11745

1
IMPACT OF SUBSTITUTING STANDARD

MATERIALS WITH LOCAL MATERIALS ON THE
ACHIEVEMENT AND INTEREST OF SENIOR
SECONDARY STUDENTS IN CHEMISTRY IN IMO
STATE
BY
DIKE, REGINA CHIOMA

2009606004P
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY AWKA
ANAMBRA STATE
APRIL, 2013.
TITLE PAGE
Impact of Substituting Standard Materials with Local
Materials on the Achievement and Interest of Senior
Secondary Students in Chemistry in Imo State
BY
Dike, Regina Chioma

2009606004P
A Thesis Submitted to The Department of Science

Education, Faculty of Education, Nnamdi Azikiwe
University Awka, In Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirement for the Award of M.Sc. Ed (Chemistry).
April, 2013
CERTIFICATION PAGE
This is to certify that I am responsible for the work submitted in this thesis, that
the original work is mine except as specified in the acknowledgements and
references, and that this thesis has not been submitted to this University or any
other institution for the award of any degree.
Dike, Regina Chioma
Date
APPROVAL PAGE
This thesis has been approved for the award of masters degree in Science
Education from the Department of Science Education, Nnamdi Azikiwe
University Awka, Nigeria.
----------------------------------Prof. F.C. Offiah

(Supervisor)
----------------------------------Date
-----------------------------------Prof. F.C Offiah

(HOD)
-----------------------------------Date
-----------------------------------Prof. Ogo T. Ibeneme

(Dean, Faculty of Education)
-----------------------------------Date
------------------------------------Prof. Joel Eriba

(External examiner)
-----------------------------------Date
------------------------------------Prof. A. L. Anike
(Dean SPGS)
------------------------------------Date
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researcher is sincerely grateful to her supervisor, Prof. F. C. Offiah who
carefully read and encouraged this work. To my lecturers; Prof. Akuezuilo,
Prof. S.O.C. Okeke, Dr J. Okolie, I say thank you for imparting more
knowledge to me in the course of my studies. Thanks also to Prof. R. Ebenene
and Dr. Osuafor, my readers at the faculty defence for your corrections. My
profound gratitude in a special way goes to Rev. Dr. E. O. Onwukwe and
family for their wonderful support, prayers and for carefully guiding this work
at every step. To my friend Abugu Hillary, I say thank you for editing and also
encouraging this work. Dr. O.S. Oparah is acknowledged for his financial
support for this work.
Not left out is Dr. Anazowu of Psychology Department for analysing data
collected for this study, I sincerely appreciate you. I am also grateful to the staff
and students of the schools used for this study and to my brother Uchenna Dike,
I thank you for your support.
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my dear parents Mr and Mrs R.I Dike, for their love
and care.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE
PAGE
TITLE PAGE
CERTIFICATION
ii
APROVAL PAGE
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
DEDICATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vi
LIST OF TABLES
ix
LIST OF APPENDICES
ABSTRACT
xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study
1
1
Statement of problem
Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
Scope of the Study
Research Questions
Hypotheses
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
10
Conceptual Frame work
11
Concept of Substitution in chemistry
11
Concept of Local materials in chemistry
12
Concept of Achievement in Science
13
Concept of interest
15
Theoretical Framework
16
Sensory Stimulation Theory
16
Social Development Theory
17
Interest theories view
18
Theoretical Studies
20
Historical Development for Substitution in Science Education
20
The Teaching of Science
22
Gender Difference in Achievement
23
Gender Difference in Interest
26
Effects of Interest on Learning in school and educational success
28
Teaching Chemistry to Develop Entrepreneurial Skill
30
Resources for Teaching Science
32
Relationship between Educational Resources and Students Achievement
34
Effectiveness of substituting Local Materials
37
The Role of Teachers in Substituting local materials
39
Empirical Studies Related to this Study
41
Summary
42
CHAPTER THREE: METHOD
45
Research Design
45
Area of the Study
46
Population of the Study
47
Sampling and Sampling Technique
47
Instrument for Data Collection
48
Validation of the Instrument
49
Reliability of the Instruments
49
Experimental procedure
50
Local materials used
51
Control of variables
52
Method of Data Collection
53
Methods of data analysis
53
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
54
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
61
Discussion of result
61
Implication of the findings
63
Conclusion
64
Recommendation
65
Limitations of the study
66
Suggestions for further research
66
References
68
Appendices
79
10
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Experimental design for the study
46
2: Mean achievement scores of students in experimental

and control group
3: Mean achievement of male and female students in both groups
55
56
4: Mean achievement score of students in experimental and

control group
5: Mean interest score of male and female students in CIS
57
57
6: Summary of ANCOVA result for CAT
58
7: Summary of ANCOVA result for CIS
59
11
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A: Scheme of work for the study
79
B: Daily Lesson Plan used for experimental group
80
C: Daily Lesson plan used for control group
97
D: Chemistry Achievement Test
114
E: Answer to Chemistry Achievement Test
117
F: List of Secondary Schools in Owerri Educational Zone I
119
G: Sampled Schools for the Study
120
H: Students raw scores on achievement and interest
126
I: Two-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for CAT
125
J: Two-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for CIS
126
K: Chemistry Interest Scale
127
L: Table of specification on which CAT was built
128
M: letter of introduction from the researchers supervisor
129
N: corrections made by validations on CIS
130
12
ABSTRACT
The usefulness of science and its relevance to man is unending and cannot be
quantified, but the teaching and learning of it requires an effective method of
instruction. This study therefore investigated the impact of substituting standard
materials with local materials on the academic achievement and interest of
students in chemistry in Imo state. It covered the topics; acids, bases and acidbase reactions. Four research questions and four hypotheses were stated
respectively, relevant literatures were also reviewed. The research design
employed was a quasi-experimental research design. A stratified random
sampling technique was used to place schools in strata of male and female
category, while a random sampling technique was used to select schools from
each stratum into experimental and control groups. Data was collected using
two instruments namely; chemistry achievement test and chemistry interest
scale, data was analysed using mean and ANCOVA at 0.05 significant levels.
The findings of the study revealed that, students taught chemistry with local
instructional materials significantly achieved more than those taught with
standard instructional materials, though both possessed similar interest in
chemistry. It was also revealed that there was an interaction between gender and
instructional material in achievement. Based on this, it was concluded that the
use of local materials can create a meaningful practical experience for chemistry
students and still arouse their interest in the subject. Recommendations made
include that chemistry teachers should make chemistry classes more interesting
and rewarding with the use of local materials.
13
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Science is an important aspect in the development of any nation. This is
because science is directly linked to the tackling of problems of developing
countries. Science being the pivot upon which technology rests, science and
technology therefore provide answers to crucial issues on healthcare, safe
drinking water, food supplies, housing, communication, security, which plague
the developing world (Research Society of Chemistry, 2006). Therefore
development in science and technology are tangible realities affecting any
member of a society. In the light of the above, science education has become so
important that many consider it necessary to strengthen considerably science
teaching in all educational systems. This is seen as necessary in order to allow
scientific literacy to develop (Bar-On, 2002).
Science comprises basic disciplines such a Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics
and Biology. In recent times the academic achievement of senior secondary
school students, in these science subjects at terminal examinations have not
been impressive. In Nov/Dec 2010 West Africa Examination Council (WAEC)
result, only 62,928 out of 310,077, representing just 20% obtained five credits
in the sciences. In May/June 2010 WAEC, only 330,711 out of 1,351,557
representing 25% had credits in sciences. The scenario is not different from the
National Examination Council (NECO) result of the period. In the June/July
14
2010 NECO results, only 285,146 out of 1,113,117, representing 24% had
credits in the sciences (www.voiceoutnig.com,retrieved 10th June 2011). Many
investigations have also shown that secondary school students are exhibiting
dwindling interest in Science (Esiobu, 2005). Poor academic achievement and
low interest in the sciences have been attributed to many factors, among which
is inadequate exposure of students to practical activities. The teaching of
science subjects without experimenting may certainly result in poor academic
achievement and low interest.
Nbina, Viko and Birabil (2010) therefore assert that one of the activities of
science is experimenting, it provides a forum for practicalising the theoretical
knowledge acquired in the classroom and also, to demonstrate the psychomotor
skills of the teacher and students. It helps students to assimilate abstract and
difficult concepts associated with the nature of science. Unfortunately, the
teaching of science in Nigeria is being dominated by theoretical lectures which
limit students understanding of the various chemical concepts and principles
(Engida, 2012).
Experimenting in science is however dependent on the
availability of instructional materials ( Ugwu, 2008). For chemistry, practical

classes are enriched with instructional resources which include chemistry
laboratory, consumables and non consumables such as chemicals/reagents,
measuring cylinders, retort stands, beakers, Bunsen burners, charts, electricity
and more. These instructional resources are obtained from their raw forms and
processed by specified standards commercially. In developing countries,
15
majority of these materials are imported and supplied to schools by relevant

