour
of aquifers. However, there have been almost no studies

924
Fig. 1 Concept of dynamic
stratigraphy as applied to the
characterization of gravel deposits. The hierarchy of spatial
and temporal scales is systematically studied in a processbased analysis; each scale has
implications for hydrogeological properties. Note that different investigation tools are
necessary for each scale

done to date in this manner, nor has a systematic

consideration of scale been attempted.
In this paper, the concept of hierarchical dynamic
stratigraphy (cf. Miall 1991; Aigner et al. 1999) is used to
investigate the relationships between heterogeneous meltwater-controlled sediments and their aquifer properties at
all scales from particles to basin (Fig. 1). Thus, the
purpose of this study is two-fold:
1. A systematic hierarchical analysis of Quaternary
gravel deposits, covering the different spatial and
temporal scales in order to deduce the sedimentary
processes of their formation at each level. This
approach attempts to integrate the commonly used
lithofacies concept (Miall 1978; Eyles et al. 1983;
Keller 1996), consideration of facies preservation
(Siegenthaler and Huggenberger 1993), the concept
of architectural elements (Miall 1985) and large-scale
sequence-stratigraphic considerations (e.g. Johnson
and Hansel 1990; Oviatt et al. 1994; Martini and
Brookfield 1995; Brookfield and Martini 1999), as
well as seismo-stratigraphic investigations (Eyles et al.
1991; Boyce et al. 1995; Lanz et al. 1996; Pugin et al.
1996, 1999; Lysa and Vorren 1997; van Rensbergen et
al. 1999).
2. As the various scales of heterogeneity affect and
control the subsurface permeability distribution, their
impact on aquifer characterization is highlighted (see
also Koltermann and Gorelick 1996) and qualitative
data on geometries and hydraulic properties of various
gravel units are presented. In addition, geophysical
results are presented emphasizing their relevance to the

detection and characterization of these sedimentary

units.
Data from the micro- to mega scale refer to detailed
outcrop studies carried out within pro-glacial stream
deposits (see Heinz et al. 2003), whereas the larger scales
(mega- to giga scale) show examples of sedimentary
associations occurring within the glaciated terrain of the
Wrmian Rhine glacier area in SW Germany (Fig. 2).
Unfortunately, outcrops that document transitional zones
between different glacial environments do not exist. As a
result, the analysis had to be focused on the types and
general pattern of the various gravel deposits, without
being able to directly link these subsystems.

Description of field area

The Rhine glacier was a typical Alpine ice lobe that
accumulated in the upper reaches of the Alps and
advanced to the north through high-relief mountain
valleys before spreading out into the Alpine foreland
Fig. 2 A Location map showing the position of all studied sites
(mainly gravel pits) according to the last maximum ice-extension of
the SW-German Rhine glacier. The investigated deposits have
mainly been formed during the Wrmian glaciation. B Digital
elevation model (four times vertical exaggeration) showing the
complex landscape features in the eastern part of the Rhine glacier
area. Numbers 16 give the location of the selected examples of
gravel-bodies described in the section Facies bodies (see also
Figs. 7 and 8); 1 Tettnang, 2 Baindt, 3 Grenis, 4 Edenhaus, 5 Maria
Tann, 6 Leutkirch. C Schematic section illustrating the principle
distribution of glacial meltwater deposits in the eastern and central
Rhine glacier area

925

926

during several climate cycles of the Pleistocene. Such

Alpine valley glaciers moved on their substratum under
wet-base or temperate ice conditions. The study area is
situated in the Alpine foreland, which was filled during
the Tertiary with up to 5,000 m of Molasse sediments.
Since the Upper Miocene, uplift has occurred in this outer
region, giving rise to erosion of the landscape. In
comparison to the overall eroded volume, the amount of
material accumulated due to glacial advances is small
(Ellwanger et al. 1995).
During the Pleistocene glaciations, deep glacial basins
were formed (e.g. Lake Constance) in the Alpine foreland.
Moreover, huge amounts of coarse material were transported to the tectonically controlled Upper Rhine Valley
as the major sediment trap (Ellwanger et al. 1995).
Thus, the Wrmian Rhine glacier advanced into a
small-scaled structured, moderate-relief area (Fig. 2). The
investigated proglacial fluvial gravel deposits were
deposited during glacial advance and maximum iceextent in palaeo-discharge zones. Drainage of the glacier
took place in several zones north to the River Danube as
well as along the Rhine Valley to the west. During ice
retreat and decay, sediments were accumulated within the
glaciated terrain. Stagnant ice became concentrated in
valleys and basins and eventually separated into isolated
ice blocks. As a result, sedimentation was concentrated
between stagnant ice and valley sides and around buried
ice blocks, as well as in sub- and englacial environments.

