Summer Internship

Report 2016
CBM Asset, Reliance Industries Limited

BY
Yash Saragiya
M.TECH Petroleum
Indian School Of Mines,
Dhanbad

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Yash Saragiya, student of M.Tech Petroleum

Engineering from Indian School Of Mines, Dhanbad has undergone a
training program in our organization from June 29, 2016 to July 15,
2016.
He has successfully completed his Training on CBM Operations in
Shahdol Assets, Reliance Industries Limited.

Mr. Dharmesh Tailong

Drilling and Completion, HOD Shahdol Assets, RIL
2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives us immense pleasure to acknowledge all those whose inspiration and wisdom helped
us in completing our summer internship. On behalf of our college we would like to extend
our gratitude towards Reliance Industries Limited for giving us an opportunity to pursue
our summer internship program in such a renowned organization.
First and foremost we would like to thank Mr. Dharmesh Tailong for considering our
candidature as summer interns. We are deeply indebted to Mr. Dharmesh Tailong whose help,
stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped us to complete our summer internship
successfully. We are also thankful to the entire HR team of RIL that facilitated our internship.
We take an opportunity to express our gratitude and sincere thanks to Mr S.K Singh, Site
Head, RIL CBM Projects, for providing excellent facilities to complete the training on CBM
Operations.
Also, we are very much thankful to Mr. Vinoth Kumaran , Mr. K.V Koundinya ,Mr.Daljeet
singh , Mr. Rushang patel , Mr .Kanwardir Bhusari, Mr Manoj Ghosh and all the RIL
employees for helping us in learning about the business flow and practicality of the activities
that we gained during the formal and informal conversations with them during the course of
our internship. We would also like to extend our sincere thanks to all the people who were
directly or indirectly involved in our internship for all their help, support interest and valuable
hints

INDEX
Introduction To CBM

Geology of Sohagpur Block

13

Perforation

15

Hydraulic Fracturing

38

Well Completion

52

INTRODUCTION TO CBM
CBM or Coal bed methane is a form of natural gas which remains adsorbed within the virgin coal
seam matrix. Coal bed methane is a gas formed as part of the geological process of coal generation,
and is contained in varying quantities within all coal. Coal bed methane is exceptionally pure
compared to conventional natural gas, containing only very small proportions of wet compounds
(e.g., heavier hydrocarbons such as ethane and butane) and other gases (e.g., hydrogen sulphide and
carbon dioxide). Coal bed gas is over 90 percent methane, and is suitable for introduction into a
commercial pipeline with little or no treatment. The amount of methane adsorbed within the matrix
basically depends on the amount of carbon content in the coal.

Figure 1 Formation of coal process

CBM is classified into three main categories:
Coal-mine methane (CMM)

Abandoned mine methane (AMM)

Virgin coal bed methane (VCBM)

Figure 2 Coal Bed Methane Well

Production of coal bed methane (CBM) in a short time has become an important industry, providing
an abundant, clean-burning fuel in an age when concerns about pollution and fuel shortages.
Consider that the use of CBM could fulfill national goals, such as the following:
Provide a clean-burning fuel.
Increase substantially the natural gas reserve base.
Improve safety of coal mining & provide a means to use an abundant coal resource that is often too
deep to mine
5

Figure 2.1- Typical CBM Wells

CBM RESOURSE
Methane has been traditionally extracted from coals to reduce mining hazards, but the gas was vented
to the atmosphere with large fans in the mines. Some methane was tapped from coal by vertical wells
earlier in the last century and the gas was used locally. For example, CBM was produced
commercially from the coal seam in south-eastern Kansas from 1920 into the Great Depression.
Low explosive limits of methane in the air have made it necessary to vent great volumes of the gas
from gassy coals of mines before working in the mines. It is estimated that a volume of 250 million
cubic feet per day (MMcf/D) of methane was vented from U.S. coal mines directly into the
atmosphere in the early 1980s. This increased to 300 MMcf/D in 1990. Venting has occurred in U.S.
coal mines since the 19th Century. The necessity of sweeping out the methane with large amounts of
air is apparent upon considering that explosive limits of methane in air are 515%, by volume.
The venting procedure as a contributor to the greenhouse effect has received mounting environmental
concerns. It is estimated that methane from all sources, not just coal, contributed 9% of the
detrimental effects of global warming during the year 2001, although the methane has a much shorter
longevity than carbon dioxide. About 10% of the methane going into the atmosphere can be attributed
to coal mines.
Development of the commercial CBM process is a positive step for the environment worldwide.
However, environmental effects of vented methane were not the driving force for developing the
CBM process. Rather, the initial incentive was to improve mine safety. As the process was improved,
it became apparent that a substantial commercial value existed either in pipeline sales or in supplying
on-site energy needs. This realization provided the final incentive for widespread development in
mines as well as in vertical boreholes not associated with mines
.

CBM vs. Conventional Reservoir

Drilling and production techniques of the oil and gas industry were employed initially to extract
methane from coal. However, significant differences in the coal bed reservoir properties, gas storage
mechanisms, the gas-transport phenomenon, resource decline, and water disposal have required
innovations and changes to the conventional procedures.
Gas Composition
Gas produced from coal beds may be initially higher in methane than the gas produced from
conventional reservoirs. Ethane and heavier, saturated hydrocarbons are more strongly adsorbed than
methane; consequently, they may not be as readily desorbed at first.
Adsorption
The mechanism by which hydrocarbon gases are stored in the coal reservoir contrasts with the
mechanism of gas storage in the conventional reservoir. Instead of occupying void spaces as a free gas
between sand grains, the methane is held to the solid surface of the coal by adsorption in numerous
micro pores. The inordinately large surface area within the micro pores and the close proximity of
methane molecules on the internal solid surfaces allow the surprisingly large volumes of gas to be
stored in the coal. Some free gas exists in the natural fractures of the coal and some methane dissolves
in the waters in the coal, but the bulk of the methane comes from the micro pores. The adsorption
mechanism creates the paradox of high gas storage in a reservoir rock of porosity less than 2.5%.
A clear illustration of the enormous surface area in the micro pores of the coal is that 1 lb of coal has a
surface area of 55 football fields, or 1 billion sq ft per ton of coal.
7

Facilitated by the removal of water, the adsorbed gases are released upon reduction of pressure in the
matrix of the coal.
Water Production
Another contrasting feature of CBM production is normally the prolific generation of formation
waters from natural fractures in the coal. These waters must be removed before methane can be
desorbed in the early production life of a well. The large volumes of water in the first year or two of
production decrease thereafter to relatively small volumes for the remaining life of the well, which
might be 20 years.