authorities. When these materials get to schools through this route, they are
called standard materials. These standard materials usually come in limited
quantities, mostly due to inadequate finance allocation to the education sector.
In Nigeria for example, financial allocation to the education sector has been
inadequate for the needs of the education sector. A Federal Ministry of
Education statistics shows that during the period 2007-2011, allocation to the
education sector was between 8.7% and 14.27% instead of the specified 26%
recommended by UNICEF (www.voiceoutng.com). This inadequacy makes it
impossible to procure adequate science materials and thus brings about
educational poverty. Reducing educational poverty has become an international
concern and one avenue to solve this problem is through substitution. This
simply means the use of locally available low-cost or no-cost educational
resources. Local materials in chemistry refer to a diversity of educational
resources that can be easily obtained from the environment, with a high local
content and have a high relevance to the curriculum (Engida, 2012). They can
also be used as instructional materials for teaching and learning purposes.
Examples of local materials include; sodium rich materials as base, dyes of
plants and flowers (hibiscus) as acid-base indicators.
To solve the problem of abstract and difficult concepts in science, it therefore
becomes necessary for teachers to help students acquire a scientific knowledge
which could be applied directly to their daily lives, induce them to observe their
16
own local environment as a way of life (Davidson, 2010). There is
widespread belief that in the design of practical activities, local relevance and
applicability to problem situation in the real world should be promoted, together
with the understanding of scientific concepts and the world of work (Badran,
1998). From the foregoing, it has become imperative for science teachers in
developing countries like Nigeria, to develop, evaluate and improve local
materials as a substitute for standard materials that would be suitable for
teaching and learning of science, at least at the basic levels.
Statement of the Problem
Dependency on expensive imported standard materials that are always deficient
in supply, which also makes students to view science as a foreign concept that
should be memorized rather than understood, is the worry of this research. This
is made manifest in poor achievement and
low interest in science generally,
and in chemistry particularly among secondary school students. Considering the

role of science and technology in the development of any nation and more so in
a country considered to be developing like Nigeria. Science educators believe
that achievement of students at their full potentials and sustained interest in
science especially chemistry, could be a function of appropriate lesson delivery
techniques on one hand, but also of the relevance, adequacy and applicability of
the materials and equipment upon which science lessons must be based.
17
The present researcher therefore investigated the impact of substituting with

local materials, on the achievement and interest of chemistry students. The
findings of this study will thus provide answers to questions such as: Will the
use of substitute local materials enable students to achieve more in chemistry?
How will the use of these local materials influence students interest in
chemistry? Will male or female students achieve more in chemistry when taught
with local materials? Will male or female students show more interest in
chemistry when taught with local materials?
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to find out, if substituting with local materials in the
teaching and learning of chemistry, will have an impact on the achievement and
interest of secondary school students.
Specifically, this study will find out if teaching students with substituted local
materials will have an impact on
I.
II.
students achievement in chemistry,

students interest in chemistry,
III.
Male and female students achievement in chemistry
IV.
Male and female students interest in chemistry
18
Significance of the Study

The following group of people is expected to benefit directly from this study,
particularly if the local materials enhance achievement and interest in secondary
school students. They are secondary school students, science teachers and
government authorities. Others are education administrators, stakeholders in
education, parents and the general public.
Students will benefit from the study since they are already familiar with these
local materials though they might be ignorant of their chemical components.
Manipulating these materials will awaken in them a curious mindset about
science and its relevance to their immediate environment. Thus they will no
longer view chemistry as a bag of abstract concepts but an interesting reality.
Science teachers will carry out practical activities with ease and without fear of
inability to replace materials; their creativity and manipulative ability will
equally be challenged as they will source materials that will give the required
result. For the government authorities, huge sums of money spent on the
importation of science materials and equipment will be used to develop other
areas of the educational sector and as incentives for teachers.
School inspectors, examiners, curriculum developers and college tutors will
now increase their emphasis on the importance of hands-on activity in science
education, and to reject material deficiency as an excuse for any absence of
practical work.
19
In the same spirit of seeking to expand the range of approaches to learning

science , stakeholders in science education will embrace an alternative approach
(use of locally available materials) that enable delivery of quality science
education for every student.
Parents will not need to pressurise their wards into studying science courses, as
they will be motivated by science activities. When knowledge of how these
local materials, which sometimes lie as waste, can be utilized is made known to
the public, they will no longer be regarded as waste but useful resources. The
finding of this study can therefore be used as a reference for looking at science
teaching in south-eastern states and other zones as well.
Scope of the Study
This study was delimited to the topic Acid, Base and Acid-base reactions using
various indicators. The content area includes:
Acid: Definition, examples and characteristics.
Bases: Definition, examples and characteristics.
Acid-base Reactions: common indicators, their colour change in acid and base
medium and determination of neutralization point.
This study was also delimited to chemistry students in Owerri Education Zone
1.
20
Research Questions
Four research questions guided this study, they are:
1.
What are the mean post-test scores of students taught with substituted
local materials and those taught with standard materials in Chemistry

Achievement Test (CAT)?
2.
What are the mean post-test CAT scores of male and female students in
the experimental and control groups?

3.
local materials and those taught with standard materials in Chemistry Interest
Scale (CIS)?
4.
What are the mean post-test CIS scores of male and female students in
the control and experimental groups?
Hypotheses
Four hypotheses guided this study;
1. There is no significant difference in the mean post-test score of students
taught with substituted local materials and those taught with standard
materials in CAT.
2.
There is no significant difference in the post-test CAT scores of
and female students in the control and experimental group.
male
21
3.
There is no significant difference in the mean post-test score of students
taught with substituted local materials and those taught with standard materials
in CIS.
4.
There is no significant difference in the mean post-test CIS scores of male
22
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter is aimed at reviewing some literatures related to the impact of
substitution of local materials on the achievement and interest of chemistry
students will be discussed under the subheadings:
Conceptual Framework
Concept of substitution
Concept of local materials in chemistry
Concept of achievement in science
Concept of interest in chemistry
Interest Theory View
Theoretical Studies
Teaching and learning influence in student interest
Effect of Interest on Learning in School and Educational Success
Teaching chemistry to develop entrepreneurial skill
23
Resources for teaching science

Relationship between educational resources and student achievement
Effectiveness of substitute local materials
The role of teachers in substitution
Empirical Studies
Summary of Literature Review
Conceptual Framework
This subsection discusses the main ideas in this work under the following;
concept of substitution, concept of local material, concept of interest and
concept of interest in chemistry.
Concept of Substitution in Chemistry
In education system, substitution can be seen as a teaching strategy put in place
to solve the problem of inadequacy and shortage in supply as stated in (Crispen,
Kusure, Violet, Sana & Gnizangwe, 2010). According to Butler (2007),
substitution is the rationale to replace one item with another with cost
advantage, constantly seeking out the best. Therefore there is the need for
substitution in chemistry. The use of substitute materials with relevance to
everyday reality will go a long way to reduce the abstract nature of chemistry as
Atkins (2004) remarked that abstraction is the root of the public fear for
chemistry. Multiple ways of knowing a concept is more relevant and
meaningful as it leads to active construction of meaningful knowledge rather
24
than passive acquisition of facts transmitted from a teacher. Einsten (2006)

suggested that by engaging students in multiple intelligences, more students are
successful contributors in the learning process and are more engaged. Teachers
can use substitution to develop alternative ways of demonstrating chemistry
topics without investing much money and task. Brian (2000) points out that
substitute materials are often more effective as teaching tools, as it is easier to
see and understand the principles involved. Also a teacher who can substitute
for the original shows a clear understanding of the science behind the apparatus.
Thus the teaching of science requires creativity and substitution with local
materials to make its concept comprehensible to learners, so chemistry teachers
must employ creative teaching methods.
Concept of local materials in chemistry
Local materials are low or no cost educational resources, that are easily
available in the natural environment (Engida, 2012). These local materials are
easily available and within the reach of teachers and students in commercial
quantities. Many types of educational resources can be developed locally and
still retain the precision needed for school chemistry. Musar (1998) highlights
some benefits of local materials as; better availability, high relevance to the
curriculum, higher local content, easy maintenance and replenishment,
contribution to self -reliance and flexible adaptation to new topics in the
curriculum. It is however important to determine what precision range is
actually needed for the development of these local materials for teaching as
25
recommended by Engida (2012). The development of local materials should