Hierarchical stratigraphic analysis

and hydrogeological properties
Particles: basic transport processes/provenance
and hydrogeochemistry
Sedimentology
The analysis of individual sedimentary particles refers to
the petrography of the components, their size, roundness
and sphericity as well as the recognition of their surface
features. These analyses are carried out in a standard way
in order to derive the source area (provenance) of the
sediments, which may change with time, and to roughly
estimate mode and duration/length of transport (e.g.
striated clasts indicate ice-transport).

Table 1 Summary of selected

physical and chemical parameters of litho-components from
the site Singen (after Kleineidam et al. 1999a, 1999b). Content of organic matter (Corg)
significantly controls the sorption capacity [log kd] of the
hydrophobic contaminants. The
(grain size: conditioned) specific surface area [SA] is an
important property for sorption
of, for example, heavy minerals

Lithology

Dark-coloured limestone
Dark-coloured sandstones
Light-coloured limestone
Light-coloured sandstone
Quartz/feldspar minerals
Igneous/metamorphic rocks
Coals

In the SW German Rhine glacier area, Alpine limestone particles generally dominate the spectrum of
components. Older Pleistocene fluvial deposits, for
instance, can be regionally differentiated according to
the proportion of crystalline components and the appearance of yellow limestone particles (Schreiner 1992). This
indicates changes in type and availability of rock material
in the source areas of the Alps. Periglacial valley fills, for
example, within the upper Rhine Valley, show a mixture
of Alpine components and local material from the Black
Forest. During the Pleistocene, the proportion of local
material generally diminished and Alpine components
dominated within the younger successions. These changes
can be interpreted in terms of tectonic/morphologic
changes, as well as in terms of climatic changes.
Hydrostratigraphy
The source material also shows variable physical and
chemical characteristics. For instance, the specific surface
area (SA) of the litho-components controls the sorption of
heavy metals. Kleineidam et al. (1999a, 1999b) demonstrated that sorption and desorption behaviour of organic
pollutants is mainly determined by the intra-particle
distribution of organic material (Table 1). Hence, dark
limestone particles with an corg content of 0.8 mg/g show
1,000 higher sorption capacity than quartz material
(corg=0.04 mg g1). Reworked Tertiary Molasse rocks
often contain fragments of coal and are therefore
extremely sorptive for organic pollutants. This means
that the composition of aquifer material determines the
exchange processes between fluid and substratum. To
assess the retardation of organic pollutants a factor
critical for the efficiency of clean-up of contaminated
groundwater within, for instance, gravelly aquifers, it
is important to quantify the petrology of aquifer constituents.
Strata: depositional dynamics and hydrofacies
Sedimentology
Stratinomic analysis records the orientation of components (fabric), their grading and sorting, texture and

CaCO3

Corg-content

Log Kd (l kg1)

(%)

(mg g1)

(Cw=1 g l1)

Specific surface-area
SA
(m g1)

687.7
33.04.0
75.01.8
39.07.7
01.40.7
04.01.5
<0.5

0.800.06
0.810.14
0.240.04
0.290.08
0.040.01
0.070.01
4000.20

3.960.02
3.270.03
2.080.03
1.860.07
1.050.27
0.070.46
4.300.04

0.79
2.19
1.84
3.28
0.092
0.78
7.59

927
Table 2 Facies-code (after
Keller 1996, modified and extended) used for the description
of lithofacies and hydrofacies in
fluvial gravel-bed deposits

Indices/features

Abbreviation

i1
I1
i2
i3
i4

b: Boulder; c: cobbles; s: sand; f fines (silt/clay)

G Gravel; S sand; F fines (silt/clay)
c Clast-supported; m matrix-supported
x Stratified; m massive (no bedding); g Graded (normal, inverse)
i Imbrication; a alternation: e.g. o open framework, b bimodal; h
horizontally stratified; p planar stratified; t trough cross stratified

Grain size
Grain size
Texture
Stratification
Additional information

Fig. 3 Classification of the five dominant lithofacies types in

glaciofluvial gravel-bed deposits of SW Germany. These are here
interpreted as the result of transport and depositional processes
controlled by current energy and rate of deposition. At a relatively
low rate of discharge, sand and gravels are transported as single
bedload-particles, resulting in the lithofacies types pure sands

(S-x) and well sorted gravels (GS-x). At higher flow magnitudes,

gravel-to-sand mixtures with large clasts are transported as lowdensity bedload sheets (Gcm) or high-density traction carpets
(cGcm). Sorting processes develop due to negative steps and
turbulence mechanisms and lead to the formation of lithofacies type
Gcg,a. Arrows indicate possible transitional lithofacies types

stratification. The lithofacies concept (Miall 1978; Keller

1996) is a method commonly applied to describe and
classify stratinomic features with a standardized code
(Table 2).
For the glaciofluvial gravel-bed deposits of this study,
Fig. 3 shows a simplified interpretation of the five major
lithofacies classes with respect to (relative) current energy
and rate of sedimentation, i.e. transport and depositional
processes. The composition of the source material determines directly the resulting lithofacies. In the case of the
Rhine glacier, a typical Alpine and proximal grain-size
spectrum is present. The major lithofacies types are
mainly clast-supported and show a dominance of the
gravel-fraction (7085%), whereas the sandy matrix
portion is often less then 30%.