Figure 3 conventional vs CBM production profile

In contrast, conventional gas reservoirs would have the connate water of the pore spaces held
immobile, and water would not expected to be produced in volume with the gas until encroachment of
aquifer waters signalled an impending demise of gas production.
Initial costs can be high to dispose of large volumes of water early in the life of the CBM well, but the
costs decline rapidly thereafter. The water production rate will thereafter decline slowly to some low
steady-state value. The early cost of processing and disposing of large amounts of water, as well as the
environmental concerns of the disposal, are important factors that must be dealt with in the CBM
process.
Gas Flow
Contrasting with conventional reservoirs is the mechanism of gas flow through the formation to the
wellbore. For coals, an additional mechanism of gas diffusion through the micro pores of the coal
matrix is involved, where the mass transport depends upon a methane concentration gradient across
the micro pores as the driving force. Upon encountering a fracture or a cleat, the gas will flow
according to Darcys law as in a conventional reservoir where the mass transport depends upon a
pressure gradient.

Rock Physical Properties

Conventional oil and gas formations are inorganic. Organic formations contain CBM; these
formations may contain about 1030% inorganic ash. Coals of optimum rank for methane are brittle
and friable with low values of Youngs modulus and high Poissons ratio. The coal usually has low
permeability and depends on natural fractures to act as gas and liquid conduits. Without hydraulic
fracturing, these low-permeability coals are usually commercially non-productive. The permeability is
stress-dependent, so low values of permeability develop rapidly with depth in the absence of unusual
tectonic forces. Deep coals, or highly stressed coals, may exhibit a permeability of less than 0.1 md,
such as in some areas of the Piceance basin. Coals of permeability this low will not accommodate
economical methane flow rates, even with hydraulic fracturing.

Gas Content
Current state-of-the-art logging techniques cannot determine whether coals contain methane gas. The
coal can be located by logs with the assurance that at some geologic time, gas saturated it, for it is a
source rock as well as a reservoir rock. However, the gas may have been desorbed and lost either to
the atmosphere or to adjacent porous sandstone.
Unfortunately, gas adsorbed on the coal cannot be detected on geophysical logs as in a conventional
reservoir, and the gas amount must be determined by volumetric calculations based on coring data.
Gas content of coals may increase with depth as do conventional gas reservoirs, but in contrast, the
content increases because of the positive influence of pressure on adsorptive capacity rather than the
compressibility of the gas. However, gas content is dependent on more variables than depth. The
amount of adsorbed gas also depends on ash content, rank of coal, burial history, chemical makeup of
the coal, temperature, and gas lost over geologic time.
Coal Rank
As mentioned in the previous section, gas content depends on the coals rank, a measure of the quality
and thermal maturity of the organic matter. Mechanical properties of the coal also depend on rank.
Table 1presents the ranks given to coals as specified in Standard D388-88 in the annual book of
standards for the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Coal passes through four
classes in its maturation: lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous, and anthracite. Further sub-grouping
expands the listing to 13 groups

Table 1 ASTM Coal Rank

Figure 4 Ranks of Coal

10

CBM Production - Worldwide interest

At the moment, almost all of the worlds 7.6 bcm/y production of coal bed methane comes
from the US, where reserves of coal bed methane are conservatively estimated at a third of
natural gas reserves. Drilling is concentrated in two areas, Alabamas Black warrior, where
the coal seams are particularly gas-rich; and New Mexicos San Juan basin, which is tied into
the natural gas grid.
Australia is likely to be the next producer of commercial quantities of methane; a couple of
pilot projects in Queensland and New South Wales are already well advanced. However, one
drawback in such a huge but sparsely populated territory is finding a market for the gas.
China, the worlds largest coal producer, is sitting on more than 700 tcf of coal bed methane.
The country already has a fairly widespread system of methane drainage and capture, to keep
its rather gassy mine safe enough to work in. But although 60% of drained methane is
utilized, most of it is too dilute to be used in anything other than localpower plants or factory
sites.
The smaller coal producers of the world are doing their bit for coal bed methane too.
However, the mature industries and crowded territories of most of them will keep
developments modest. Interest around the world is quickening, and world coal bed methane
output is on the fast track.

Coal bed potential of India

India is among the top ten countries in coal resources, having an estimated coal reserve of
160 million metric tons, with an estimated methane resource of 850 BCM. The Indian coal is
mainly confined to the Permian Gondwana basins and thetertiaries. Tertiary coals are
widespread in Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Tertiary coals are generally found to be lignitic to sub-bituminous in rank and are generally
considered to be unsuitable for coalbed methane target. However, tertiary coals in
petroliferous basins of Cambay, Upper Assam and AssamArakan may be prospective due to
reported higher gas content, which is probably stored in the coal after generation from
deeper-lying hydrocarbon source beds or may be of biogenic origin. Methane emission
studies from working mines of India reported most of the degree three gassy mines (> 10
cubic m/ton), are confined in the four Damodar Valley coal fields, viz. Raniganj, Jharia,
Bokaro and North Karanpura in Bihar and West Bengal. In these areas, the thickest
bituminous coals are extensively developed in the Barakar measurers and in Raniganj
measures of Lower and Upper Permian age, respectively. The Barakar coal seams are
superior to Raniganj coal seams as coalbed methane targets. Based on thickness and burial
depth, rank and quality of coal has the greatest coalbed methane potential in India.

11

Coalbed Methane Indian and Global Scenario Global

The largest CBM resource bases lie in the former Soviet Union, Canada, China, Australia and
the United States. However, much of the worlds CBM recovery potential remains untapped.
In 2006 it was estimated that of global resources totalling 143 trillion cubic meters, only 1
trillion cubic meters was actually recovered from reserves. This is due to a lack of incentive
in some countries to fully exploit the resource base , particularly in parts of the former Soviet
Union where conventional natural gas is abundant The United States has demonstrated a
strong drive to utilize its resource base. Exploitation in Canada has been somewhat slower
than in the US, but is expected to increase with the development of new exploration and
extraction technologies. The global CBM activities are shown in Fig.5. The potential for
supplementing significant proportions of natural gas supply with CBM is also growing in
China, where demand for natural gas was set to outstrip domestic production by 2010

Fig 5- shows CBM production activity in Tcf around globe, 2008

India: India is potentially rich in CBM. The major coal fields and CBM blocks in Indian are
shown in Fig (8). The Directorate General of Hydrocarbons of India estimates that deposits
in major coal fields (in twelve states of India covering an area of 35,400 km2) contain
approximately 4.6 TCM of CBM. Coal in these basins ranges from high volatile to lowvolatile bituminous with high ash content (10 to 40 percent), and its gas content is between 316 m3/ton (Singh, 2002) depending on the rank of the coal, depth of burial, and geotectonic
settings of the basins as estimated by the CMPDI. In the Jharia Coalfield which is considered
to be the most prospective area, the gas content is estimated to be between 7.3 and 23.8 m3
12

per ton of coal within the depth range of 150m to 1200 m. Analysis indicates every 100-m increase in
depth is associated with a 1.3 m3 increase of methane content .
In India, commercial CBM production is yet to be started in full pace. Few E&P companies like
ONGC Ltd., GEECL and Essar Oil have started production, but field development is yet to be
completed.
In order to harness CBM potential in the country, Government of India formulated a CBM Policy in
1997. The CBM policy provided for attractive fiscal and contract terms, which are considered one of
the best in the world. The successful bidder would be required to enter into a Production Sharing
Contract (PSC) with Government of India (GOI). There is scope for negotiation within the parameters
laid down in the Model Contract.

