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SS able to arrest and execute without question from 1941 with the Night and
Fog decree
However,
Robert Gellately: Gestapos powers were limited: only numbered 32,000
But,
SS purged 5000 members of staff after the 1944 bomb plot which suggests
still had the might to destroy his opponents when he needed to
Soviet Policies
Soviet policies and Russian expansionism contributed to the collapse
of its wartime alliance with the US.
Russia, having suffered great losses during the second world war, both saw
the need for the creation of a buffer zone as a security measure and larger
reparations from Germany, commensurate to the extent of its loss
- By June 1944, there were 228 Axis divisions on the Eastern front where
there were only 61 in Western Europe
Wanted to reclaim territories lost during World War 2 and those it gained from
the 1939 Non-Aggression Pact, such as Poland and Romania
- Engaged in salami tactics to orchestrate the rise of Communist
governments in countries like Poland and Bulgaria to gain control over
Eastern bloc
- Polish coalition government was taken over by the USSR through rigged
elections, expulsion of non-Communist members and coordination of
Communist takeovers
- The USSR also supported the illiberal Czechoslovakia coup in 1948 where
Communists overthrew the government
- Peoples democracies were supported throughout Eastern Europe in
order to lead countries closer to socialism; subversive tactics such as
controlling the police forces ensured that Communism always won (noted
by Robert Tucker)
Communists won improbable majorities in countries like Poland (80% of vote)
USSR felt that it had a moral and categorical claim to many territories
- Codified mainly in the Percentages Agreement of 1944, where it was
concluded that the USSR had a claim to Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania,
with the UK retaining influence in Greece
- Had also made claims for other concessions, but most were denied by the
US and the UK
- In response, the US stationed a Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean to provide
aid to Greece in the event of insurgent and renascent Communism
- Due to these denied concessions, the USSR activated around 200,000
troops along the Bulgarian border, twelve divisions on the Eastern frontier
of Turkey and pillaged Manchuria, and pro-Soviet forces declared a new
government in Azerbaijan
US and Great Britain were alarmed by these responses, and Churchill made
his Iron Curtain speech (March 1946), effectively dividing the world into two
clear camps.
- Churchill denounced Soviet actions as being totalitarian in nature,
delineating an Iron Curtain on the border between the Soviet and Allied
occupied zones (Stalin wanted to exclude Eastern Europe from the rest of
Europe)
US National Interests
Additionally, the national interests of the US conflicted with Soviet
policies and aims, furthering tensions between the powers and
leading to the collapse of their wartime alliance.
William Appleman Williams blame the US and its Open Door policy as
projecting economic power outward, thus forcing the USSR to adopt
conservative defencism.
US pursued a policy of containment as recommended by Kennans Long
Telegram and Ethridges report in fear of Communism
- The growth of Communist would prevent the export of American goods in
Europe, limiting economic growth
- Therefore, $2.7 billion was given to France via debt cancellation to support
resistance against the French Communist Party
US embarked on the Marshall Aid programme in 1947, to support countries
following the winter, in order to prevent impoverished citizens from turning to
Communism
- The Czechoslovakia coup finally convinced congress to approve of the
programme
Moreover, US Secretary of State James Byrnes offered loans to the USSR in
exchange for the economic rebuilding of and free trade in Eastern Europe
- Stalin viewed this as US dollar imperialism: ordered all states in the
Eastern European bloc to reject Marshall Aid
- 1947, Zhdanov condemned Marshall Aid and openly bifurcated Europe:
Two Camps speech
However
Traditionalist view: some historians such as William McNeill have singularly
blamed Soviet expansionism for the collapse of the wartime alliance
Also, revisionist view: historians like William Appleman Williams blame the US
for exerting undue pressure on the USSR despite having a greater range of
available options in foreign policy
Despite the arguments for both these views, the traditionalist view disregards
any notion of dual culpability in determining the outbreak of the Cold War
- Historian John Lewis Gaddis argues that the conflict between the USSR and
the US created a security dilemma where both powers sought to protect
their own security interests, heightening tensions.
- Revisionist view ignores Soviet behaviour as a factor, and overemphasises
the self-serving characterisation of the US, where some argue that the US
had a sincere belief in the universal good of a liberal trading system
Issue of Germany
The USSR and the US clashed as to plans for postwar Germany.
Stalin preferred a united and neutral Germany upon extracting reparations,
which he had not made known to the Allies
Allies had begun merging their zones to assist German recovery; merger of
American and British zones to create the Bizone
British, French and American zones merged to form Trizone, announced new
currency
- Stalin alarmed; felt that Allies were trying to tempt East Germany to join
the Trizone to create a united Germany to stand up to Russia
- Initiated Berlin Blockade to squeeze Allies out of the Soviet zone
First confrontation between two powers; resulted in formation of Federal
Republic of Germany and Democratic Republic of Germany (i.e. West and East
Germany)
Resulted in formation of NATO in April 1949
Ideology
Historians such as William McNeill argue that the the incompatible
ideologies of the USA and the USSR, of Communism and capitalism,
doomed the Cold War to occur.