Hydrostratigraphy
Lithofacies types affect hydraulic properties, and Anderson (1989) and Bierkens (1996) showed that sedimentary
properties (grain-size distribution, texture, fabric) can be
directly related to hydraulic properties such as hydraulic
conductivity and porosity. The term hydrofacies was
thus introduced for relatively homogeneous but anisotropic units that are hydrogeologically meaningful (Poeter
and Gaylord 1990). These properties have been measured
in the field (pneumatic tests, e.g. Klingbeil 1998) or in the
laboratory (column tests, e.g. Jussel et al. 1994; Kleineidam 1998), or can be calculated theoretically based on
grain-size distribution (Kozeny 1927; Carman 1937;
Beyer 1964).
In this study, the five lithofacies classes of the fluvial
gravel-bed deposits have been subdivided into 12 different hydrofacies types (Table 3). The hydrofacies types
have an enormous range of conductivity over several

928
Table 3 Summary of measured
and calculated hydraulic properties (conductivity, porosity)
for the refined hydrofacies
types appearing in fluvial gravel-bed deposits (after Kleineidam 1998, modified and
extended)

Lithofacies

(c,b) Gcmi
Gcm
Gcx
Gcg,a
GS-x
S-x

Hydrofacies
bGcm
cGcm
Gcm
sGcm
fGcm
Gcx
cGcg,o
Gcg,o
sGcg,o
Gcm,b
GS-x
S-x

Kf (m s1)
Experiment

2.51042.1104
6.11055.9105
1.61061.1106
2.31047.5105
4.81012.6102
6.11051.8104
2.31034.5103
1.41045.0103

Kf (m s1)
Calculated

Porosity ()
Experiment

4.7105a
2.3104a
3.31043.3104b
7.11052.2105b
1.31043.2105b
3.51041.7104b
3100c
2.010-11.8101c
9.510-2 6.5103c
2.810-52.8105a
5.210-42.4104d
1.31041.5104d

0.080.01
0.150.01
0.170.07
0.130.04
0.150.02
0.180.03
0.260.02
0.260.02
0.230.01
0.200.08
0.270.07
0.360.04

a
Calculated based on [Kf=Kf (Gcm; sand) (1V(C/B))]
b
Based on empirical equation according to Panda and Lake (1994)
c
Based on the KozenyCarman equation (Kozeny 1927; Carman 1937)
d

Based on an empirical equation according to Beyer (1964)

Fig. 4 Due to their characteristic textural make up, lithofacies

types control hydraulic conductivity. For transformation into
hydrofacies types, the broad
lithofacies types need to be
further subdivided (see Table 3). Note that, for instance,
lithofacies type Gcg,a (alternating gravel) embodies hydraulic conductivities within a
range of seven orders of magnitude

orders of magnitude (kf=100 m/s for open-work gravels,

kf=107 m/s for massive and matrix-rich (silty) gravels).
This means that distribution of lithofacies types significantly determines the value of conductivity and its
distribution in porous aquifers (Fig. 4). It is essential to
know these properties because groundwater flow is
concentrated within highly permeable and connected
zones (e.g. open framework gravels) and hydrogeologists
often have to deal with preferential flow paths within
aquifers (Fogg 1990; Poeter and Townsend 1994; Anderson et al. 1999). A more detailed account of the hydraulic
properties of various lithofacies types is found in
Kleineidam (1998) and Heinz et al. (2003).

Depositional elements: geomorphic dynamics

and hydraulic connectivity
Sedimentology
Outcrop studies showed that the various lithofacies types
are organized in two- and three-dimensional macroscale
sedimentary bodies. Miall (1985) introduced the concept
of architectural elements, showing that former geomorphic units of a fluvial system (e.g. channel, levee,
crevasse, floodplain) are preserved in the geological
record as bodies with distinct shape, bounding surfaces
and internal structure, as well as characteristic petrophysical behaviour. As Brierley (1996) pointed out, only three-

