1.

Sinusoidal Excitation of Magnetic Circuits

1.1 AC Excitation
Consider an N-turn coil wound on a magnetic core with a cross-section area A m2.
(t)
(t)

i(t)

+
e(t)

e(t)

If the coil is excited with a sinusoidal current, i(t) , the resulting flux in the, (t), will also
vary sinusoidally with time.
sin
Where m = amplitude of the core flux, and = 2f = angular frequency.
From Faraday's law, the voltage induced in the N-turn coil is
sin
cos

cos

sin

90

Note that if the flux changes sinusoidally, the induced voltage changes cosinusoidally (90o
Phase shift).
The root mean-square (rms) value of the induced voltage
2

4.44

4.44

This is an important equation and will be referred to frequently in the theory of ac

machines.
1.2 Hysteresis
Again consider the excitation of an N-turn coil wound on a magnetic core with a sinusoidal
ac current.
i
i(t)

+
v(t)

+
e(t)

Im
l

Im

ECE 3650 / Dr. Athula Rajapakse / 2013 Jan

Assume that the core is initially unmagnetized. If the magnetic intensity H is now increased
by slowly increasing the current i, the flux density will change according to the curve ab.

B (or )
Remanance
flux density

b
Br
-Hc

c
a

Hc
-Br

H1

H (or F)

Coercive
force

The point a corresponds to a particular value of the magnetic intensity, say H1,
(corresponding current is i1).

If the magnetic intensity is now slowly decreased, the B-H curve will follow a different
path, such as bc in the figure.

When H is made zero, the core has retained flux density Br, known as the residual flux
density or remenance flux density.

If H is now reversed (by reversing the current) the flux in the core will decrease and for a
particular value of H, such as -Hc, the residual flux will be removed.

This value of the magnetic field intensity (-Hc) is known as the coercivity or coercive
force of the magnetic core.

If H is further increased in the reverse direction, the flux density will increase in the
reverse direction: for current -i1 the flux density will correspond to the point d.

If H is now decreased to zero and then increased to the value H1, the B-H curve will
follow the path deb.

After a few cycles of magnetization, the loop closes, and it is called the hysteresis loop
or B-H loop.

The loop shows that the relationship between B and H is nonlinear and multi-valued.

Note that at point c the iron is magnetized, although the current in the coil is made zero.

Smaller hysteresis loops are obtained by decreasing the amplitude of variation of the
magnetic intensity.

A family of hysteresis loops can be obtained for varying amplitudes of currents.

The locus of the tip of the hysteresis loop, is called the magnetization curve.

ECE 3650 / Dr. Athula Rajapakse / 2013 Jan

In some magnetic cores, the hysteresis loop is very narrow.

If the hysteresis effect is neglected for such cores, the B-H characteristic is represented by
the magnetization curve.

The lack of retraceability of the magnetization curve is the property called hysteresis and it
is related to the existence of magnetic domains in the material. The microscopic ordering of
electron spins characteristic of ferromagnetic materials leads to the formation of regions of
magnetic alignment called domains.
The main implication of the domains is that there is already a high degree of magnetization
in ferromagnetic materials within individual domains, but that in the absence of external
magnetic fields those domains are randomly oriented. A modest applied magnetic field can
cause a larger degree of alignment of the magnetic moments with the external field, giving a
large multiplication of the applied field.

Domains

External field

Alignment of Magnetic Dipoles under an External Magnetic Field

Once the magnetic domains are reoriented, it takes some energy to turn them back again.
Thus when the magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material is alternating, an energy loss,
referred to as hysteresis loss, occurs.

ECE 3650 / Dr. Athula Rajapakse / 2013 Jan

1.3 Energy in a magnetic core and hysteresis loss

i
Im

i(t)

+
v(t)

+
e(t)

Im

Assume that the coil has a resistance of R. The applied sinusoidal current sets up a
sinusoidally varying flux in the core. According to Faraday's law, the induced voltage e(t)
across the coil:

The voltage applied to the coil is given by:

The total power input to the coil:

The energy input to the coil during an interval of time from t1 to t2 is

If the flux changes from 1 to 2 during the interval t1 to t2 ,

Since = B.A and i = Hl/N ,

The first part of the above expression gives the energy loss due to ohmic resistance. The
second part gives the energy input to the magnetic field, Wh ,

Where Vc = (A.l) = the volume of the core.

ECE 3650 / Dr. Athula Rajapakse / 2013 Jan

B+dB
B
H

The integral term H.dB represents the hatched area in the figure. The energy transfer
over one cycle of variation is

The power loss in the core due to the hysteresis effect is

where f = the frequency of the applied current i(t).

It is difficult to analytically evaluate the area of the hysteresis loop because the B-H
characteristic is nonlinear and multi-valued. An approximate relation can be derived as

Bmax = the maximum flux density,

n = Steinmetz constant, an index varying in the range 1.5 to 2.5
Kh = a constant.
Both n and Kh can be empirically determined and their values depend on the ferromagnetic
material.
Therefore, the hysteresis loss can be expressed as:

1.4 Eddy current loss

Another type of power loss occurs in a magnetic core when the flux density changes rapidly
in the core.