Figure 6 - shows major coal fields and CBM blocks in India,2010

13

GEOLOGY OF SOHAGPUR BLOCK

The Sohagpur Block is divided into two licence blocks as shown

Figure 7 Sohagpur East & Sohagpur West

Two blocks offered under CBM Round-I in the central part of Sohagpur coalfield proved to be major
productive CBM plays. The offered blocks show the development of gassy seams in Barakar
Formation, with good thickness, excellent permeability and other favourable reservoir parameters for
sustained commercial production of CBM. Based on an in-depth study of these parameters, it is
possible to carve out a CBM block in the north-eastern part of the coalfield adjacent to SP(E)-CBM
2001/I block. The block shows exposures of younger Pali & Parsora and dolerite intrusive where the
coal seams are likely to occur at 600-1200 m depth. Five regional seams viz seam V (0.5 11.0 m),
seam III (1.5 3.0 m) and three other thinner seams are developed in Barakar Formation of
Gondwana sequence. The cumulative coal thickness is 5.0-15.0 m. The coals are likely to attain high
rank of Highly Volatile Bituminous A to B category. In the adjacent area, the seams in general
show excellent permeability.

14

The generalized stratigraphic and lithological section in Sohagpur CBM blocks

Barakar is further divided into:

5 main coal seams ( V , IV , III , II , I )
Different local coal seams ( L-1 , L-2 , L-D , L-E )

15

PERFORATION
KEY PERFORATION TERMS
1 .ORDER
This term is used to categorize the firing of the explosive/charge. A low order firing means that the
explosive fails to achieve maximum energy potential leading to no or ineffective perforations. This
process, which is also known as burning, is usually caused by variations in temperature and poor
detonating cord conditions.
2. DETONATION CORD
This cord is connected to the secondary explosive which transmits energy to the charges for their
detonation/initiation.
3. PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE
These explosives are use to initiate or detonate the explosive sequence. They are located in the
detonators and some booster devices. They are usually detonated by heat, provided by electrical
power or impact-pressure driven firing gun.
4. SECONDARY EXPLOSIVES
These explosives are high order explosives; i.e., they are harder to initiate and are much less sensitive
than primary explosive. Generally a secondary explosive is detonated either by a primary explosive or
by electrically generated shock.
5. INFLOW PERFORMANCE CURVE
This describes the relationship between the production flow rate and the drawdown pressure between
the average reservoir pressure and the atmospheric pressure.
6 .PRODUCTIVITY INDEX
The productivity index is the slope of the IPR curve; i.e.,

Where Pr = average reservoir pressure, psia

Pwf= bottomhole flowing pressure, psia
q = flow rate, STB/ day
7. PERFORATION FLOW EFFICIENCY
Also known as productivity ratio, this is the measure of the flow rate through a perforated hole as
compared to the ideal flow rate through the perforated hole of the same length and diameter. Normally
good perforations have around 80% perforation flow efficiency.

16

8. SHAPED
In these charges compressed metal powder in a case (cone) is surrounded by a secondary explosive
which is initiated by a detonating cord, penetrating all the way from casing and cement sheath to the
formation
.
9. PHASING
This term in petroleum industry is used to describe the angle between the charges. Common phasing
are 0, 180, 120, 90 and 60 with varying linear distance between the charges along the gun body.
10. SHOT DENSITY
This is the measure of the perforations made per unit length of the gun. It is given by shots per meter
or foot (spm/spf). Common shot densities are 4-12 spf (13-39 spm). The density usually depends upon
the production requirements and formation characteristics
11 .WIRELINE OPERATIONS
In these operations wire cables are used to lower down the equipment or devices into the well for
measuring different reservoir characteristics and also during various workovers or maintenance jobs.
PERFORATING METHODS
BULLET GUNS
A bullet is fired at a velocity of around 900 m/s from the barrel into the formation, giving an accurate
hole with rough internal surface and shattering the surrounding rocks, which helps in increasing its
permeability next to the perforation. The energy of the bullet is directly proportional to its mass and
the amount of propellant. The length of the perforation is the function of the formation strength and
pipe thickness. For chalks observed lengths are observed as 15 in., while for dolomites it is around 2-3
in. In order to increase the permeability throughout the area of interest, a large number of bullet
perforators are made, which are later sealed by ball sealers, quickly and efficiently sealing the
increased bullet perforations.
Although bullet perforating is favorable for its high permeability around the tunnels with accurate
hole size and shape, they are limited to soft formations and are ineffective for hard formations and
heavy or alloy pipe, where they have shallow penetration and the fired steel bullet also stays in the
tunnel with the debris
SHAPED CHARGE
Among the many improvements in perforation methods, shaped charges proved to be the most
optimal method for creating perforations. In this method, perforations are generated within
microseconds, using a small amount of high explosives along with a liner in the form of a jet. The aim
of these charges, which are also known as deep penetrating charges, is to generate the maximum
perforation length. This is achieved by the relatively tight conical geometry of the shaped charge, as
shown in the figure below. These charges consist of a primer, case, high explosive, and a conical liner.
This whole assembly is linked to a detonating cord.

17

Figure 8- carrier gun with its parts

Figure 9 shaped charge , charge detonation & explosive cavity effects

18

Figure 10 formation & shaped charge before and after detonation

Figure 11 formation after and before perforation

19

Figure 12 gun clearance with casing

Shaped charge perforation

Big hole vs deep penetration charges
Normally shaped charges are design to increase the perforation length within consolidated formations;
however, for reservoirs prone to sand production or gravel packing application, big hole shaped
charges are used with high shot density to increase the efficiency of the sand control process. This
charge consists of a hemispherical shaped liner that produces a slow moving jet generating a large
perforation diameter. The annular gap between the internal casing diameter and the gun diameter
should be enough so that proper development of the jet takes place, leading to successful firing.
Therefore, gun centralization is recommended for the application of these charges. According to
studies, by increasing perforation diameter above 0.25 in. there is a very small increase in the
productivity. Because of that the performance of shaped charges are usually based on the degree of
perforation length; usually deep penetrating shaped charges are preferred.

Figure 13 -Big Hole Vs Deep Penetrating Charge (Courtesy, Halliburton

20

Lubricator or Riser Section

Equipment Configuration.
The lubricator or riser section is used to allow the full wireline tool string to be raised above the
wellhead before and after the operations. The length of lubricator required is proportionate to the
length of the wireline tool string.
Control heads
Control Heads are the uppermost point of the lubricator string, where the wireline enters the lubricator
system. Well pressure is controlled with packing, pack-off rubbers, grease injection or a combination
of all
Depth Correlation
cased hole gamma ray / casing collar locator log are run for correlation purposes to assist in
perforating depth control. Short joints of casing are sometimes run to assist in the
correlation. The distance from the top shot of the gun to the casing collar locator is measured before
running the perforating system in the well to ensure the perforations are placed where they were
intended.