929
Fig. 5 Summary diagram to
show quantified data on the
geometry and internal structure
of depositional elements within
palaeo-discharge zones of the
Rhine glacier. Particularly, the
size of scour pool filling significantly differs between small
drainage areas in the northern
parts and the focused area of the
Rhine Valley in the western
part. Depositional elements are
characterized by a distinct distribution of lithofacies; they
control the local correlation
structure of permeabilities. The
data are based on wall data of
29 gravel pits, plus seven sites
of ground-penetrating radar
surveys

dimensional architectural element analysis enables a

detailed reconstruction of ancient fluvial systems.
The pro-glacial fluvial gravel-bed deposits of the
Rhine glacier area are generally regarded as in channel
sediments (Siegenthaler and Huggenberger 1993) and no
floodplain strata could be observed (Fig. 5). Thus, the
term depositional elements (see also Siegenthaler and
Huggenberger 1993) is used here for characteristic
macroform bodies (Jackson 1975). Two groups of
elements were recognized within the glaciofluvial deposits (Heinz and Aigner 1999). (1) Cut-and fill
elements show a distinct erosional lower bounding
surface and are filled mainly with concave-upward
dipping beds. (2) Accretionary elements are characterized by an aggradational and progradational macroform
growing on a flat lower bounding surface. They consist
either of weakly stratified, massive beds or cross-stratified gravel units.
The cut-and fill elements are either interpreted as
channel-based scour pool fills (Siegenthaler and Huggenberger 1993; Beres et al. 1999) or as small trough
elements on unit bars (Bluck 1979). The accretionary
elements are interpreted as traction carpets, stacking of
diffuse gravel-sheets or migrating gravel dunes.
Due to the distinct position within the fluvial system
(channel base, scour pool), as well as the distinct flow
energy and sediment load during their formation, depositional elements are characterized not only by their shape
and size, but also by their composition of lithofacies
types.
Comparing deposits of palaeo-discharge zones of the
Wrmian Rhine glacier, Heinz et al. (2003) showed
systematic palaeogeographic differences in the size and
regional distribution of cut and fill elements. Gravel
bodies that developed to the north of the Rhine glacier are

characterized by small and solitary scour pool fills,

whereas large and migrating scour pool fills dominate in
the region west of the glacier, following the modern
Rhine Valley (see also Siegenthaler and Huggenberger
1993; Beres et al. 1999; Fig. 5). The volume of meltwater
and the valley cross section were probably the critical
controlling factors for the formation of depositional
elements.
In recent years, ground penetrating radar (GPR) has
been used to detect, in detail, the subsurface architecture
of sedimentary bodies (e.g. Jol and Smith 1991; Stephens
1994; Bristow 1995; Asprion and Aigner 1997, 1999;
Smith and Jol 1997; Bridge et al. 1998; Huggenberger et
al. 1998; Rea and Knight 1998; Van Overmeeren 1998;
Beres et al. 1999; Vandenberghe and Van Overmeeren
1999; Van Dam and Schlager 2000). The transmitted
electromagnetic waves are reflected when there is a
contrast in dielectric properties of the beds, which is
closely coupled with the material properties and water
content in the saturated zone or with the material
properties and portion of air- and water-filled (capillary
water) pores in the unsaturated zone (Huggenberger
1993). Gravel deposits show high contrasts in electromagnetic behaviour (clear reflections). Moreover, the lack
of fine sediments (silt and clay) enable an adequate
penetration depth (515 m). As a result, GPR profiles
provide an undisturbed structural image of the subsurface,
which can be interpreted sedimentologically. Threedimensional surveys increase the reliability of the data
and enable the spatial mapping of subsurface architecture.
Figure 6 shows an example of a three-dimensional data
set of braided river deposits with a widespread preservation of large scour-pool fills.

930

Fig. 6 GPR can be used in gravel deposits to illuminate the

subsurface architecture of gravel deposits. In this example, the
three-dimensional geometry of depositional elements of an ancient
braided river system could be mapped. Horizontal reflector pattern

on the top (unit 1) and at the base (unit 5) reflect the record of
accretionary elements (gravel sheets + traction carpets), whereas
the trough-shape reflectors in between reveal a zone of dominant
scour pool preservation (units 24)

Hydrostratigraphy

combination of sedimentary processes (e.g. traction

currents, avalanching, background settling). Three-dimensional facies bodies can reach a lateral extent ranging
from hundreds of metres to several tens of kilometres and
a thickness of some decametres.
Within the German Rhine glacier area, the following
major types of facies bodies have been recognized in
outcrops (detailed description see Heinz 2001):