take into account the psychological, instructional and production aspect. The
psychological aspects refer to a consideration of the target group, the type of
experience that will best stimulate the group and the cultural background and
interest of the group. The instructional aspect refers to a consideration of the
educational objectives that the materials may help to achieve. The objectives
may involve different types of knowledge and skills. The production aspect
refers to the development of the actual materials being guided by the
psychological and instructional aspects. This aspect needs to take into account
the availability, cost and flexibility of the use of the materials, the persons to be
involved and the types of skills expected of them in the production. When local
materials are adequately developed, it becomes obvious that everything required
to teach modern science is already available in our villages and towns, the
challenge is simply to begin (Dihenga, 2011).Those who decry the use of
locally available materials as a stone age science misunderstands the meaning of
Science - that it applies universally, in any situation, with any material.
Concept of Achievement in Science
Achievement is something accomplished by superior ability, special effort or
great courage (Glossary of Education, 2012). In science, achievement is the
level of attainment in all science skills, usually estimated by an achievement
standard. An achievement standard describes the quality of learning, the extent
of knowledge, the depth of understanding and the sophistication of that skill that
26
would indicate the student is well placed to commence the learning required at
the next level of achievement (National Education Association, 2012). As
students engage in formal and informal discussion of science, they develop an
understanding of the rules of scientific discourse (Anderson, Holland &
Palincsar, 1997; Palincsar, Anderson & David, 1993) in Lee (1998). They learn
how to explain, analyze, debate, justify, argue, defend, critique, and challenge
the work of other students, as well as their own work. While engaging in
scientific arguments, students use facts, evidence, logic, and reasoning to
support or dispute conclusions (Rosebery, Warren & Conant, 1992) in Lee
(1998). Students gradually develop abilities to communicate clearly, construct
reasoned arguments, and respond logically to critical comments. Scientific
habits of mind occur naturally as students engage in science tasks.
In considering equity in science achievement, it is important to examine the
extent to which the nature of science is compatible or incompatible with the
background knowledge and experiences of students from diverse
backgrounds (Atwater, 1994; Lee & Fradd, 1998). Students from diverse
backgrounds bring with them their own ways of looking at the world that are
representative of their environments and personal experiences. In order to
promote science achievement, it is important to relate the nature of science to
the students background knowledge and experience based on their culture,
language, gender, and abilities.
27
Concept of Interest
Interest means activity in which self and objects are unified under clear ends
(Bea, 2012). Interest is very important to motivate students to learn, it helps the
learner to achieve a better understanding of learning conditions or decisions
about educational or vocational careers. Interest is always directed towards an
object, activity, field of knowledge or goal. One cannot simply have an interest,
one must be interested in something (Gardner, 1996) However, recent studies
show that as children grow, their interests in science tend to decline ( Bea,
2003). Most reasons for students non-interest in science include; abstract
concepts, unexciting classroom activities, inability to relate classroom activity
to a practical situation. Especially, science text-books have many theories,
which are difficult for some students to understand. Judging from my personal
experience, it is boring for a student to study science topics and difficult to
know its value without interest. Wenner (2010) concludes that what students
believe about themselves as learners makes a difference, but sometimes a
specific example really makes the point. Iroegbu, Nkwocha and Onyemerekeya
(2002), therefore suggest that, if students interest is aroused and maintained,
their intellectual development as well as success in school will be influenced.
Onwukwe (2010) have also opined that there is growing need for an alternative
teaching procedure that can be used to demonstrate and stimulate students
interest, and show the value of chemistry in everyday life, in order to attract and
keep the interest of students. Some other researchers like Pimpro (2005), Sadoh
28
(2008) are emphasizing the use of practical activities and daily application of
chemistry with the use of substituted local materials, which the present study is
aimed at exploring. This is in line with Stewart (2009) which says that scientific
values and attitudes must be taken into account when preparing young people
for life beyond school.
There are some generally accepted theories that support this study and they are
discussed below.
Traditional sensory stimulation theory as proposed by Laird in 1985 has as its
basic premise that learning occurs when the senses are stimulated. This theory
says that the vast majority of knowledge held by adults (63%) is learned
through seeing. Hearing is the next most effective, about (25%) and the other
senses; touch, smell and taste account for 12% of what we know. So by
stimulating the senses, learning can be enhanced.
However, this theory says
that if multi- senses are stimulated, greater learning takes place. Stimulation
through the senses is achieved through a greater variety of colours, volume and
facts presented visually. There exist a relationship between this theory and the
use of local material in learning. The use of teaching resources obtained from
the learners immediate environment, goes a long way to stimulate the senses. It
29
will create a forum for students to see, feel, smell and even taste chemistry
materials, which otherwise is perceived as harmful and unlearnable.
This theory as proposed by Garry and Harlan (1999), can be summarily
described as the process of organizing human energies and activities at higher
levels to achieve greater result. Social development consists of two interrelated
aspects -learning and application. The process of discovery expands human
consciousness while the process of application enhances social organization.
Learners develop in response to the contact and interaction between their
material, social and intellectual environments. Students often develop scientific
understanding as a result of their own observation and what they believe to be
true in their immediate environment. The experience resulting from contact with
physical environment leads to learning on three different levels of their
existence. At physical level, it enhances control over material processes. At
social level, it enhances our capacity for effective interaction. At mental level, it
enhances our knowledge. Another key feature of the social development theory
is that it allows users to change their viewing perspective, discovery and
learning opportunities that already exist physically (Barnett, 2005).
There is a natural progression from physical experience to mental
understanding. Socially, this theory leads to learning and mastery of
organizational skills, vital attitudes that enable people to manage their
30
interactions with other people. Mentally, it leads to organization of facts as

information and interpretation of information as thought.
The outcome of this learning process is the organization of physical skills,
social systems and information that comes from the immediate resources within
the learners environment, which is then utilized to improve efficiency and
effectiveness of the learning process. Just as this theory has propounded, the use
of local materials will at the physical level, enable learners to develop the
science process skills, at the social level, relate what is learnt to solve problems
and at the mental level, create in learners a more durable knowledge. Therefore
when local materials are used in a chemistry classroom, learners will transfer
their already existing physical experience of these materials to acquire more
mental understanding, and will gain mastery of the concepts taught.
Interest Theories View
Kintsch (1980) described two forms of interest that occur during reading -emotional and cognitive interest. Emotional interest is the affective response that
readers have in a text, such as when they are particularly moved by characters
actions. Cognitive interest results when the text captures the readers mind and
thoughts, such as when the reader finds an authors idea interesting. Emotional
interest is provoked by situational interestingness while cognitive interest is
determined by prior knowledge and the amount of uncertainty in the text.
However, a teacher should be careful when he applies the concept of emotional
31
interest to his class with materials. The materials which are focusing on arousing
emotional interest can catch a students attention, but the students attention may
be limited in the material rather than extended to learning. Harp and Mayer
(1997) used the concepts of emotional interest and cognitive interest in order to
make a scientific textbook more interesting. The result shows that texts with
entertaining components caught students emotional interest but were not much
helpful for a student to understand the texts. This study suggests the benefits of
cognitive interest over emotional interest for helping students learn scientific
concepts. The present study which is primarily aimed at arousing students
interest in chemistry, by applying local materials in which learners have prior
knowledge of but have a chemical uncertainty of is based on cognitive interest.
Also on interest, Hidi, Krapp, and Renninger (1992) divided interest into
individual and situational interest. Individual interest refers to peoples relatively
long preference for a certain topic. It develops slowly and is associated with
increased knowledge and value. Situational interest is evoked by certain
conditions in the environment. It represents a more immediate affective reaction
that may or may not last. Both individual interest and situational interest emerge
from the interaction of a person with the environment (Hidi, 2001). Palmer
(2004) used the concept of situational interest for arousing students interest in a
science classroom. The result shows that sustained situational interest has a
positive influence on bringing students good attitude towards science.
32
The strong point of interest theories is to give some directions on how to catch
students interest in a science class. Palmer (2004) confirms the main sources of
situational interest as meaningfulness, involvement (participation) and novelty
order. Situational interest is shorter and is evoked by outer environment while
individual interest is longer and is in a student. To face low interest levels in
subjects like chemistry, teaching approaches have been introduced, which try to
cope with the highly theoretical nature of the subjects by introducing everyday
contexts. Making the content structure more relevant to students by connecting
their everyday life to science concepts was seen as a way to raise interest levels
and foster learning. By repeatedly applying the content knowledge to everyday
phenomena, better student ability to transfer knowledge is expected. A real-life
context is meant to be known by students from their everyday lives and is
relevant to them. The present study in which local materials from every
experience of the learner, will present a real life context to them, thus raising
their interest level and create situational interest that will not stop at the level of
momentary excitement but trigger students to participate in learning.
Theoretical Studies
There is a general acknowledgement of the lack of resources in teaching science
in developing countries and that resourceful teachers need to look for
alternatives that can help them carry along (Bajah, 1991) in DomNwachukwu
(2006). Bradley (2004), points out that a teacher needs more reliable sources
33
and resources for practical activities. Apotherker (2004) reported that there is
growing panoply of alternative teaching styles that can be used to demonstrate
the value of chemistry in everyday life. He also said students enter colleges with
chemo phobia, so some professors of chemistry are emphasizing the practical
and daily application of chemistry with the aid of substitute and visual
laboratories. Tuija (2004) discusses how integrating local experience in science
lessons can help students relate chemical principles to everyday life. Inyenga &
Tompson (2002), see substitution as a pedagogical intervention strategy that
teachers may use to address similar situations by being resourceful in the
making and use of locally available materials, where conventional equipment or
apparatus may be inadequate or not available.
Most African countries followed the model of import substitution
industrialization
in
which
government
took
control
over
national
industrialization by protecting domestic industry to achieve the big push,

thought necessary for self sustaining economic growth (Africa Independence
Import Substitution Industrialization, 2007). In DomNwachukwu (2006),
countries like South Korea and Japan made significant scientific advancement
by starting with their local resources. The challenge therefore calls for drastic
and enduring action to address the issue of good science teaching and relevance
of the materials to ones immediate environment.
34

Science is a very important aspect in the development of any nation (Omoniyi,
2008). One of the ways of appreciating science teaching and learning is through
effective method of instruction. A growing body of evidence indicates that
activity based approaches to teaching science are more effective than traditional
methods, in producing a wide range of desirable student outcome at all grade
levels (Hartshon & Nelson, in Omoniyi, 2008). Also Yalwa (2004), says that
activity based or demonstration method is so far one of the best if not the best
for teaching and understanding chemistry. One of the major objectives of
teaching science in secondary schools is to inculcate in students the spirit of
inquiry, creativity and basic science skills through the exploration of nature and
the local environment (Jasper, 2006).
Chemistry involves process skills which are mental tools used in the discovery
and acquiring of scientific knowledge. It includes conversion, making, process,
production, rebirth and so on (Roget, 2003). Skills are natural or acquired
capabilities in a specific activity, it is the ability to do something well.
The process skills in chemistry are the ways and strategies followed by chemist
in order to arrive at the product of science; they include: Observing, Classifying,
Measuring, Counting, Numbering, Recording, Communicating, Predicting,
Hypothesing, Inferring, Experimenting, Researching, Interpreting of data,
Controlling variables and Generalizing. The use of these process skills over a
35
period of time leads to an accumulation of scientific knowledge in form of

scientific laws, principles and theories, all of which put together, constitute the
product of science (National Teachers Institute, 2006). Development of the
process skills should lead to the acquisition of the skills that successful
entrepreneurs use to start their ventures such as creative thinking, planning and
research, decision making, organization, communication, team building,
(http.//www.mvp.cfee.org/en/seefassessmentskill.html,
2009).
When
local
resources are used, more skills are developed for entrepreneurship.