Figure 14 typical wireline conveyed perforating hook-up

21

Figure 15 -Wireline Pressure Control

EXPLOSIVE SELECTION
The main explosive used for perforation is in the shaped charge, which is the secondary explosive
linked to the detonating cord. They are difficult to initiate and are usually excited by a primary
explosive with the help of an electrical source. The mass of the explosive depends upon the type of
guns and size of the charge shape; normally they vary from 20 gm - 50 gm. Research Department
Composition X (RDX) is a commonly used explosive for perforation purposes For higher temperature
conditions, with the increase in molecular weight of RDX, Higher Molecular Weight RDX, usually
known as HMX, is used. Different combinations of explosives can be used as penetration decreases
with high temperature conditions. A combination of HNS (Hexantristilbene) and TATB
(Triaminotrinitrobenzene) is used for better penetration with high temperature stability. Since
downhole temperature plays an important part in the selection of explosives, Economides et al. 1998a
experimentally deduced the curves shown below, representing temperature limits for explosives used
during perforation process.

22

Figure 16 - Temperature Stability of Perforating Explosives (Courtesy, M.J. Economides, L.T.

Watters, and S. Dunn-Norman)
Working within these limits will lead to optimal detonation, while beyond that will lead to the
reduction in explosion power (low-order detonation), causing burning or auto detonation. Therefore,
the choice of explosives also depends upon the type of gun deployment strategy applied, varying in
downhole time intervals. Allowance should be given for any unexpected downtime in operations in
order to avoid the failure of explosive.
RDX is the most commonly used explosives for shaped charges (up to 300 oF).
In deep wells when extreme temperature is required & where the guns are exposed to well
temperatures for longer periods of time HMX, PS, HNS or PYX is used

23

Perforating Guns

Most perforating guns punch holes from 0.23 to 0.72 in diameter.

Typical perf guns have penetrations of 6 up to 48 in length.
Most perforating guns shoot from 4 to 12 shots per foot.
Perf guns come in different pressure and temperature ratings.

Figure 16 Perforation Geometry

Perforating Gun Component

The Perforating Gun has four components
A conveyance for the shaped charge
The individual shaped charge
Detonating cord
Detonator

Figure 17 Perforating Gun Components

CONVEYANCE METHOD AND TYPES OF GUN SYSTEMS

24

There are many types of perforating guns used in todays oil and gas industry. By the enhancement
and advancement in technology, various types of perforating guns have been introduced to be used in
different wellbore conditions. However, the primary function of the perforating guns is the same since
its advent in the oil and gas industry; i.e., to create perforation tunnels with minimum debris and
formation damage, to improve the productivity of the well

TUBING CONVEYED PERFORATION (TCP)

In early 1980s this conveyance method of running guns with the tubing was introduced for low
permeability gas reservoirs, and by the impressive results it began to be used extensively. This method
is mostly used for large diameter guns, high underbalanced perforation, and high deviated horizontal
applications. Because of its flexibility and cost effective working technique, saving rig time by
perforating long intervals in one single trip and application of various combinations of gun diameter,
length, and shot density, this method is becoming common throughout the world.

Figure 18 - TCP Gun String Positioned Downhole (Michael K. Robson, SPE-19109, 1990)

ADVANTAGES OF TCP
It allows saves rig time by perforating widely spaced number of interval in one single trip
rather than making multiple trips by wireline.

25

With the help of DST tools just above the guns, the well is tested just after perforating by
temporary flowing it into a valve to evaluate reservoir characteristics and identify extent of
wellbore damage (Michael, 1990).

Ease of achieving controlled underbalance conditions during perforating which helps in

cleaning the perforation

Long time intervals around wellbore surroundings are possible as compared to wireline. It
can stay longer than wireline through tubing, usually 12-48 hours (Bell, 1984).

WIRELINE THROUGH TUBING PERFORATION

This method uses small diameter guns run through the production tubing down the casing to
perforate the required interval as shown in Figure 19, while avoiding the need to pull the tubing
out for wells with existing perforations. It is also held magnetically against the wall of the casing
to support the small diameter gun, which may misfire due to the impact caused during the
detonation.

Figure 19 - Wireline Through Tubing Arrangement

Without the magnetic option the gun assembly is positioned in the centre with a minimum
hydrostatic pressure applied for support and also to prevent swelling during firing; for liquid
it is 0-500 Psi (3.5 MPa) and for gas it is 500-4500 Psi (3.531. MPa). It is preferred for short
26

intervals in one run, as in long intervals pressure differential is difficult to maintain during
more than one gun run, especially in wells with lower reservoir pressure. However, it can be
used for long intervals with the condition of perforating first zones with low permeability and
then the zones with high permeability; if not, the pressure coming from the high permeability
zone will disturb the low permeability zone, affecting its cleanup and increasing formation
damage.
Exposed guns are usually used with a through tubing technique. However, the selection of the
gun is based upon the gun phasing, formation characteristics, wellhead pressure, casing
condition and degree of wellbore damage expected. In through tubing, selection of the gun is
linked with the perforation depth and phasing of the guns. According to Bell (1984) guns
phased at 0 magnetically positioned against the casing internal diameter (ID) gives much
higher penetration length than the gun phased 90 at the same position (Fig. 20). The reason is
due to the high clearance/distance between the perforations and the distance of the gun from
the casing ID, giving short perforation lengths and production performance, as compared to
the perforations generated with 0 phasing.

Figure 20 - Difference between Perforation lengths with 0 and 90 Phasing via Through
Tubing (Bell, 1984)
Small tube size also leads to the use of small size charges, which affects the productivity.
Since no tubing is run out, especially during any remedial or maintenance operation, which
saves the cost for well killing, it is the most economical technique to be used. Through tubing
is preferred for underbalance perforation as compared to overbalance perforating due to
higher production results (Bell, 1984). However, due to the use of exposed guns, which are
exposed to the wellbore environment, a high degree of debris and casing damage is expected.
Similarly, with unconsolidated formations the application of 0 phasing with high shot density
may cause wellbore collapse or sticking of the gun.
WIRELINE THROUGH CASING PERFORATING

27

In this technique large diameter guns are run through casing. Reservoirs with low
pressure usually require deep penetrations, which cannot be achieved with through tubing
small diameter guns. Therefore, large diameter multiphased guns are run directly through
casing giving high penetration lengths. Figure 22 also shows the range of penetration
lengths for casing conveyed perforation, which are significantly higher than tubing
conveyed perforation. For this approach exposed guns are usually
preferred, with diameter from 3.75 4 in.

Figure 21 - Through Casing Perforating Arrangement (Cosad, 1992)

28

Figure 22- Exposed Gun Performance Parameters with respect to different Conveyance
Methods (Bell, 1984)
As the pressure conditions for underbalance or overbalance are obtained, the guns are fired
and recovered back as the reservoir fluid flow into the casing. The pressure is maintained with
the surface equipment while the tubing with the packer is run down.