For hydrogeologists, the comprehension of formation,

preservation and construction of depositional elements is
of great importance (e.g. Webb and Davis 1998). These
elements determine the local distribution of permeabilities, the hydraulic correlation lengths and thus the
connectivity of permeable units. Hence, these elements
are important for local clean-up of contaminated groundwater. Whittaker and Teutsch (1999), for instance,
showed a clear directional control of contaminant movement due to large inclined foresets within a scour pool fill.
Within the studied coarse-grained braided river deposits, scour pool fills, for instance, reflect three-dimensional bodies with a small-scale alternation of cross
stratified low and high permeable zones. In contrast,
massive beds of traction carpets and stacking of diffuse
gravel sheets (accretionary elements) are characterized by
homogeneous and low-conductivity units with a sheetlike geometry. Gravel dunes also have a sheet-like
geometry, but show a cross stratified internal architecture
with alternating high and low permeability zones (Heinz
et al. 2003).
Standard coring techniques only deliver one-dimensional and disturbed information within unconsolidated
gravelly aquifers. Therefore, the application of the GPRmethod is an important tool that allows detailed threedimensional detection of subsurface structures.
Facies bodies: environmental system dynamics
and aquifer compartments
Sedimentology
Facies bodies are constructed by the stacking of several
depositional elements and strata within distinct environmental systems (Figs. 7 and 8). They are formed by a

1. Coarse-grained prograding delta bodies of the Gilbert

type were formed in many localities of the Rhine
glacier area. In the gravel pit, Tettnang (Fig. 2B,
no. 1), the outcrop faces show up to 20-m-high
deposits of an ancient Gilbert-type delta system
(Fig. 7A). The walls are dominated by a massive unit
(>15 m) of large and steep foreset strata. In the
uppermost part, 24-m-thick horizontally stratified
topset beds erosively cover the foreset segment. A
transition from foresets into lower bottomset deposits
has not been revealed, but in parts of the excavation
area, basal sand deposits have been recognized.
According to the fabric, texture and stratification of
single lithofacies types, the major avalanching processes can be described as flows with fluvial and
plastic behaviour (turbidites, liquefied and debris flow)
as well as fall mechanism (e.g. grain flows). Asprion
and Aigner (1999) showed typical examples of Gilbert-type deltas in the Singen Basin.
2. Kame bodies can be formed by different sedimentary
processes. In the Rhine glacier area, large kame deltas
have been studied (Figs. 7B and 2B, no. 2). However,
the classical tripartition of topset, foreset and bottomset segments is missing. Instead, there is a transition
from large convex-up delta foresets into bottomsets
with a gradual decrease in dip angle. Topset beds were
totally absent in the outcrop. This type of coarsegrained delta is classified as a conical underwater delta
because no subaerial distributary plain-deposits could

931

Fig. 7AC Examples of glacial facies bodies. A Delta body of the

Gilbert-type, characterized by a progradation of gravel and
gravel/sand fore-sets, which are truncated by fluvial top-set
deposits. The sandy bottom-sets are not excavated in this example
(gravel pit Tettnang). B Conical kame delta body with large convex
fore sets gradually passing into sandy bottom sets. Subaerial
distributary plain-deposits are missing and a local subglacial
meltwater and sediment source is supposed (gravel pit Baindt). C
Gravel body of a terminal moraine complex. The beds consist of
very poorly sorted cobble- and boulder-rich sediments and originally are subhorizontally stratified. Post-depositional melting of
buried ice blocks caused large-scale collapse structures (gravel pit
Grenis)

be seen. In this case, a local subglacial meltwater and

sediment source is assumed. Contact with the ice is
additionally reflected by post-depositional normal
faults.
3. Terminal moraine complexes of the last maximal ice
extension are constructed of less sorted, coarse-grained
gravel deposits and diamict deposits. Depending on the
regional situation, the moraine complexes can either be
dominated by mass movement deposits (flow tills) or
by high-density fluvial deposits. A special type of
terminal moraine complex has been found in the gravel
pit Grenis (Fig. 7C). The pit is located in a northsloping terrain forming part of an EW elongated and