Most studies show that, on average, girls do better in school than boys. Girls get
higher grades and complete high school at a higher rate compared to boys
(Limon & Manson, 2002). Standardized achievement tests also show that
females are better at spelling and perform better on tests of literacy, writing, and
general knowledge (Zembar & Blume, 2003). An international aptitude test
administered to fourth graders in 35 countries, for example, showed that
females outscored males on reading and literacy in every country. Although
there were no differences between boys and girls in fourth grade on
Mathematics, boys began to perform better than girls on science tests in fourth
grade (International Association for the Evaluation of Education Achievement,
(IAEEA). These gender differences in Maths and Science achievements have
36
implications for girls future careers and have been a source of concern for
educators everywhere.
During the past decade, there has been a concerted effort to find out why there
is a shortage of women in the science, math, engineering, and technical fields
(IAEEA). Part of the explanation can be traced to gender differences in the
cognitive abilities of middle-school students. In late elementary school, females
outperform males on several verbal skill tasks: verbal reasoning, verbal fluency,
comprehension, and understanding logical relations (Zembar & Blume, 2003).
Males, on the other hand, outperform females on spatial skills tasks such as
mental rotation, spatial perception, and spatial visualization (Stark & Gray
,1999). Males also perform better on mathematical achievement tests than
females. However, gender differences do not apply to all aspects of
mathematical skill. Males and females do equally well in basic math
knowledge, and girls actually have better computational skills. The poorer
mathematical reasoning skills exhibited by many female adolescents have
several educational implications. Beginning at age 12, girls begin to like math
and science less and to like language arts and social studies more than do boys
(schiefele, Krapp & Winteler, 2011). They also do not expect to do as well in
these subjects and attribute their failures to lack of ability. By high school, girls
self-select out of higher-level, academic-track math and science courses, such
as calculus and chemistry. One of the long-term consequences of these choices
37
is that girls lack the prerequisite high school math and science courses necessary
to pursue certain majors in college (e.g., Engineering, Computer Science). Some
researchers, on the one hand, argue that the gender gap in Mathematics is
biologically driven. Selected research shows that prenatal hormones circulating
in the brain encourage differential development in the hemispheres of male and
female foetuses (Zembar & Blume, 2003). There is evidence, however, that
socio cultural factors may influence girls attitudes toward Math and Science.
For example, parents tend to view Math as more important for sons and
language arts and social studies as more important for daughters (Stark & Gray
,1999). Parents are more likely to encourage their sons to take advanced high
school courses in Chemistry, Mathematics and Physics and have higher
expectations for their success (IAEEA).
Fortunately, sex differences in mathematical reasoning have begun to decline,
and females enrolments are up in Math and Science courses (Stark & Gray
,1999). Programmes designed to interest girls in Math and Science and that
demonstrate how this knowledge will allow them to help others appear to be
working.
Teaching and Learning Influence on Students Interest
Different learning situations and classroom environment have a significant
influence on students interest in science. Myers and Fouts (1992) in Osborne
(2003) state that the most positive interest in science was associated with a high
38
level of involvement and personal support, strong relationships with classmate

and use of a variety of teaching strategies and unusual learning activities.
Haussler and Hoffman (1992) indicate that the best predictor of students interest
in science is the self-concept, which depends on favorable learning environment,
especially as Rosberg and Kris (2011) point out that students interest to learn
more science decline as they progress through lower secondary school. Most
students dislike for chemistry has been traced to poor classroom activity and
teacher factors like; limited instructional materials, no relation of classroom
experience to out of class activities, teachers method of instruction and more.
Therefore, these studies conclude the need for good teaching to increase
students interest and engagement. Hausser and Hoffman (1997) point out that
teachers can stimulate students interest in the classroom, by providing
opportunities to marvel and to link content to prior experience. The use of local
materials with much relevance to the learner will not only awaken students
interest in science but will also improve on teachers method of instruction.
The intervention in which teachers apply the use of prior experience of students
on these local materials will effectively enhance students interest as well as
students achievement.
Gender differences in scientific interest exist and vary. While interest in
Biology or the life sciences is just as pronounced in girls as in boys, if not more,
a different picture can be seen for the so-called hard sciences. Physics and
39
Chemistry are subject areas in which girls usually show less interest than boys.
The indication that girls turn away from the hard sciences more than boys ,in
the course of their schooling is empirically well documented (Haeussler &
Hoffmann,
2000;
Jones,
Howe,
&
Rua,
2000;
Labudde,
Herzog,
Neuenschwander, Enrico, & Gerber, 2000). There is actually a difference

between what boys and girls consider to be interesting (Osborne & Dillon,
2008; Schreiner & Sjberg, 2004; Sjberg & Schreiner, 2005). Constructs such
as self-concept and self-efficacy (Reis & Park, 2001; Zimmerman, 2000) play
an important role in the explanation of gender-specific differences in interest in
science. Gender-specific differences are mostly larger for self-concept than for
self-efficacy (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OECD, 2007), although high-performing girls also tend to underestimate their
own ability compared to similarly high-performing boys. Programmes for
strengthening girls interest in science thus often aim at the self- concept of
girls, and attempt to strengthen this with suitable tasks and feedback procedures
(Haeussler & Hoffmann, 2002). Another successful strategy is a more careful
recognition of girls topic interests in both science curricula and instruction. It
has also been shown that a temporary separation of girls from boys in science
classrooms can strengthen girls self-concept and interest. Other theoretical
approaches suggest that the image of science and the interpretation of this image
by peers play an important role in girls decision to turn away from science and
technology in adolescence (Kessels, Rau, & Hannover, 2006). Here, too, it was
40
possible to show that measures which change the students image of science and
technology promote girls interest (Kessels & Hannover, 2007). In the more
recent international comparative studies of the International Association for the
Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) and the (OECD), it can be seen
that the differences between girls and boys both in the area of performance and
that of interest are now only very small (Martin, Mullis, Foy, Olson, Erberber,
Preuschoff, & Galia, 2008),( OECD, 2007 ). Overall, the effect strengths are
low even when significant differences are observed. Similarly, no indications
were found that boys and girls systematically differ in their expectations of
having a future career which is related to science (and technology).
Looking at all countries together (OECD, 2007), over two-thirds of students
stated that they considered science to be important and useful, that they want to
be good in science lessons and that they enjoyed learning new things in these
lessons. About 21% of students say that they would make science a central issue
in their life; about 37% imagined working in a science-related career. Thus, a
thoroughly positive picture of young peoples appreciation of science emerges
worldwide.
Effect of Interest on Learning in School and Educational Success

The importance which the concept of interest can have in educational contexts
was highlighted by great scholars centuries ago, e.g. Johann Amos Comenius
(1592-1670) and Jean Jacques Rousseau (17121778). It was Johann Friedrich
41
Herbart (17761841) who for the first time developed a general theory of
education in which interest played a central role. He emphasised that interest
must not only be regarded as a desirable motivational condition of learning but
also as an important goal or outcome of education, (International Journal of
Science Education (IJSE 2012). They have also interpreted interest as an
independent variable that can be used to predict the amount or the quality of
learning motivation, students usage of learning strategies or academic
achievement and other educationally relevant outcome variables. These include
selection of an educational program or a professional career in a science
domain.
Numerous studies have dealt with the correlation between interest, school
grades and other indicators of school success in science and other subjects. The
results have been summed up and reported in meta-analyses, amongst others,
which consider indicators of interest alongside other affective and motivational
factors (e.g. Willson, 1983). Schiefele, Krapp and Winteler (1992), Hoffmann et
al. (1998a) in a related studies, observed that a relationship between subject
matter interest and academic achievement though sex-specific differences were
not established. However, there are also studies in which no significant
connection could be found between interest and school performance if the
influence of other potential predictors is controlled (Kller, Baumert, &
Schnabel, 2001). The relevance of interest for lifelong learning and choice of
studies, however, does not depend on a high correlation between interest and
42
performance. Both interest and performance are important educational aims. A

low correlation can also indicate that students with a high cognitive potential for
science do not pursue careers as scientists or engineers because they lost their
interest during school.
Teaching Chemistry to Develop Entrepreneurial Skill