TYPES OF GUNS
There are two main categories for the guns used for perforation: Hollow
Carrier and Exposed Guns. Depending upon the reservoir conditions and
production requirements, these guns can be used in both tubing conveyed
perforation, as well as in wireline perforation, which consist of through tubing
and through casing operations.
HOLLOW CARRIER GUNS
These guns have shaped charges positioned in pressure tight steel tubes, as
shown in Figure 23 This tube/carrier contains most of the debris from the
charge after detonation.
They are usually available for almost all tubing and casing sizes, from small
sizes able to pass through tubing to larger sizes when run through casing by

29

work strings or tubing. They can be retained up to the surface or dropped

down into the wellbore once the gun fires

Figure 23 - Hollow Carrier Gun (Bellarby, 2009)

George, 2009 stated that the energy generated during firing causes an expansion in the gun. This
expansion also known as swelling is the function of parameters like gun wall thickness, shot density,
gun phasing, charge size, and wellbore pressure. It ranges from 10% diameter growth in small
diameter guns, while 1% diameter growth occurs in large guns at high pressure (Fig 24)

Figure 24 - Swelling of the Gun in a low Pressure Test (King, 2007

30

Hollow carrier guns are further divided into four categories:

SCALLOP GUNS: The name is because the carrier contains a thin-walled, dished-out area (Fig. 25)
through which guns are fired, and the debris is collected in the carrier. They are usually conveyed
through wireline through tubing and where minimum debris is obtained (Cosad, 1992)

Figure 25 - Loading Scallop Guns into the Carrier (Courtesy, Thomas, 2009 )
PORT PLUG GUNS: These are the guns which shoot the charges through replaceable plugs in a
reusable carrier. It has also the feature of perforating two intervals at a time with the help of a
selective intermediate adaptor, which is remotely operated (Figure 26). They are usually wireline
conveyed and are used for deep penetrations with 4spf shot density.

31

Figure 26 - 3.5-in Port Plug Gun (Courtesy, Schlumberger)

HIGH SHOT DENSITY (HSD) GUNS: This gun is usually used in sand control completions using
high shot density with charges generating large perforation diameters. They can be run down by any
means, i.e., wireline or tubing, but usually TCP is considered, allowing long interval perforation in
one run.
HIGH EFFICIENCY GUN SYSTEM (HEGS): This system, usually conveyed through wireline, is
similar to port plug guns, with the only difference of having longer length carriers which are faster to
load and run. Different standards have been set by various manufacturers, but normally guns which
have more than 4 spf fall in this category. With the increase in shot density, other parameters are also
affected, like phasing and distribution of perforations. They are available with diameters of 31/8- in.
and 4-in.
EXPOSED GUNS
These guns have charges encapsulated individually and are run down via strip/wireline in the tubing.
During the running, the gun assembly is exposed to wellbore environment, and after firing all the
debris is left into the wellbore. They are usually preferred with through tubing technique and are
divided into two types:
EXPENDABLE: In these guns the charges are linked together with a common detonating cord and
without any carrier; large charges can be used for a given tubing or casing. Therefore, maximum
intensity of the explosion can be utilized giving high penetration lengths, around 1.1-1.4 times deeper
than retrievable guns (Bell, 1984). Since they are without any carrier, these guns give much higher
performance in small diameters than hollow carrier guns. Upon firing all the charge, debris, including
the gun assembly, is left in the wellbore. This may cause plugging of the tubing leading to a
maintenance job. Furthermore, due to high exposure the explosive can cause casing deformation.
RETRIEVABLE: These steel guns are almost the same as expandable guns, except that after
detonation the mounting is recovered. They are debris free, more rugged, reliable, and have high
pressure-temperature ratings because the charges are exposed to the wellbore environment.

Figure 27- Types of Exposed Guns (Bell, 1984)

32

GUIDELINES IN SELECTING PERFORATING STRATEGY

Perforation plays an important role in achieving maximum/optimal productivity. Therefore, it is very
important to select the best perforation strategy suited to the reservoir and the completion. Many
factors, such as reservoir parameters, wellbore conditions, gun arrangement, and its systems, are
considered for this job. Also this selection not only affects the well productivity, but also the
economics for the proposed perforating job. The following are some of the important factors which
are considered for successful perforation operation.
DEPTH OF PENETRATION
One of the factors considered for selecting a gun is the length of the perforation tunnel, whether it
reaches beyond the damaged zone and connects with the existing fractures. This also depends upon
the type of charges in the gun and the formation compressive strength.

Figure 28 - Effect of formation Compressive Strength on perforation lengths (Courtesy, King, 2006)
The deeper the perforation length, the greater will be the wellbore effective radius. Penetration length
not only depends upon the formation strength, but also on the charge type and stresses due to
overburden pressure and pore pressure..
Different companies today are using various computer programs for penetration length and
productivity prediction during real time conditions. These programs are based on various parameters
such as wellbore conditions, gun size, charge type, rock material strength, extent of damage around
the perforted tunnel, reservoir characteristics etc. One of them is SPAN (Schlumberger Perforating
Analyzer Program) which has been used by Schlumberger for the past ten years. This program
consists of a penetrating module and a productivity calculation module (Schlumberger, 1997). The
penetration module calculates the perforation length using the 1-dimensional hydrodynamic theory
(Allison and Vitalis, 1963), supported by experimental data. This theory is based on the assumption
33

that the jet and rock behave as a fluids if the penetration pressure exceeds the rock strength.
Penetration depth is dependent on the jet to target density ratio and its length. The density ratio
can be controlled by changing the liner material.
SHOT DENSITY
The number of shots made per unit length is a critical parameter for gun selection leading to a number
of perforation tunnels in the formation. It depends upon the degree of permeability anisotropy for the
reservoir, such as in the case of sandstone, where horizontal permeability is higher than vertical
permeability and increasing the number of perforation holes will intersect more productive intervals in
the reservoir. However, due to the high variation of permeability and porosity, such as in shale
formations, increase in shot density may cause perforation tunnel collapse or high formation damage
around the tunnel. In Figure 29, perforation lengths at various shot densities are shown against the
productivity ratio. Productivity ratio is the measure of the flow rate through a perforated hole as
compared to the ideal flow rate through the perforated hole of the same length and diameter. It can be
seen that by increasing shot density productivity ratio also increases. Selection of optimum shot
densities are carried out through numerous simulations based on detailed log permeability data and
also past experience in case of formations with very low porosity or permeability. Due to these
formations the number of successful productive perforations is usually 50% of the total holes in the
gun carrier. Maximum shot capacity is possible with 16-27 spf (52-88 shots per meter).

Figure 29 - Effect of Shot Density on Productivity Ratio (Locke, 1980)

PHASING
The best way for the fluid to flow into the wellbore is usually controlled by the effective angle
between the shaped charges which is termed as Phasing. Factors like pipe and formation strength,
presence of natural fractures, and gun type are taken into account for choosing different phasing
angles, such as 0, 60, 90 or 120.

34

0 gun phasing is usually used with guns having small outer diameter or large casing diameters, in
which all the shots are aligned in a single row. It is better to align the gun to one side closest to the
casing wall so that the energy of the charges can be utilized efficiently in generating high penetration
depths; however, an increase in formation damage may occur. 0 phasing is not preferred with shot
densities higher than 6spf (King, 2007) in a single row as it may affect the casing yield strength
leading it to split or collapse.