curved belt of irregular hills (see Fig. 2B, no. 3). The
morphology is characterized by a high-relief hummocky terrain, which ends abruptly with a steep slope
to the south (basin situation). The up to 30-m-high
outcrop faces consist mainly of subhorizontally layered, very poorly sorted cobble- and boulder-rich
gravels. A high portion of subangular and angular
components appear in these units. In general, the beds
show a vertical aggradation architecture. The deposits
exposed in the large outcrop area are characterized by
extensive, post-depositional deformation structures.
The collapse structures clearly correspond to morphological surface depressions in the way that the general
stratification runs parallel to the surface. Thus, the
modern hummocky landscape is explained by both
post-depositional melting of buried ice and an unequal
distribution of sediment at the ice-head. The sediments
are interpreted as records of hyper-concentrated flows,
which are typical ablation processes on ice-contact
fans.
4. Subglacial eskers are formed at the contact zone
between the ice body and its substratum. The pit
Edenhaus (Fig. 8A) is situated in a hill on the bottom
of the NS-striking Karbach valley (Fig. 2B, no. 4).
Morphologically, a drumlin-like shape is visible,
slightly elongate parallel to the valley. The excavated
sequence mainly consists of an alternation of graveland sand-dominated beds as well as of sand to gravel
mixtures. Particle orientation and stratification often
indicate a high rate of shearing during transport and
deposition (inverse graded gravels), reflecting the high
pressure of subglacial drainage. Few intercalations of
heterolithic beds (mixtures of sand and fines) were also
recognized, and at a basal marginal part of the exposed
hill, the gravel to sand deposits are covered by a
diamict layer. The entire sequence is cross stratified
and shows an inclination to the north, although many
post-depositional normal faults and block-rotation
distort the original angle of deposition (Fig. 8A). The
beds show an overall gradual progradational and
aggradational stacking pattern (containing also minor
erosional truncations). They partly pinch out downslope, but no overall change in grain-size was recognized.
5. Englacial deposits are formed in tunnels and cavities
within the glacier ice. They show a wide spectrum of
hydrodynamic features. In the studied gravel pit Maria
Tann (Figs. 8B and 2B, no. 5) a highly complex
architecture was visible. Gravel, sand and diamict
deposits show folding structures, press-up structures
and collapse structure as well as erosional truncations.
Both plastic and frictional deformation modes were
recognized. With regard to the occurring lithofacies
types and sedimentary structures, it is very difficult to
deduct one distinct depositional system. Indicators for
fluvial processes (e.g. trough-shaped lower bounding
surfaces), avalanche processes (e.g. thick beds of
bimodal gravel), as well as cohesive mass-movement
processes (diamict deposits), are found. However, it is

932

6. Proglacial fluvial bodies that build up whole valleyfills are characterized by a lateral and vertical stacking
of depositional elements of the cut-and fill and
accretionary type. A regional differentiation in the
scale and geometry of scour pool fills was recognized,
which is controlled mainly by the discharge regime
draining the valley region. In the example of Fig. 8B,
the section is dominated by horizontally stratified
gravel sheet deposits and small-scale cut-and fillelements. Lithofacies types and depositional elements
have already been described in the sections before.
Hydrostratigraphy
Facies bodies and their internal architecture form major
compartments within glacial aquifers and thus influence
local to regional groundwater flow. This has been
documented by Bersezio et al. (1999) for a proglacial
delta environment, by Boyce and Eyles (2000) for
subglacial deposits, and for fluvial aquifers by Galloway
and Sharpe (1998) and Anderson et al. (1999). Figure 9
schematically illustrates the predicted (local to regional)
flow path patterns of groundwater within facies bodies of
different glacial environmental systems.
By combining subsurface studies (e.g. ground-penetrating radar measurements) and outcrop-analogue studies
it should be possible, in the future, to predict the overall
flow path pattern within near surface gravelly aquifers.
Sequences: glacier dynamics and aquifer storeys
Sedimentology

Fig. 8AC Examples of glacial facies bodies. A Esker body

showing an alternation of inclined gravel- and sand-dominated
strata. The frequent faults and block rotations are the result of postdepositional ice melting (gravel pit Edenhaus). B Englacial gravel
body of the gravel pit Maria Tann. Gravel, sand and diamict
deposits show folding, collapse and press-up structures as well as
erosional truncation. Sediments and deformation structures indicate
varying hydrodynamic conditions and ice movement. C Braided
river gravel body (gravel pit Ostrach) characterized by accretionary
elements (gravel sheets and dunes) and solitarily cut and fill
elements (scour pool fills). Outcrop wall is parallel to palaeoflow
(from right to the left)

obvious that sedimentation and deformation happened

contemporaneously. Within an upper section of the pit,
an up to 3.5-m-high cross stratified gravel dune could be
recognized. Inclination of the foresets was contrary to
the direction of glacier advance, showing that sediments
has also been transported in englacial environments
back to the basin centre (lake of Constance). The whole
section has been deformed by melting of buried ice,
indicating the englacial depositional environment.

Contrary to lithostratigraphic or morphostratigraphic correlation, a regional correlation based on sedimentary sequences is independent of local depositional environments
and focuses on the dynamics of the glacier and/or large
flood events. Thus, it should be possible to correlate, for
example, areas of glaciofluvial deposits with areas of
lacustrine deposits. Although several sequence stratigraphic
studies within glacial deposits (Oviatt et al. 1994; Martini
and Brookfield 1995) have been successful, correlation is
still very difficult due to the lack of large outcrops, the lack
of time markers or absolute age determinations and drastic
effects of local erosion and simultaneous deposition at
different topographic levels. However, due to a better
understanding of sedimentary processes within linked
glacial systems, predictions are possible on the overall
stratigraphic architecture of gravel facies successions.
Within the scale of the studied outcrops, vertical
changes in the dynamics of environmental systems are
only locally visible. Vertical trends in grain size, in
sorting or in a switch in architectural style of facies bodies
are caused by changing sedimentary processes.
As an example, in the gravel pit Friedingen (Singen
basin), several architectural styles of glaciofluvial gravel
deposits are vertically stacked (Fig. 10).