Olalekan (1998) outlined the following as part of entrepreneurial skills;
observation, determination and interpretation of market, exhibition of
knowledge and mastery of skills, ability to communicate. All these skills are
encompassed in the process skills. Entrepreneurship occurs when an individual
develops a new venture, a new approach to an old business or an idea or a
unique way of giving the market a product or services by using resources in a
new way under conditions of risk (Umar, 2006). Entrepreneurships help to
create wealth, self-direction, and satisfying career and also add value to
societys well-being.
Chemistry, on the other hand is concerned with the utilisation of natural
substances and the creation of artificial ones. It is an artistic enterprise which
offers a lot of occupational opportunities in areas like: Manufacturing of goods
such as pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, packaging, detergents, pulp and paper,
textile, metals etc., Sales of goods, Analytical and consultancy services,
Researching, Laboratory services, Consumer education.
43
The acquisition of professional qualification in Chemistry equips an individual

with skills of being self-employed because of having acquired entrepreneurial
and process skills. Functional chemistry education emphasises applicability or
transferability of the acquired knowledge to the immediate environment. This
purpose of chemistry education as stated in the National Policy on Education,
(2004) which includes the acquisition of appropriate skills and development of
mental, physical and social abilities and competence to contribute to the
development of his society.
Nbina (2010), cited that developing entrepreneurial skills through Chemistry
will be best achieved through an active learning of the process skills. What
learners learn is greatly influenced by how they are taught. For the learners to
develop the process or entrepreneurial skills, the teachers must have a
theoretical and practical knowledge and abilities about Chemistry teaching and
learning. The decision about content and activities that teachers make, their
interaction with students, the selection of assessment, the habits that teachers
demonstrate and the nature of their students and the attitudes conveyed, all
affect the knowledge, understanding ability and attitudes that students develop
(National Commission for Colleges of Education, 2009).
Active learning as a teaching learning strategy emphasizes that planning,
teaching and assessment are focused on the needs and abilities of the learners.
The learners are actively engaged in doing most of the work by using their
44
hands and brain in the learning process.
Many advantages accrue when
learners are active participants in classroom activities. The advantages include

information retention, learner- teacher interaction, learner-learner interaction,
academic achievement, communication skills, team work and positive attitude
towards the subject and the motivation to learn (NCCE, 2009). Active learning
yield better quality and entrepreneurial learning with the use of resources that
appeal with students daily activities.
Resources for Teaching Science
Resources could be a person, asset, material or capital which can be used to
accomplish a goal (http://www/investor words.com) or an economic or
productive factor required to accomplish an activity (http://www/business
dictionary.com.com).
Educational resources are the equipment, facilities, material and personnel
available for education (http://www.education.com). Therefore, Adeogun and
Osifila (2010) categorized educational resources into human, material, physical
and financial resources.
Human resources in education are the students,
teaching staff and non teaching staff. Material resources include text books,
maps, audio visual equipment, confectionaries and ICT materials. Physical
resources include classrooms, lecture theatres, auditoriums, typing pools,
administrative blocks, libraries, laboratories, workshops. While financial
resources are the monetary inputs available for and expended on the education
45
system. These include money allocated education by government grants, PTA

and donations from philanthropists and internally generated funds. All these
resources are needed for the teaching of science.
Owolabi (2004), in Onasanya and Omosewo (2010), says that science is an
integral part of human society, its impart is felt in every sphere of human life.
Through science, man has been able to better understand his environment, and
this has enabled him to manipulate the conditions of his environment to his own
benefit. So Bassey (2002) opines that science is resource intensive.
Unfortunately, traditional instructions that misrepresent science as a body of
facts to be memorized can deaden student spirit of inquiry.
According to Herr and Cunnigham (2006), strategies, activities and
instructional resources provide new and experienced teachers a wealth of
teaching strategies, lessons and ideas to enhance the teaching and learning of
science. Federal and State policy makers proposing new education programmes
often base their argument on the need to provide more resources to schools to
improve opportunities for students (Lips, Watkins & Fleming 2008). UNICEF
recommends 26% budget allocation for education sector in Nigeria and other
developing countries. These resources are based on learning theory and are
designed to stimulate students interest and involvement; they develop higher
order reasoning skills and a deeper understanding of scientific concepts and
their relevance to everyday life (Herr & Cunnigham, 2006).
46
Relationship between Educational Resources and Students Achievement

Adeogun and Osifila (2010) cited that the availability of educational resources
is very important because of its role in the achievement of educational
objectives and goals. The extent, to which an organization like an educational
institution attains her objectives, is directly proportional to the educational
resources available and utilisation. Adeogun (2001) discovered a low level of
instructional resources available in public schools and stated that our public
schools are starved of both teaching and learning resources. At the seventeenth
Lagos State Congress of All Nigerian Conference of Principals of Secondary
Schools (ANCOPSS) held in December 2002, an ad hoc committee identified
the low achievement of students in WASSCE which include inadequate
provision and maintenance of infrastructure, rapid students population growth,
teacher qualification and experience, student-teacher relationship, school
authority-teacher relationship etc. During the first Lagos State Education
Summit held in July 2004, the chairman of post-primary teaching service
commission explained that 90% of the schools have no laboratories and he
available ones were ill-equipped. Nearly all the workshops were without the
required equipment, many building in the schools had become dilapidated. He
also observed that students did not have the necessary books. According to
Ludger (2011), a large body of empirical evidence on the effects of resources on
student achievement already exist, noting that without the right incentive,
teachers may avoid using the most promising teaching strategies, preferring to
47
use the technique they find most convenient. Hughes et al. (2011), opines that
schools that are low performing, have a high concentration of student poverty
and are located in rural settings that tend to have less qualified teachers.
Teacher quality to a large extent affects the performance of students with,
Chukwu (2008), saying that the root cause of low performance by students is
traced to the approaches and pedagogies employed to deliver the course content
by the teacher. Most teachers continue with old, outdated methods of teaching
without further in-service training. Also some teachers consistently use notes
they made when they left school for several years ago without updating them.
Njelita (2005), identified that chemistry teachers classrooms are extremely
theoretical, teachers dominated and as a result, students are not engaged actively
in hands-on activities which will expose them to acquisition of science process
skills. Also in respect of teacher quality as stated by Sadoh (2008), teachers are
made to teach subjects outside their areas of competence. Okebukola (2005),
reported that teachers are saddled with more subjects, that they cant effectively
handle and having shallow subject matter knowledge, leading to a reduction in
the effectiveness and efficiency of these teachers. Students who were assigned
to several ineffective teachers in a row have significantly lower achievement
and gains in achievement than those who were assigned to several highly
effective teachers in sequence (Sanders & Rivers, 1996). The relationship
between teachers training in science and students achievement was greater in
higher level science courses (Hammon, 2000). Effective teachers adjust their
48
teaching to fit the needs of different students and their demands of different
instructional goals, topics and methods (Doyle 1996, in Hammon 2000). In
addition to the ability to create and adopt instructional strategies, strong
research support has linked learning to variables such as teacher clarity
enthusiasm, variability of lesson approach and student opportunity to learn
criterion material. Also teachers abilities to ask higher order questions, use
students ideas and probe students comments have been found to be important
variables in what students learn (Hammon, 2000).
Individuals have perceived and acknowledged the function of physical
resources in education. Kyle et al (2007), stated that teachers reports that
students spend significantly more time working in groups and that the physical
setup of classrooms often change to accommodate more collaborative student
learning. Albert (2010), cites that creating an enriching physical school
environment has been shown to improve students attitude towards learning thus
positively influencing test scores. Carol (2007), concludes that the vast majority
of existing schools are now old, (built before 1978) and are increasingly
unsuitable for modern teaching and learning, also that existing literature
indicates that improved (new or refurbished) buildings contribute to pupil
performance. Therefore, architects must integrate their design, acknowledge
with an understanding of the developmental needs of learners and their cultural
environment to maximise the learning experience (Taylor & Enggass, 2009).
49
Effectiveness of Substitute Local Materials

Researchers in science education for example Zacharia (2007), as cited in
Crispen et al (2010), have shown that students have difficulties in understanding
scientific concepts across all ages and levels. Some students come to science
classes with conceptions that differ fundamentally from scientific conceptions
in specific domains (Limon & Mason 2002). Crispen et al. (2010), also noted
that in order to foster conceptual change, students have to be confronted with
discrepant events that contradicts their conception and invoke a disequilibrium
or cognitive conflict that positions students in a state of reflection and
resolution. Discrepant events are one of the most effective science teaching
methods
that
give
students
meaningful
experience.
Both
laboratory
experimentation (Holfstein & Lunetta, 2004), and virtual experiments such as

computer-based simulation (Zacharia & Anderson, 2003) can be utilized when
using discrepant events to teach science.
Whilst real experimentation with conventional laboratory apparatus and
equipment is desired, schools in Nigeria like many other developing countries
face challenges of limited resources, particularly financial resources for
acquiring apparatus and materials for effective and sufficient science education.
Substitute laboratory experimentation can be used as a panacea to the situation
(Kathuri & Mungai, 2003).
Substitution is a pedagogical intervention strategy that teachers may use to
address similar situations by being resourceful in the making and use of locally
50
available materials where conventional equipment or apparatus may be

inadequate or not available at all (Inyenga & Tompson,2002 Ihiegbulem,2007
and
Kamoru
&
Umeano,2006).Low-cost
materials
produced
through
substitution is not an attempt to provide a watered down science education, but

low-cost in the mentioned sense is highly creative and productive, provides
opportunities for creativity and development of manipulative abilities and
concepts, are learnt and internalised by concrete and unspectacular work than
proceeding with chalk and teacher talk in teaching science (Pimpro 2005,
Nbina et al., 2010). DomNwachukwu (2010) revealed that the use of local
materials can improve science achievement in rural parts of the developing
world where standard imported materials are not always available, and if
students are exposed to materials from their natural environment on a daily
basis, any learning differences that remain as a result of the use of local
materials, will gradually disappear (Ekborg, 2003). Zachariah (2007) opines that
scientific literature lack studies that investigate pre-service science teachers use
of
virtual
experimentation
and
improvised
laboratory
inquiry-based
experimentation as inappropriate.
The importance of traditional laboratory teaching, involving practical
experiment and hands on work activity is noted as Oludipe (2008), highlighted
the following as advantages of using community resources for science teaching:
1. They are hand-on resources that give pupil access to real life experience.
2. They provide meaningful interactions between pupils and their world.
51
3. They capture pupils interest and make studying science interesting.