Figure 30 - Common gun phasings used for perforation operations

On the other hand, phasing 60, 90, or 120 are more widely used because of their efficient results of
flow properties. They are preferred because they have the ability to perforate at different angles,
utilizing the surrounding reservoir body. They are usually used with guns having high outer diameter,
due to which centralization of the gun is not required.
Productivity is also affected by phasing. During one of the studies by Locke (1980) in improving the
productivity of wells, he discovered that, with the assumption of fixed perforation lengths and no
formation damage, of all the phasing, 90 has the highest productivity ratio (Fig. 31). However, in
actual conditions the value is approximated and still 90 has high productivity values than other
phasings.

Figure 31- Effect of Phasing on Productivity Ratio (Locke, 1980)

35

PERFORATION DIAMETER
Perforation diameter usually depends upon the type of shaped charge used by the gun. A deep
penetrating charge is usually used for high penetration lengths, while a big-hole charge is used for
large perforation diameter. High perforation diameter is usually required in stimulated completion or
in application of gravel packing. These are the post perforation treatments which are done to minimize
any left debris or damage in the tunnel, so that no flow impairment will be encountered during the
injection or the production of the fluids. Perforation diameter has a very marginal effect on the
productivity ratio in high turbulent flow wells; according to the study by Locke (1981), increasing the
perforation diameter above 0.25 in., gives a minute increase in the productivity ratio. He also
managed, by using Fanning Equation, to estimate the optimum perforation diameter by knowing the
expected flow rate (Fig-32)

Figure 32 - Estimation of Perforation Diameter from Flow rate (Lock, 1981)

SPECIAL CASES
Shot density and gun phasing are sometimes interdependent under special cases. Normally for
high permeability formations, high shot density and 60 phasing are considered, but it is not
preferred for low strength formations. Therefore a decision has to be taken between high flow
efficiency and formation stability. Thus in unconsolidated formations, shooting with low shot
density and high phasing will avoid sand production/wellbore collapse with few radially
distributed perforations. This way the distance between the adjacent perforation will be high
and overlapping of the damage zones for perforations tunnels can be avoided.

36

Similarly, perforation length and shot density are interdependent. With formations having
natural fractures, high penetration lengths are preferred over shot densities. Therefore deep
penetrating charges are used to achieve high penetrations leading to maximum intersection
with the fracture network. Since fractures are formed in a certain plane and increasing shot
density may reduces chances of not linking with the main fracture network (Cosad, 2006).

CONCLUSION

Extreme overbalance is also a useful choice for perforation, and, according to the field
examples discussed, it has played a critical role in the increment of production when
underbalance was not possible. However, it has some limitations, like the length of the
fracture before turning towards the preferred fracture plain, the number and their conductivity,
how long can they remain open, etc. These are the questions which are still under
investigation.

Significant increases can be seen in productivity by utilizing the test data and field experience
for the effective shot density and perforation length. Production is a function of shot density,
but it has a limit depending upon the casing rating and can be unsuccessful for intervals
having anisotropic permeability. Shot density is preferred over perforation diameter due to the
fact that increasing diameter gives very minute increase in the productivity. Perforation
length can be predicted nowadays by using special computer programs based on the lab tests
reducing time and cost.

During the selection of the perforation strategy, phasing is one of a key element for the
optimal flow rate production, which is selected depending upon the conveyance, formation
characteristics, and diameter of the casing & tubing. 90 degree phasing usually has the highest
effect in the increase.

Charge type also has a special role in successful perforation. By the selection of the efficient
explosion, conveyance method, and with the advancement in the completion technology, the
goal to have the optimal productivity can be achieved; however, the cost factor has to be
considered.

From the review it can be concluded that tubing conveyed perforation is much better than the
wireline because of its ease to perforate a long interval simultaneously in a single trip without
making multiple runs on a wireline, and at the same time with the use of drill Stem testing,
testing can be done on the spot for a long period of time

In order to achieve the objective of perfect perforation, one has to analyze and evaluate the
available reservoir data and design the job. Normally the common mistake encountered is to
bypass the above process and repeat the same thing that was considered in the last job. This
approach often works, but sometime it also leads to some significant failures. By taking both
the field data and operating experience under consideration, the operator will be able to apply
what was successful in the last job and prevent errors.

37

Figure 33 - Perforation Technique Selection Strategy by Schlumberger (Cosad, 1992)

38

HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
Hydraulic fracturing, commonly referred to as fracking, is the process of creating fissures, or
fractures, in underground formations to allow natural gas to flow. In Chesapeake Energy
Corporations (Chesapeakes) deep shale gas plays, water, sand and other additives are pumped under
high pressure into the formation to create fractures. The fluid is more than 99% water and sand, along
with a small amount of special-purpose additives. The newly created fractures are propped open by
the sand, which allows the natural gas to flow into the wellbore and be collected at the surface.
Normally a hydraulic fracturing operation is only performed once in the life of a well. Variables such
as rock formations and thickness of the targeted shale formation are studied by scientists before
hydraulic fracturing is conducted. The result is a highly sophisticated process that optimizes the
network of fractures and keeps them safely contained within the boundaries of the deep shale gas
formation.
The objectives of hydraulic fracturing are:
To bypass near wellbore damage and increase the conductivity of the formation.

To increase productivity index.

To increase recoverable reserves.

Fracturing Fluids
Selecting proper fracturing fluids is critical to a successful fracturing treatment. These fluids help
initiate the fracture in the formation, extend the fracture once it opens, and transport the proppant into
the fracture.
To select the best fracturing fluid for a well, we should consider these factors:
Fluid Viscosity
Formation Properties
Frictional Pressure
Fluid Loss Properties
Economics
Types of Fracturing Fluids
There are four types of water-based fluids:
Non-gelled Water
Linear Gel
Cross-linked Gel
Foam
Fracturing Fluid Additives:
Fluid additives are available to perform a wide range of functions. Some of the additives commonly
used in fracturing coalbed methane wells are described below:
Biocides
Biocides eliminate surface degradation of the polymers in the fluid tanks and stop the growth of
anaerobic bacteria in the formation.
Eg. Magnacide 575, xcide 102
39