933
Fig. 9 Synthetic illustration of
size, geometry and internal
construction of selected glacial
facies bodies and their impact
on local to regional groundwater pathways. Based on data of
62 gravel pits, five sites of
ground-penetrating radar surveys and topographical landform investigations

Fig. 10 Vertical stacking of

different gravel bodies in the
area of Singen (site Friedingen).
The lowest body (A) is characterized by horizontal gravel
sheets formed within a single
and broad river environment.
The middle body, clearly truncating an intercalated till (B) at
the base, is characterized by
complex scour pool fills (C)
typical for braided river deposits. The upper body (D)
shows thin, discontinuous gravel sheets, which are interpreted
as deposits of an unconfined,
shallow braided stream. Such
sequences are interpreted to be
controlled by short-term glacier
dynamics

1. The lowest part is characterized by horizontal gravel

sheets and occasional gravel dunes with a thickness of
0.40.7 m and a lateral extent of hundreds of metres.
Erosional elements are absent, indicating the lack of
channel features on this scale. The components are
well rounded and larger clasts are often imbricated.

2. The lower gravel body (A) is overlain by a relatively

thin layer of matrix-supported and compacted diamict,
which can be traced over several kilometres in the
Singen basin. Components are mostly well rounded,
few of them show striations on their surface.

934
Fig. 11 Schematic and conceptual illustration predicting both
isolated and continuous regional
aquifer storeys formed during a
glacial cycle at different times
and positions within a classical
glacial series

3. Upwards, the deposits are characterized by erosional

elements (thickness of 13 m and a lateral extension of
1070 m) with concave upward and cross bedded
lithofacies. These elements are often elongated in the
palaeoflow direction and, according to Siegenthaler and
Huggenberger (1993), they are interpreted as migrating
scour pool fills. At the base of these cut and fill elements,
subangular to angular boulders locally occur (lag
deposits). Additionally, post-depositional ice-collapse
structures have been recognized in this middle part.
4. The uppermost part is dominated by the preservation
of thin and discontinuous gravel sheets (520 cm in
thickness, 1030 m in extent), where small cut and fill
elements appear only occasionally.
The three gravel units have a minimum thickness of 5
10 m and reflect different discharge behaviour of
changing fluvial environments. Because of the regional
extent of these units, it may be assumed that the vertical
changes in the sedimentary record are not of local
autocyclic nature, but, in this case, are controlled by
glacier dynamics:
1. The lowermost part is interpreted as a sequence of
glacier stagnation or slow glacier advance. Deposits of
relatively high magnitude discharge events were
preserved within one broad river-environment. Imbrication measurements show a direction of palaeoflow
from NE to SW, which is parallel to the glacier lobe
situated in the SE (Schreiner 1992).
2. The diamict-intercalation between the first and the
second gravel body is interpreted as a direct glacier
deposit (lodgement till) formed during a glacial advance.
3. The gravel body of the middle part is interpreted to be
formed during ice decay. Both the occurrence of
angular boulders and ice-collapse structures indicate

proximity to the source (i.e. the ice). Typical elements

of a dynamic braided river system are revealed in this
part. For the preservation of migrating scour pool fills,
large and relatively stable channels and an overall high
level of discharge are required. This can be explained
by the large amount of water released during ice decay
and the narrowing of discharge areas (and thus
focusing of the draining water) due to large and
blocking ice relics.
4. The gravel deposits of the upper part show an
environment of shallow and unconfined flow, which
is typical for shallow braided streams or shallow
alluvial fans (Goedhart and Smith 1998). The change
to overall lower discharge rates (compared with the
deposits of the middle part) is interpreted as a
stabilization and repeated advance of the glacier.
Hydrostratigraphy
Regional glacial cycles translate into major aquifer
storeys. While glacial meltwater deposits (e.g. eskers,
deltas, proglacial sediments) represent permeable aquifers, they are separated by deposits of diamict and
fine-grained sediments (aquitards and aquicludes). Figure 11 shows a theoretical scenario predicting that fluvial

Fig. 12 Shallow seismic profile within the glacial basin of

Hosskirch (Upper Swabia) showing the large-scale subsurface
architecture. Core data are classified according to overall hydraulic
properties (aquiclude: diamicts and compacted clay and silt
deposits; aquitard: mixture of sand, silt and clay; aquifer: wellsorted gravel and sand deposits) and can be traced in the profile.
For the quantification of hydrostratigraphic units, the regional
groundwater models need information about location and distribution of facies bodies