USSR pushed for abolition of capitalism and a Communist world revolution as
in the orthodox Marxism-Leninism, embodied by Comintern, which was
established in 1919
US espoused values such as liberalism, free market capitalism and
democracy, as shown in the Atlantic Charter and Woodrow Wilsons 14 Points
- Fundamental universality present in both ideologies: indubitably come into
conflict; both claimed to be the best form of government
- Resulted in a conflicting diametric of beliefs, manifest in documents such
as NSC-68
Thus, ideology contributed to early antagonism by the US towards the USSR
- e.g. intervention with the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War
- e.g. US belief in self-determination was opposed to Russian control over
Communist governments in Bulgaria and Hungary
Historian Howard Roffman: the Cold War was predetermined from the
moment the Bolsheviks triumphed in Russia; historian Isaac Deutscher: the
Great Contest between capitalism and Communism
Ideological differences conditioned postwar policies and perceptions
- e.g. Iron Curtain Speech arose from Trumans democratic values; opposed
to the idea of Soviet-rigged elections, censorship and purges
However
Gaddis: Stalin was especially willing to forgo ideology for national interests
(realpolitik)
- e.g. Stalin willing to sign Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1939)
- Adopted stance of socialism in one country despite universality of
socialism
- Supported democratic coalition governments in France until the Marshall
Aid
US willing to support Francos fascist regime during Spanish Civil War despite
it being opposed to its own ideologies
Rise to Power
Economic problems
Economic problems plaguing the Weimar Republic created an
immediate need for the German people of all classes to support the
Nazi Party.
War reparations demanded under TOV: 132 billion gold marks; damaged
German economy
Ruhr crisis (1923): German workers stopped producing goods altogether,
harming economy
Germany relied heavily on American loans to support her economy (Dawes
Plan)
- Stock Market Crash of 1929 created a spectacular increase in support for
the Nazi Party: cast many of the middle class population into economic ruin
(37.4% of vote)
Under Weimar Government, hyperinflationary measures (1923) taken resulted
in complete devaluation of the mark and misery among the populace (1 USD
= 4 trillion Reichsmark)
Due to the problems with capitalism faced by the Republic during this time,
there was a rise in class consciousness among the working class, and much of
the working class population turned to Communism
Many businessmen in the mittelstand were frightened of Communism:
financed the Nazi Party for protection from Communism, allowing the Nazi
Party to prey on the middle class fear of Communism to claim that supporting
the Nazis will prevent Germany from going Bolshevik
Upon Stresemanns death in 1929 before the Stock Market Crash, the political
parties in the Reichstag were even more disunited
Chancellor Brning faced fierce opposition to his plans for a new financial
programme to rebuild the economy; sought out President Hindenburg to
invoke Article 48 (openly decried by public)
Consequently, Hindenburg chose to dissolve Reichstag (June 1930), allowing
the Nazi Party to become the second largest political party in the Reichstag,
and Hitler to gain prominence and popularity through his moving
demagoguery
However,
Dawes Plan: could pay off some reparations, and could build new factories
and machines
Young Plan (1929): reduced reparations to 112 billion gold marks to be repaid
in 59 years; eliminated possibility of sanctions being imposed should
reparation payment default
Propaganda
Hitler used propaganda to achieve personal and ideological appeal for
the Nazis.
Required public support in order to gain significant victories in the German
federal elections
Demonised Western Allies for drafting punitive, humiliating terms of the TOV
Blamed November Criminals in Friedrich Eberts government, as well as
Jews and Communists for Germanys ills and economic crisis during the Great
Depression
Hitler and Nazi Party distributed pamphlets and propaganda booklets to the
masses to spread and proliferate his ultranationalistic ideology
Overwhelming percentage of population rejected TOV in national referendum
Mass gatherings at Nazi rallies and campaigns
Hitlers charisma and oratorical skills: convincing the public of his promise to
restore greatness of Germany, and expanded membership of Nazi party
1932 elections saw Nazi party as largest in the Reichstag; gave Hitler a power
base to expand his political influence, allowing him to gain the chancellorship
in 1933
However,
Ian Kershaws The Hitler Myth: Germans in federal elections continued to
vote in large numbers for Communists despite anti-Communist propaganda
Optimal performance in multiparty elections never exceeded 44%
But,
Still enjoyed broad support: public approved of Night of the Long Knives
Overwhelming majority obtained in 1934 plebiscite establishing him as Fuhrer
Korean War
Cuban Missile Crisis
Background of tensions
Truman Doctrine
Marshall Plan
Containment
Domino Theory
Berlin Blockade
Background
Cuba, small island, 160km from coast of Florida
US ally, US businesses and US military base (Guantanamo)
- Russia and the United States both have veto powers on the Security
Council, hard to reach consensus
Thus, not an effective option
Naval blockade?
Pros
- It is not a war and it is a show of strength without missiles; not overly
aggressive; does not allow brinkmanship to turn into war
- Does not depict Kennedy as capitulating to the USSR
- A Naval quarantine is an effective way of turning away missiles
- Stops further armament/buildup of missiles in Cub
Cons
- Puts the United States in direct confrontation with the USSR
- Sinking a Soviet ship is an act of war
Seen as the most appropriate foreign policy decision
Strategic airstrike
Pros
- Will effectively knock out Soviet missiles
- Good show of American strength
Cons
- When Soviet missiles are destroyed, likely that Soviet soldiers will die as
well; an act of war
Invasion
Pros
- The United States secures Cuba and ensures nuclear safety from the
country
- The United States sends a clear message to the Soviets to stay out of the
West
Cons
- A full invasion would surely kill Soviet soldiers
Castros role
No real role in decision making
Apparently
Outcome and results of the CMC
Cuba remained Communist and heavily armed, but without nuclear missiles
World saw futile of the idea of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)
Supported theory of containment and co-existence because alternatives were
unimaginable
Permanent hotlien set up between White House and Kremlin set up
US and USSR negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty; both leaders didn't lose
face
TWE did relate ions between the two camps begin to change in the period
1953-1955
How did Khrushchevs Peaceful Coexistence differ from previous Soviet
foreign policy?
What impact did the fall of Khrushchev have on the Cold War?
TWE did relations between the two camps begin to change in the
period 1953-1955
US Reaction
Dtente
IB Questions
Soviet reaction