Breakers
Breakers enable viscous fracturing fluids to be controllably degraded to a thin, low viscosity fluid.
The two types of breaker systems currently used are enzymes and catalysed oxidizers. It is very
important to select the appropriate breaker and breaker concentration.
Eg.GBW-5, Engyme-G
Buffers
Buffers control the pH of the fracturing fluid for the cross linker and breaker systems and also
accelerate or slow down the hydration of certain polymers.
Eg. Low pH buffer: BF-3, BF-10L
High pH buffer: BF-7, BF-7L
Clay Stabilizers
Clay stabilizers prevent excessive swelling of clays and reduce the migration of fines. Commonly
used clay stabilizers include potassium chloride, calcium chloride, ammonium chloride, and salt
substitutes.
Eg.CaCl2, Nacl
Foam Stabilizers
Foam stabilizers help maintain the properties of foam fluids. Most foam stabilizers are polymers.
Foams without stabilizers generally have a half-life of 3-4 minutes. By adding stabilizers, we can
increase the half-life of foam to 20-30 minutes.
Eg. Crosslinking additives
Friction Reducers
Friction reducers suppress fluid turbulence and thus reduce the frictional pressure associated with
high injection rates. Eg. Gas flow-20
Fluid loss control
Fluid loss control additives can be used for two main reasons; firstly, to lower a very high matrix leak
off rate; and secondly, to prevent fluid loss down natural fractures.
Eg. Silica flour, 100 mash sand
Proppant
Proppant are used to hold the walls of the fracture apart to create a conductive path to the well bore
after pumping has stopped and the fracturing fluid has leaked off. Placing the appropriate
concentration and type of proppant in the fracture is critical to the success of the hydraulic treatment.
Factors affecting the fracture conductivity are:
Proppant composition
Physical properties of Proppant
Proppant-pack permeability
Effects of post closure polymer concentration in the fracture
Movement of formation fines in the fracture
Long-term degradation of Proppant
The physical properties of proppants that have an impact on fracture conductivity are:
Proppant strength
Grain size and grain size distribution
Quantities of fines and impuritiesRoundness and sphericity
Proppant density

40

To open and propagate a hydraulic fracture, the in-situ stresses must be overcome. After the well is
put on production, stress acts to close the fracture and confine the proppant. If the proppant strength is
inadequate, the closure stress crushes the proppant, creating fines that reduce the permeability and
conductivity of proppant pack. Proppants can be produced can be produced from a variety of
materials and in a variety of size ranges to meet the conductivity requirements of the fracture design.
Selection of proppant:
The following general guidelines may be used to select proppants based on strength and cost:
Natural sand closure stresses less than 6000psi
Resin - coated proppant (RCP) closure stress is less than 8000psi
Intermediate strength proppant (ISP) closure stress >5000psi <10000psi
High strength proppant closure stress is at or greater than 10000psi
Proppant type and size should be determined by comparing economic benefits vs. cost. Proppants
with larger grain sizes provide a more permeable pack because permeability increases as the square of
the grain diameter; however, their use must be evaluated in relation to the formation that is propped
and the increased difficulties that occur in proppant transport and placement. Dirty formations, are
those subject to significant fines migration, are poor candidates for large proppants. The fines tend to
invade the proppant pack, causing partial plugging and a rapid reduction in permeability. In these
cases, smaller proppants which resist the invasion of fines are more suitable.
Three ways to increase the fracture conductivity are:
1. Increase the proppant concentration to produce a wider fracture.
2. Use larger proppant size produces a more permeable fracture.
3. Change the proppant type to gain more strength.

Figure 34 Equipments Used For HF Job

41

Figure 35 HF field setup

Figure 36 Typical HF Process Requirement

42

FRACTURING STAGES
A fracturing job consists of following stages:
1. Spearhead - When the formations are difficult to breakdown, spearhead is pumped to reduce
formation breakdown pressure. In this stage, typically 5 - 10 bbl of HCl acid is pumped
ahead of pad-half the volume at matrix acidization rates and the remaining at higher rates.
2. Pad: Pad stage breaks down of perforations and initiates fracture of required width for
proppant. Proper volumes of fluids are required to be pumped since small pads may not
develop sufficient width for proppant thereby potentially causing screen-outs. Excessive pad
may delay closure for a significant period of time, allowing proppant convection out of zone.
The pumping rates must exceed formation leak- off limits in order to propagate the fracture.
Typically, a rate of 15-25 bbl/min is used and some cases may require higher or lower rates
3. Proppant Stages: Follow the pad in which fracturing fluid mixed with proppant is pumped
into the formation to generate length and width of the fracture. Initially proppant slurry of low
concentration is pumped since perforations and formation near well bore may not accept
higher concentrations of proppant early in the treatment if the wedge is not large enough. The
proppant concentration is gradually increased in steps of 1 to 2 ppg once the perforations and
formation near well bore are eroded.
4. Flush: In this stage, clean fluid is pumped to displace the proppant to within a short distance
of the perforation and remove it from the well bore. Often low friction, economical fluid is
used.

43

Bottom Hole Frac Pressure

Figure 37 various pressure in wellbore

Bottomhole Frac Pressure = Surface Pressure + Hydrostatic Friction Term
Pf = Pw + Ph - Ptf - Ppf
Fracture gradient (FG)
FG = (Pw + Ph - Ptf - Ppf )/D

44

Different flow path to perform fracture

(1) Fracture down tubing with packer

Figure 38 fracture down tubing with packer

Why?
Integrity of casing
Higher burst rating,
2 7/8, 6.5ppf, N-80 Pburst= 10,570 psi
5 , 15.5ppf, J-55 Pburst = 5,320 psi
Disadvantage:
Higher frictional effects important in
surface injection pressures and allowable
rates
Considerations: burst of tubing, force and length changes on packer and tubing.
(2) Fracture down casing
Why?
Allows higher injection rates (>25 bpm) at lower surface injection pressures
Disadvantage:
burst rating of casing, integrity
Considerations: burst of casing at breakdown and screenout

45

Figure 39 fracture down casing

(3) Fracture treatment with live annulus (*Preferred)

How?
Pump through tubing, monitor bottomhole
pressure through annulus
Annulus full of fluid of known density
Measure surface annulus pressure
Considerations:
Burst of tubing

46

Hydrostatic pressure

Figure 40 various pressure in wellbore

Fundamental equation

However in field units

Where h is TVD in ft and f is fluid/slurry density

Calculate density from

47

Perforation friction pressure

Important in fracture design and pressure analysis
Semi-empirical model based on similarity to orifice equation
f(flow rate, slurry density, perforation density and number)

Fracture diagnostics
48

Objective:
Powerful tool to1. Determine behaviour of fracture propagation
2. Provide parameters for the design of future treatments
Definitions
Fracture initiation Wellbore pressure must exceed the minimum stress at the borehole and
the tensile strength of the rock
Fracture orientation Fracture propagates in a plane perpendicular to the minimum
horizontal stress
Fracture closure pressure Pressure to hold a fracture open, Pc Hmin
Fracture propagation pressure Pressure in the fracture near the wellbore to continue
extension of the fracture
Net fracture pressure Pressure in fracture in excess of fracture closure pressure

Figure 41- pressure vs time for fracturing process

Log-log plot of net frac pressure vs time reveals fracture geometry and modes of propagation

49

Figure 42- log net fracturing pressure vs. log time plot
Type I: Increasing net pressure as the fracture propagates in the formation; Confined height
Type II: Constant pressure plateau can result from unstable growth or fluid loss or initiation of
a T-shaped fracture as Pw > Poverburden; i.e., horizontal fracture occurs at shallow depths

Figure 43 Type II
Type III: Fracture growth ceasescontinued injection increases width of fracture and
pressure, i.e, balloon effect. Fracture pressure exceeds the natural fracture formation stress,
thus opening the fissures Subsequent fluid loss accelerates dehydration and screenout.
Dehydration or proppant slurry bridging can result in screenout. If slope = 1 restricted
fracture extension at tip. Remedy with larger pad. If slope > 1 restriction within fracture from
excessive slurry dehydration -screenout.