935

936

sediments deposited during one cycle of glacial advance

from continuous aquifers, whereas meltwater deposits
during ice decay are more patchy, forming isolated
aquifer storeys. In a real example, Szenkler (1996) built
up a three-dimensional hydraulic model embodying
several aquifer storeys in the Singen Basin on the basis
of core data and deduced genetic sequences.
Basin fills: basin dynamics
and regional hydrostratigraphy
Sedimentology
Glacial basins record the three-dimensional distribution
and stacking of facies bodies and sequences, controlled by
long-term glacial cycles.
The analysis of sequences in drill cores and their
hierarchical stacking pattern leads to a basin-wide correlation and thus to a rough appraisal of lateral and vertical
facies distribution. For a more accurate analysis, shallow
seismic reflection techniques are used for exact location
and geometrical detection of facies bodies in the subsurface as well as their internal architecture (cf. Eyles et al.
1991; Pullan et al. 1994; Boyce et al. 1995; Pugin et al.
1996, 1999; Van Rensbergen et al. 1999).
Quaternary geologists have traditionally studied the
modern relief of glacial landforms. A milestone in this
research has been the recognition of the glacial series(juxtaposition and interconnectedness of glacial deposits within one single ice-period; Schreiner 1992) by
Penck and Brckner (1909) leading to the commonly
applied morphostratigraphic approach. Although it is now
clear that morphological properties on their own are not
sufficient and a combination with the internal architecture
is necessary, the shape of the landscape provides important indications for major glacial and glaciofluvial
environmental reconstruction (Shaw and Sharpe 1987;
Rains et al. 1993; Shaw et al. 1996; Munro and Shaw
1997). Yet it is still difficult to relate morphological
landscape features with sedimentological processes because of difficulties in age determinations.
Within the German Rhine glacier area, several overdeepened glacial basins are known (Ellwanger et al.
1995), which are frequently elongate in ice-flow direction
and show variable extents and depth (1100 km in length,
few decametres to hundreds of metres in depth). Depending on their age and geographical position, one to several
glacial advances and retreats are recorded to result in a
complex basin architecture.
In Fig. 12, part of a complex Pleistocene glacial basin
fill (Hokirch basin) is shown. The seismic profile, which
strikes nearly parallel to the elongate basin (Ellwanger et
al. 1995) from NW to SE, has been calibrated with two
closely spaced cores.

Hydrostratigraphy
As seen in Fig. 12, the core data have been interpreted
according to glacial sequences and classified with regard
to hydrostratigraphic units. Deposits of diamict and
compacted clay/silt represent non-permeable aquicludes
whereas mixtures of sand and silts with a small amount of
clay behave as aquitards. Units composed of sorted gravel
and sand deposits are zones of high permeability and are
classified as aquifers. The seismic profile enables a twodimensional tracing of these units. It becomes clear that
the lower aquifer is more continuous, and that major
groundwater flow is probably focused in this lower part.
In contrast, the thin intercalated upper aquifer is fully
enclosed by aquitards forming an isolated aquifer.
Regional groundwater models need information about
distribution and connectivity of individual hydrostratigraphic units. It is, for instance, important to know if
vertically stacked groundwater storeys are continuously
separated by impermeable diamict sheets or if local
erosion lead to hydraulic windows and thus to an
interconnection of aquifer storeys. Pugin et al. (1999)
recorded, with seismic profiles (seismic facies analysis),
the regional architecture of the Oak Ridge Moraine area
(southern Ontario) and clarified the effect of large buried
subglacial tunnel channels on regional groundwater
storage and interconnectedness of hydrostratigraphic
units.

Conclusions
1. In this paper a simple, process-based approach is used
to analyse highly variable Quaternary gravel deposits
by means of a systematic breakdown into a sixfold
hierarchy of objectively defined units: (1) particles, (2)
strata, (3) depositional elements, (4) facies bodies, (5)
sequences and (6) basin fills.
2. A combination and integration of different methods
(e.g. sedimentological, geophysical, geochemical,
morphostratigraphical) is necessary for the recognition
and detection of these sedimentary units.
3. For the glaciofluvial discharge areas of the Rhine
glacier, quantitative data on types, geometries and
dimensions of lithofacies, depositional elements and
facies bodies are assembled.
4. All scales of heterogeneity exert a profound influence
on the hydraulic behaviour of strata. Variations in
hydrofacies and hydrostratigraphy are thus a key for
predictions on aquifer properties and provide quantitative input parameters for numerical groundwater
modelling.
Acknowledgements We thank Dr A. Pugin (University Geneva)
for acquisition and processing of seismic data and for helpful
discussions in the field. The Geological Survey of BadenWrttemberg (Dr D. Ellwanger) is thanked for the obtained core
data and stimulating discussions. For discussions, we thank Dr Ch.
Schlchter, Dr M. Brookfield, Dr P. Huggenberger and Dr Chr.
Fielding. In addition, B. Miles (Newcastle) is thanked for

937
correcting the English language. This study was financially
supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG) as part of
the special research program (SFB) 275, TP C3.

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