4. They make pupils to become meaningfully engaged in the processes of
science.
5. They provide practical support for science teaching.
6. They reinforce the specific science topics focus of each class level.
7. They provide pupils with the opportunity of reflecting on their learning.
8. They facilitate interaction among pupils and their teachers.
9. They stimulate students reasoning and evoke thoughts.
The Role of Teachers in Substituting Local Materials in Science

Recent moves in science education have called for reform in science teaching
by providing challenging science curricula for all science students (Offiah &
Akusoba, 2009). They state that to effectively achieve the aim of science
education, it requires that teachers use innovative approaches in science
teaching. It is observed that many science teachers shy away from the teaching
for the development of the process skills (Ezeughor, 1996). He stated these
reasons as follows
(a) Most teachers do not have operational knowledge of the process skills.
(b) The difficult and expensive test materials to assess the skills
(c) Inability of teachers to make use of substitute materials.
At this point one may be compelled to ask, what is the job of the science
teacher? Nzewi (2010) labels some of the duties of the science teacher as:
(a) Preparing students in the science discipline.
52
(b) Providing the education background for students to enter science lessons.
(c) Providing a means by which students can appreciate the contribution of
the society.
Bose (2008) explains that some teachers with the help of their students have
become enterprising by the use of substitutes. Oladipe (2008) is also of the view
that whatever effort a teacher may employ in explaining a concept theoretically,
the void remains there, while there are instances of several teachers who do
perform those experiments simply by using substitute materials. Oladipe (2008)
therefore tells us that the advantages of substitute materials are evident in that
some chemicals needed to complete the traditional Chemistry is sometimes
dangerous. These substitutes for science lessons are available in the immediate
school environment and the community, as such a science teacher should be
familiar with the immediate school environment and the community in order to
be able to source these materials (http://www.education.nic).
In view of all these, Erin (2010) requires science teachers to employ creative
teaching method. That teachers who are adapt to substitution, will likely be
more successful in imparting information to the novice in their science classes.
Bose (2008) also agrees that chemistry teachers can use their creative skills to
develop alternative ways of demonstrating Chemistry topics, without investing
money or putting their students in danger and also reducing environmental
hazard, as these aids are simple, easy to construct, easy to handle, are repairable,
replaceable and above all makes teaching learner-centred. According to Gray
53
(2000) using substitute materials is a useful life skill, this kind of skill and
attitude will help students to develop greater autonomy. There lies a difference
between a creative scientist and an ordinary student. Nevertheless the child
cannot be blamed. It is the teacher who has to guide the child.
Empirical Studies Related To This Study

Empirical studies on the substitution of local materials in Chemistry have
focused on its impact on the achievement, attitude and interest of student.
DomNwachukwu (2006) investigated the effectiveness of improvising locally
available materials in teaching Chemistry, using an experimental study in three
(3) senior secondary schools in Lagos state. The population of the study was
Chemistry students in senior secondary schools; a two staged sampling method
was used. The primary unit covered three schools (a female, a male and a mixed
school) while the secondary unit was made up all the chemistry students in the
school. Three instruments (Chemistry achievement test, questionnaire and
interviews) were used for the study and the data obtained was analysed, using
four statistical principles namely; analysis of variance, Pearson correlation
coefficient, z -test and chi-square. The result of the study revealed that students
performances did not differ when taught with either local or standard materials
in Chemistry.
Oladejo,Olosunde,Ojebisi and Isola (2011) examined the effect of using
standardized and improvised instructional materials on Academic Achievement
54
of Secondary School Physics Students in Oyo State,
The research design
adopted was quasi-experimental , purposive sampling was used to obtain a

sample of three co-educational secondary schools. Physics Achievement Test
(PAT) was used to measure students achievement and three hypotheses were
formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. Data were analysed using
ANOVA and ANCOVA. Findings revealed that there is a significant difference
in the achievement of students taught using standard instructional materials,
those taught with improvised instructional material and those in the
conventional instruction. Thus, the students taught with improvised instructional
materials obtained the highest achievement score at post test (F=74.94),
followed by those with standard instructional materials (F=63.07), while the
control group scored the lowest (F=39.89). Also, there was no significant effect
of gender on students achievement in Physics,although females did better than
males. Thus, Physics teachers need to be resourceful in instructional material
selection, planning and utilization, so as to reduce the cost of production and
maintenance of instructional materials.
Onasanya and Omosewo (2011) examined the effect of using standard
instructional materials and improvised instructional materials on Secondary
School Student Academic Performance in Physics in Ilorin. The sample
consisted of selected secondary schools in Illorin Metropolis of Kwara State.
The research employed a quasi-experimental design of the pretest-post test non
randomized control group design. Two hypotheses were designed and tested at
55
0.05 level of significance. On analysis, it was observed that there was a

significant difference between the students taught with standard instructional
materials when compared to those taught with improvised; those taught with
improvised materials achieved more. The implications of improvised
instructional materials were discussed. Recommendations and suggestions were
given.
Okeke (2012) investigated the impact of material resources in facilitating
students interest and academic achievement in Agricultural Science in Onitsha
North Education Zone. The study sampled 162 JSS2 students, randomly
selected and employed a quasi-experimental design. Data was collected using
Agricultural Science Achievement test (AAT). The stated hypotheses in the
study was analysed using ANCOVA at 0.05 levels of significance. The result of
the findings revealed that students with materials performed better than those
taught without materials, recommendations were made on equipping school
laboratories with materials.
Poelor and Feldhusen (2012) compared the achievement of male and female
students in Biology, Chemistry and Physics among international baccalaureate
(bachelors degree) in Alberta. A quasi-experimental research design was
employed on a sample of 708 students, data collected from the achievement test
was analysed with ANOVA at 0.05 level of significance. The result showed that
in biology, males and females achieved equally. In Physic males, scored higher
than females, while in Chemistry, males performed as well as females
56
Summary
Conceptual framework for this study reviewed some important concept like
substitution, local materials, achievement and interest showing their relevance
in the promotion of science developing countries like Nigeria. However, it was
not clear if a link can be established between the concepts. Theoretical
framework also reviewed theories that relate to the use of local materials in
improving students achievement and interest in learning, while theoretical
studies expounded on issues concerning the teaching and learning of science.
Empirical studies showed that the use of instructional materials in teaching had
an effect on students achievement and interest in Chemistry but did not show if
gender interacts with instructional materials in terms of achievement or interest.
Therefore, this study will establish the relevance of local materials in the
achievement and interest male and female students in Chemistry.
57
CHAPTER THREE
METHOD
This chapter discusses the methods, procedures and controls of the study under
the following sub-headings: research design, area of the study, population of the
study, sample and sampling technique, instruments for data collection,
validation of the instruments, reliability of the instruments, method of data
collection, local materials used and method of data analysis.
Research Design
The present study employed a quasi-experimental research design. This is to
enable the researcher manipulate the relevant variables. The subjects were not
randomly selected rather intact classes were randomly assigned into
experimental and control groups. The difference between the groups is that the
experimental group worked with local materials while the control group worked
with standard materials.
The research design was employed to enable the researcher manipulate
variables such as instructional materials and experience. This design agrees with
the views of Akuezuilo and Agu (2003), Shuttleworth (2003), in that it controls
a number of factors and tries to prove or disprove a hypothesis mathematically
with statistical analysis.
The design is represented in Table 1.
58
Table 1: Experimental Design of the study

Group
Experimental
Control
Pre-test
Treatment
O1
O1
Post-test
X1
O2
X2
O2
Key
O1= pretest for experimental and control group
O2= post-test for experimental and control group
X1=treatment for experimental group
X2=treatment for control group
Area of the Study

This study was carried out in Owerri Education Zone of Imo State. Owerri
Education Zone extends to forty kilometers on the North western axis, having a
boundary with Obowo in Okigwe zone, in the Western and Southern axes by
parts of Rivers State and on the East by Owerrinta in Abia State . The area of
this study covers Owerri sub-zone I. There are three local government areas in
Owerri Education Sub-zone I namely: Owerri Municipal, Owerri North and
Owerri West L.G.As. Owerri municipal comprises of the core Owerri urban. Its
dwellers are mostly civil servants and traders. A lot of commercial activities go
on in the area. Owerri North and Owerri West cover the sub-urban areas with
craftsmen and unskilled workers and the rural areas where mostly farmers
dwell. Owerri education zone 1 was chosen because it comprises the major
geographical settings.
59
Population of the Study