50

Figure 44 - Type III Growth Retriction

Type IV: During fracturing, if a barrier is crossed and encounters a lower stress zone, then
pf > szone and accelerated growth will occur.

Figure 45 - Type IV Unstable Height

Problems while hydraulic fracturing:
1) Tortuosity
Under the influence of the complex stresses around the wellbore and perforations, fractures can join
together, sometimes giving several narrow paths towards a single, large fracture. So the treating fluid
has to travel from a region containing a large number of small fractures to a region containing a small
number of large fractures. In doing so, the fluid has to move through a series of convoluted, narrow
fractures or put another way, through a tortuous path. This tortuosity can produce a significant loss
in pressure, resulting in a smaller than expected fracture and possible early screenouts. This causes the
proppant to bridge off, preventing any further flow of proppant. Deviated Wellbores and formations
with hard rocks tend to be more susceptible to tortuosity.
51

CURE:
By pumping proppant slugs using smaller sand proppants.
2) Proppant Convection and Settling
Proppant Convection is caused by variation in slurry density, and can lead to the majority of the
proppant being placed in the bottom of the fracture. When fracturing lower permeability formations,
proppant convection can cause significant problems.
CURE:
The way to prevent this is to use long proppant stages mixed at the same concentration. Once in the
formation, slurries will dehydrate with time due to leakoff - increasing the density of the slurry - so it
may be necessary to gradually increase the proppant concentration at the blender as the treatment
progressesCauses of proppant flowback are listed below:Stress Cycling: Every time the well is drawn down, the closure stress on the proppant increases, as the
reservoir pressure in the fracture is effectively reduced. When the well is shut in, the pressure builds
up again and the closure pressure is reduced.. If the stress is cycled enough times or too suddenly
the pack will literally break apart, allowing proppant to flow back into the wellbore
Weak Formations: Obviously, if the formation holding the proppant in place falls apart, then the
proppant will flow back
3)Insufficient Fracture Conductivity: If the propped fracture has insufficient conductivity, especially
in the near wellbore area, then the higher velocity of the produced fluids, coupled with the increased
pressure gradient along the plane of the fracture, will result in an increased net force acting to push
individual proppant grains out if the fracture.
Poor Quality Frac Fluid: If the frac fluid does not have sufficient viscosity to keep the proppant
suspended until the fracture closes, then the proppant will settle into the bottom part of the fracture.
As the well is produced, fluid flows rapidly across the top of the proppant pack, through the void
space, as this is the path of least resistance. As it does so, it picks up proppant grains and can carry
these out of the fracture.
CURE:
Resin Coated Proppant: Resin Coated Proppant (RCP) is simply proppant which has been coated with
a layer designed to make the proppant grains stick together.
Micro-Fibers: These fibers, if used in sufficient quantity, will form a three dimensional mesh within
the proppant pack, acting to prevent individual grains slipping past one another.
Deformable Particles: These particles, mixed at 10 to 15% by weight with the proppant, will deform
to a limited extent around the proppant as the fracture closes. This acts to lock the proppant grains
together and reduce the tendency for them to slide past each other

WELL COMPLETION
Completion operations:
Sand Cleaning
52

Milling of Balls & Baffle Plate

Clean Sand till Target Depth

Scrapper run

Pump Installation

Sand Cleaning
Sand flow back in CBM wells is very common. Sand removal is required frequently for effective
working of PCP pumps. Sand is cleaned till the upper ball and baffle plate assembly. There applicable,
two method of sand removal are sand bailer and flow back of sand. In sand bailer, sands are suck by
piston assembly in pipes using ball valve flapper assembly. Continuous removal of sand is carried out
without flow back in well bore and flapper take place the new positions. Sand bailer technique is
better than flow back. In second method Flow Back, after tagging the sand top, make up power swivel
connection. Line up mud pump with power swivel. Start the mud pump and start circulation of fresh
water. Once one single of drill pie is cleared down the hole, continue to circulate till return is free of
sand. Stop the mud pump. Bleed of the pressure if any. Break up connection between power swivel
and drill pipe and make up next single. Similarly clean the sand down to top ball/baffle plate.
Milling of balls and baffle plate
Drill and break the top ball and top baffle. Drill and break the Bottom ball and bottom baffle plate &
clean the sand down to float collar. Circulate well thoroughly at float collar till returns are free of
cuttings/sand. Stop the mud pump. Bleed of the pressure if any. Disconnect power swivel. Summer
Internship Report 53 2015 Reliance Industries Limited
Scrapper run
Scrappers are run to clear remains of the baffle plate, mud or cuttings attached to casing. In CBM
scrapper clears obstruction during lowering, because all scrapped material goes to sump at the end of
hole. For a casing of 5, Pick up 5 , 17PPF scrapper. If it is not possible to clear the sand using
reverse circulation due to rise in pump pressure and reduction in return Disconnect power swivel.

53

Figure 46 Scrapper Tool

Pump Installation
Make physical inspection of all the parts of stator assembly including the tool joint, stator elastomer,
NTT, stop bushing etc. Measure the lengths of all the parts of stator assembly. Hang the elevator
required to handle the tubing to be lowered on the links of the block on rig. Make up the stator
assembly as per the table using suitable thread lubricant using tongs. After preparing the tally, mark
the number of tubing to be run with the stator assembly as per PID and NTT setting depth given in the
plan.
Progressive Cavity Pumps (PCPS):
PCP uses only 50 to 60% of the power used by a SRP with a similar performance. Besides, the
presence of a PCP does not interfere with the pumping of fluid down the tubing such as, for example,
dewaxing fluid. Significantly low initial capital cost as well as operating cost. It occupies very less
surface space making it attractive for cluster locations. Stator elastomer is the soul as well as weakest
54

part of PCP system. If not designed and operated properly, failure rate of elastomer can be fairly high
requiring frequent work-over-Jobs. Highly susceptible to bottom-hole temperature,
1. with normal Nitrile elastomer, suitable only up to 212F.
2. With high cost Viton elastomer, can extend the working temp range to 302 F.
It is not suitable for high bottom hole temperatures beyond 150 F & is very sensitive to pressurerating .Stator elastomer may get damaged if excessive back.pressure is applied (like closing the flow
line valve by mistake even for short durations).

Figure 47 typical pcp at well site

Advantages of PCP Pumps:

Low capital investment

Very high system efficiency upto about 85%
Low power consumption
Pumps oils and waters with solids
Pumps heavy oils
No internal valves to clog or gas lock
Simple installation with minimal maintenance costs
Portable, lightweight surface equipment
Low surface profile for visual and height sensitive areas

Disadvantages of PCP Pumps: Limited lift capabilities (approximately 7,000 ft. maximum

55

56

57