ECE 3650 / Dr. Athula Rajapakse / 2013 Jan

Assume that the flux density B is rapidly changing. Consider a path as indicated in this cross
section.
-

Voltage will be induced in the path because of the time variation of flux enclosed
by the path.

Consequently, a current ie, known as an eddy current, will flow around the path.

Because core material has resistance, a power loss ie2R will be caused by the eddy current
and will appear as heat in the core.
The eddy current loss can be reduced in two ways.

Use of a high-resistivity core material.

-

Addition of a few percent of silicon (say 4%) to iron will increase the resistivity
significantly.

Use of a laminated core.

-

The thin laminations are insulated from each other. The lamination is made in the
plane of the flux.

A laminated core reduces the length of the current paths as well as the flux linked by
the current paths, thus reducing the magnitude of eddy currents.

In transformers and electric machines, the parts that are made of magnetic core and
carry time-varying flux are normally laminated.

1.5 Eddy current loss in a laminated core

Consider a section of laminated core in a magnetic flux path. The core comprises
laminations, each with a small thickness .
A time varying flux in the core lamination in the direction shown will induce a circulating
current in the core lamination.

ECE 3650 / Dr. Athula Rajapakse / 2013 Jan

ie

dx

Consider a strip of thickness dx as shown. The magnetic flux induces an electrical current
ie in the strip. Treating the strip as a one-turn coil, the rms value of emf generated on this
one-turn coil can be obtained as
Ee 2fBmax (h 2 x)

(h.2x) the cross-sectional area of the flux path (since h >> x)

The resistance of the current path along the strip can be calculated as
R

( 2h 4 x)
d dx

where = resistivity of core material.

Therefore, the rms value of the induced current
Ie
Ie

Ee

2fBmax (2hx)
( 2h 4 x )
d (dx)

Since h >> x , (2h+4x) 2h

Ie

2fBmax d x dx

The average power dissipated in the strip of thickness dx ,

dPe Ee I e
dPe

2
2 2 f 2 Bmax

(2hd ) x 2 dx

Integration of dPe with respect to x [0 - /2] taking into consideration all similar strips will
give the total power dissipation in the lamination due to induced eddy currents.

ECE 3650 / Dr. Athula Rajapakse / 2013 Jan

Pe

/2

2
2 2 f 2 Bmax

Pe

Pe

2
2 2 f 2 Bmax

(2hd ) x 2 dx
/2

x3
(2hd )
3 0

2
2 f 2 Bmax
( hd ) 3
6

Pe is the total eddy current loss in the core of volume Vc= (hd):

(fBmax ) 2
Pe
(Vc )
6
This expression is applicable to a core of lamination with thickness , and of any size of
volume. The above expression for eddy current loss in a magnetic core subjected to a timevarying flux is can be written in the form of
2
Pe Vc K e Bmax
f2

Where Ke, = a constant whose value depends on the type of material and its lamination
thickness. The lamination thickness varies from 0.5 to 5 mm in electrical machines and from
0.01 to 0.5 mm in devices used in electronic circuits operating at higher frequencies.
Therefore the total core loss in a laminated magnetic core can be expressed as

2
n
Pc Vc K h Bmax
f K e Bmax
f2

Example 1.1:
The following data were obtained on a thin sheet of silicon. Compute the hysteresis and
eddy-current loss.
Frequency (Hz)
25
25
60

Flux Density (T)

1.1
1.5
1.1

Magnetic Loss (W/kg)

0.4
0.8
1.2

Example 1.2
The eddy-current loss of an induction machine is 200 W and the hysteresis loss is 400 W
when operating from a 60 Hz supply. Find the total magnetic loss when the machine is
operated from a 50 Hz source with a decrease of 10% in the flux density. Assume n = 1.6.
Example 1.3
Under rated conditions, the eddy-current loss of a transformer core made of 0.5 mm
laminations is 400 W. What will be the eddy-current loss if a core made of 0.2 mm
ECE 3650 / Dr. Athula Rajapakse / 2013 Jan

laminations of a material having a resistivity that is twice the resisitivity of the original core
material is used?
1.6 Magnetizing current
When a coil wound on a ferromagnetic material is applied with a sinusoidal voltage, the
resulting exciting current wave shape may get distorted due to magnetic saturation and
existence of hysteresis. This is illustrated in the following figures.
The resulting distorted exciting currents contain odd harmonics (3rd , 5th , etc.) which is a
concern, for example in the case of large power transformers and generators.

Construction of exciting current waveform considering only saturation.

Construction of exciting current waveform considering hysteresis

ECE 3650 / Dr. Athula Rajapakse / 2013 Jan

The extent of distortion depends on the maximum magnetic flux density in the core.
Examination of the voltage equation
4.44
shows that the maximum flux
density in a given core depends on the ratio between the applied voltage magnitude and the
frequency (V/f - ratio). Application of

voltages above the rated value, and/or

voltages at a frequency less than the rated value

could result in unacceptably large magnetizing currents with distorted wave shape.

ECE 3650 / Dr. Athula Rajapakse / 2013 Jan

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