The population of this study comprises all students taking Chemistry at the
senior secondary school class1(SS1) in Owerri education zone I. Students in
SS1 were yet to choose subjects, so they all took Chemistry lessons. There are
thirty-four state owned senior secondary schools (see appendix G ) with a
population of SS1 students as four thousand, seven hundred and ninety four
(4794) (source: Secondary Education Management Board Owerri). Owerri Zone
I is the most populated zone in the state.
Sample and Sampling Technique
A primary sample unit, which covers four secondary schools in Owerri
Education Zone I was used for this study. The sample size was made up of one
hundred and sixty nine (169) Chemistry students (93 male students and 76
female students) with an average age of 14- 15years. They were selected from;
a. Two female secondary schools
b. Two male secondary schools
These schools were chosen using a stratified sampling technique to place
schools into each gender group. This is to determine whether gender influences
achievement or has any effect on interest in a learning environment that utilizes
local materials in teaching chemistry. A purposive sampling technique was then
employed to choose schools in each stratum, the criteria used in choosing
schools include
- Easy accessibility to the school
60
- School has classes that are not overcrowded (at most 50 students per
class)
- Is a single-sexed school
-
students have started learning chemistry before the time of this study
The schools in each gender category were assigned numbers after which
schools were randomly assigned into control and experimental groups
respectively. This is also in line with Shuttleworth (2008) which says that the
tested subjects must be randomly assigned to either control or experimental
group. The sampled schools are shown in appendix ix.
Instruments for Data Collection
Guided by the purpose of this study and research questions, also in order to
adequately measure the variables sought for, two instruments were used to
collect data for the study namely; Chemistry Achievement Test and Chemistry
Insterest Scale. The dependent variables measured were achievement and
interest.
The Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) made up of twenty-five (25) objective
questions, based on the lesson unit, covering the different domains of Blooms
Taxonomy was designed by the researcher (see appendix D). This was used to
measure the achievement of the students in both groups.
61
Students interest in chemistry was measured using a self made Chemistry

Interest Scale (CIS) made up of thirty questions (see appendix F). The scaling
was also a 4-point scale.
Validation of the Instrument

These instruments used for the study were carefully drawn to ensure that they
fell within the scope of SS1 syllabus and the specific area that was selected for
the purpose of this study. The CAT containing 25 items was reviewed by two
principal lecturers, one in science education department and the other in
measurement and evaluation department of Alvan Ikoku Federal College Of
Education Owerri . They were asked to validate the test items based on content
and also of relevance to the scope of the study. Following their corrections, the
test items were rephrased to cover the content of the lesson unit. The Chemistry
Interest Scale was given to senior lecturers in Science Education and
Psychology for criticism. The items in the interest scale were also rephrased and
edited to suit the level of the samples as shown in appendix (F)
Reliability of the Instruments
To measure the reliability of the instruments (the CAT and CIS), the
instruments were trial-tested on 30 students outside the sampled area, Kuder
Richardson 21 (KR-21) formula was used to determine the reliability of the
instrument:
62
r1 = Kd2 X(K-X)/ d2 (K-1)

Where K = number of items in the instrument
d = standard deviation of the scores
X = mean of the scores.
The coefficient of reliability for the CAT was found to be 0.94 while that of
CIS was 0.90. For educational studies, a reliability coefficient of about 0.90 is
considered reliable (Akuezuilo & Agu 2003)
Experimental Procedure
The lesson units for this study were Acid, Base and Acid-Base reactions. Before
the commencement of the experiment, the researcher ensured that the students
in both groups were learning the topics for the first time. Before treatment
commenced, Chemistry teachers with a minimum of a bachelors degree in
education from the sampled schools were trained on how to carry out treatment
on each group. The researcher trained the chemistry teachers individually by
going through the lesson plan pertaining to their group respectively and
instructing them to strictly follow it with the specified time allocation. They
were also provided with instructional materials and lesson plans (appendix B &
C) to be used for the study. Those in the experimental group were supplied with
local materials (discussed below) while those in control group were given
standard solutions of ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide. Both groups were
63
taught the same lesson unit but with different instructional materials. The
procedure used in each of the schools was the same and the groups were aware
of the materials they worked with. Six instructional periods were given to the
students to ensure they gain mastery of the topics. At every lesson adequate
materials were provided for the students to carry out their class activities. The
researcher closely monitored the lessons. After the activities, students were
given assignments which the researcher assisted in marking. Personal revision
for a period of one week was given to the subjects to allow mastery of the
lesson unit, before the administration of post-test.
Local Materials Used are:
Sour palm wine: this has a high content of Ethanoic acid
Unripe orange juice: this is a form of citric acid
Vinegar: the active ingredient is Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)
Unripe plantain solution: from the family of plantago, it has a high content of
sodium.
Extract from Palm coat shields: this is obtained by burning shields of palm fruit,
it is rich in sodium and is used locally for the production of soap.
Hibiscus rosasinensis, Hibiscus sabdariffa Calyx (zobo in hausa language),
extract of this can be used as a substitute for the more toxic methyl orange
(Ndukwe, Eke & Nnorom, 2012) and Purple hearth (setcreasea), were
substituted for indicators.
The local acids and base used were obtained from their source and clear
solutions of them were obtained with a filter paper. The indicators were
64
prepared by extracting their dyes with 50% ethanol and 50% water. However
the concentration of these local materials was not recorded because at this stage
they were used to motivate learning.
Control of Variables
The dependent variables measured in this study are achievement and interest
while the independent variables are instructional materials and gender. To
adequately measure this, other intervening variables were identified and
controlled.
Prior Exposure to the Lesson Unit: when some subjects posses a prior
knowledge of a particular content, in influences their learning outcome. To
control this effect the researcher ensured that the subjects have not learnt the
unit by making inquiries from both teachers and students.
Possible Intermingling of Participants: A situation whereby participants from
the control and experimental groups intermingle frequently and transfer ideas,
might influence results of the study, to control this effect, schools in both
groups were not aware of each other, also in choosing schools into the control
and experimental groups, the distance between each school was considered.
Adequate Coverage of Lesson Unit and Procedure: A similar lesson plan was
used by teachers in the different groups. The researcher ensured that the unit
was properly covered by the students before the administration of post-test
65
Experimental Bias: Experimental bias in research is a process where a

researcher influences the result in order to obtain a certain outcome
(Shuttleworth 2008). Though bias in many cases is unavoidable but it can be
minimized. The present researcher minimized bias by making use of their
normal Chemistry teacher to teach the students, giving the same lesson unit,
procedure and time to teach each group. Also students in the various groups
were administered the same instruments which were marked by the researcher
with the same marking scheme. The students were encouraged to put in their
best as they were informed it was part of their continuous assessment.
Method of Data Collection
Two weeks prior to the treatment a pre-test was administered to correct any
initial difference within the samples, this was scored and recorded. After the
pretest exercise treatment commenced for a period of six weeks. When
treatment was completed, a post- test was administered to the students which
was also scored and recorded for analysis. The pretest items were renumbered
before using it for post-test.
Methods of Data Analysis
The following statistics were used in analyzing the data collected for the study.
Research questions were answered using mean. Each correct answer in CAT
carried 4marks while in CIS, the following marks were attached to the options.
A =4, B =3, C = 2, D= 1. A two-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) at 0.05
significant levels was used to compare the difference in the mean score of
66
students and interaction between sex and instructional materials in the different
schools. It was two-way because there were two independent variables (gender
and instructional materials)
67
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
This chapter presents the results of data analyzed for study, which is
achievement scores and interest scores of male and female students taught with
different instructional materials (local and standard instructional materials).
Four research questions were answered using mean, while four hypotheses were
tested using ANCOVA.
Research Question 1
local materials and those taught with standard materials in Chemistry
Achievement Test (CAT)?
In answering this research question, a summary of the mean achievement of
students is given in Table 2.
Table 2: Mean achievement of scores of students in experimental group
(students taught with substituted local materials) and students in control group
(students taught with standard imported materials).
Group
Experimental
103
52.01
Control
66
39.54
Total
169
47.14
Key
N=Number of students in experimental and control groups
X = Mean of post-test score
68
Table 2 shows that students in the experiment group had higher mean
achievement score when compared to those in control group when taught with
different instructional materials.
Research Question 2
What are the mean post-test CAT scores of male and female students in the
control and experimental group?
This research question is answered in Table 3 which shows the mean
achievement of male and female students in CAT.
Table 3: Mean achievement of male and female students in both groups.
Sex
Male
93
45.03
Female
76
49.72
169
47.14
Total
Table 3 shows that female students had a higher mean achievement score when
compared with male students in CAT.
Research Question 3:
What is the mean post-test scores of students taught with substituted local
materials and those taught with standard materials in CIS?
This research question is answered by Table 4 which gives the mean post-test
interest scores of students in the experimental and control groups.
69
Table 4: Mean interest of scores of students in experimental group and students

in control group.
GROUP
Experimental
103
69.57
Control
66
68.76
Table 4 shows that students in experimental group had a higher mean interest
score than those in the control group.
Research Question 4
What is the mean post-test CIS scores of male and female students in control
and experimental group?
This research question is answered by Table 5 which shows the mean interest
score of male student in both groups.
Table 5: Mean interest score of male and female students in CIS.
Sex
Male
93
69.37
Female
76
69.11
Table 5 shows that male students had a mean interest score of 69.37 while
female students had a mean interest score of 69.11 on CIS.
Hypotheses Testing
Table of ANCOVA in Table 6 was used in testing hypotheses 1and 2
70
Table 6: Summary of ANCOVA results for CAT

Source
df
Sig (p)
Pretest (covariate)
13.74
.00
Group
17.39
.00
Sex
4.11
.04
Group* Sex
18.53
.00
Hypothesis 1
There is no significant difference in the mean post-test score of students taught
with substituted local materials and those taught with standard materials in
CAT.
Decision rule: Reject the null hypothesis if p< 0.05
From Table 6, ( source = GROUP, F=17.393, p<0.05) hence we reject the null
hypotheses and uphold an alternative hypotheses of a significant difference in
the mean achievement of students in the experimental (52.01) and control group
(39.54), in favour of those in experimental group who had a higher mean score.
Hypothesis 2
There is no significant difference in the post-test CAT scores of
female students in the control and experimental group.
male and
From Table 6, (source =SEX, F=4.11, p< 0.05), hence we reject the null
hypotheses and uphold an alternative hypotheses of a significant difference in
the mean achievement of students based on sex (male=45.03, female=49.72), in
favour of female students who had a higher mean score.
71
Table 7 is used in answering hypotheses 3 and 4.

Table 7: Summary of ANCOVA results on Students Interest in Chemistry
Source
df
Sig (p)
Pretest (covariate)
Group
Sex
Group* Sex
1
1
1
1
38.67
2.42
.39
.82
.00
.12
.53
.36
Decision rule: Reject the null hypotheses if p< 0.05

Hypothesis 3:
There is no significant difference in the mean post-test score of students
taught with substituted local materials and those taught with standard
materials in CIS.
From Table 7 it can be observed that (source =GROUP, F = 2.42,p> 0.05),
hence we accept the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean
post-test scores of students taught with substituted local materials and those
taught with standard materials in CIS.
Hypothesis 4:
There is no significant difference in the mean post-test CIS scores of male and
female students in the control and experimental group.
72
From Table 8, (source = SEX, F =.39, p> 0.05), hence we accept the null
hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean post-test CIS scores of male
Summary of Results
Four research questions raised in this study were answered using mean, and the
results presented in this chapter have shown that students taught with
substituted local materials achieved significantly more than those taught with
standard materials in CAT, also female students achieved more than their male
counterparts in CAT. In interest, there was no significant difference between the
interest of students in the control and experimental groups and between male
and female students. Out of the four hypotheses tested, two were rejected while
two were accepted.
73
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The aim of this chapter is to discuss the results of the data analyzed based on the
purpose of the study. They are discussed under the following subheadings;
Discussion of results, Implication of findings, Conclusion, Recommendation,
Limitations of the study and Suggestions for further studies.
Discussion of Results
The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of substituting
standard materials with local materials on the achievement and interest of senior
secondary school male and female students. It was revealed from results that the
overall mean achievement of students taught with substituted local materials,
was significantly different from those taught with standard imported materials
(as observed in Table 2). Students taught with local materials achieved higher
than those taught with standard materials. This is in line with the studies of
Onasanya and Omosewo (2011) and Oladejo, Olosunde, Ojebisi and Isola
(2011), who in similar studies revealed that students taught with improvised
materials achieved more than those taught with standard material. The
significant difference has therefore been attributed to the use of local
instructional materials in teaching and learning of Chemistry. The fact still
remains that, these local materials are also of high quality chemical content, also
the students were able to manipulate the materials without being afraid of harm
or damage, since these materials are of local relevance to them and appealed to
74
their different senses. They were able to taste acids in unripe orange lime to
know that its taste is truly sour or were able to feel a base that it is slippery.
Having these experiences, it was easy to recall that an acid has a sour taste or
that a base feels slippery when felt. Therefore, the use of local instructional
materials encourages creativity, brings learning home wards and better suits the
climatic conditions of the local environment, which improves and enhances
students achievement.
This study also revealed that the mean score of female students (49.72)
was statically higher than that of male students. This finding is further
supported by Limon and Manson (2002) who stated that on average, girls obtain
higher grades and complete high school at a higher rate compared to boys.
Although, Poelor and Feldhusen (2012), Ndu, Okeke and Igbojinwachu (2005)
in their studies, showed that girls academic achievements in Science and
Maths were statistically equal to those of boys co-educational and single sexed
schools. The result of this study has buttressed the fact that males and female
have about the same average 1Q and that single sex school also give their
students equal independence when effective instructional materials are utilised.
The mean scores of female students taught with standard materials did not differ
much from those taught with local instructional materials while those of male
students in both groups differed as shown in appendix I.
As it relates to students interest in Chemistry as a science subject, this
study showed that male and female students interest were similar in Chemistry,
75
despite the materials used. This finding is in line with that of Okeke (2012),
who found that male and female interest in Agriculture. Here it is even to say
that the use of local materials can equally evoke interest towards Chemistry, as
well as standard materials. A student who sees that the extract of unripe plantain
he or she throws away at home or the zobo (Hausa Language) drink he/she takes
at home can be used in a chemical test will be pleased to provide it for more
practical activities. It was revealed in this study that the use of local materials
can improve students interest in Chemistry in rural areas, where imported and
standard materials are not always available.
The use of local materials in Chemistry teaching and learning in this study
actually created a link between concepts and an everyday practical situation.
Students in the experimental group were able to give the uses of these local
materials in their own local setting, for example, they described how the base
(palm and plantain extract) were used in soap making. With this, the researcher
put it that the use of local material in Chemistry has created a link with the
cultural experience of the students and the study of Chemistry.
Implication of the Findings
The discussion made from the results of this study therefore implies that:
1)
It is possible to learn Chemistry and other science without having to

depend on the availability of standard imported materials or rely on it
even when present.
76
2)
Chemistry students will achieve more when they are exposed to local
instructional materials found in their immediate environments.
3)
Students can be exposed to meaningful laboratory experiences even

when lacking standard imported materials.
4)
Female students can still maintain a healthy competition with male

students when local materials are used for Chemistry classes.
5)
Chemistry students interest will also be aroused when they creatively

manipulate local materials during their chemistry lessons.
Conclusion
This study therefore concludes that the learning of Chemistry as well as
other sciences becomes more practical when students can use local materials in
their day to day laboratory experiment.
This will help them develop an
understanding of the nature of science and its relationship to the real world, so
that they can acquire the science process skills. The use of local materials will
enable Chemistry student in developing countries like Nigeria to adequately
compete with other international students as it will drive away the fear of
Chemistry being seen as a foreign and harmful subject. The manipulative and
creative skills of teachers as well, will greatly increase as they will be able to
source for newer and better materials to enhance learning in their classes.
More positive interest in chemistry will be fostered among students when local
materials are used in their classes. The use of local materials will create more
wealth of knowledge especially for beginners in Chemistry and also students
77
without good educational background, including students from rural settings

and illiterate homes. High sums of money spent in the importation of materials
and the problems associated with bringing them into the country can be
channelled into other areas of education like teacher incentive to bring about job
satisfaction.
Recommendations
As a result of the foregoing discussions and conclusion, the following
recommendations are made as regards how to improve on the use of local
instructional materials in the teaching of chemistry in secondary schools.
1)
Chemistry teachers should make instructional materials available in

every lesson, especially materials that are of local relevance to the
students or at least ask them to bring some of these local instructional
which can be sourced from their immediate environment. This is to
make them active participants in the learning process.
2)
Chemistry teachers should always try to substitute standard materials

with local materials. This is to enable students and teachers exhibit
their manipulative skills, without fear of the cost and time of
replacement or causing harm to both parties, as poised with the use of
standard materials.
3)
Since it has been established that local instructional materials can

enhance achievement and interest, relevant authorities concerned
78
should ensure the large provision of these materials to schools in both

urban and rural schools.
4)
Workshops and seminars should be organized for pre-service and inserving science teachers, on the effectiveness of these local materials
and how to properly utilize then in the science classes.
5)
Textbook writers and authors should include these local instructional

materials as their examples for students to study.
6)
Government authorities should channel huge resources previously

used for the importation of standard instructional materials, to other
areas like teacher incentives and sponsorship of research work of this
nature.
Limitations of the study

This study substituted standard materials with locally available materials such
as local acids, bases and acid-base indicators, however local substitutes of
equipments such as calibrated burettes, pipettes could not be provided. Also the
concentration of the local acids and bases was not determined, so calculations
involved in acid- base titrations was not included in the scope of the study.
Suggestions for Further Research

A research of this nature should be carried out in other science subjects
and with a larger number of samples
79
A study such as this should be carried out in other states of the federation
to include co-educational schools.
80
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91
Appendix A: Scheme of Work for the Study

Week
1.
Topic
Content
Acid
Definition, examples and characteristics of

Acids
2.
Acid
Preparation of acids
3.
Base
Definition, examples and characteristics of

Bases
4.
Base
Preparation of Bases
5.
Acid-base
Neutralization reactions, acid- base indicators
6.
Acid base
Neutralization reactions/self study
92
Appendix B: Daily Lesson plan used for experimental group

Lesson 1
Topic: Acids
Unit: Definition, examples and Basicity of an acid
Duration: 50 minutes
Specific Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to
1. Define acids
2. Differentiate between organic and inorganic acids.
3. Mention some acids,their sources and component elements.
4. Explain the term Basicity of an acid.
5. Give examples of monobasic, dibasic and tribasic acids.
Materials for the lesson: samples of standard acids, unripe oranges, lime, lemon,
vinegar.
Entering behavior: students are already able to
1. Write formula of chemical compounds
2. Identify cations and anion
3. Write balanced equations.
CONTENT DEVELOPMENT
Sub-topic
Teacher Activity
Student activity
Set Induction
Teacher introduces the days lesson by They listen and respond.

informing students of the acid content
in some food substances.
Today we shall talk about acids.
Definition of an An acid is a substance which donates Students write down the

acid
hydrogen ion (H+) as its only positive definition
ion when dissolved in water.
An example is given as
When HCl is dissolved in water the
following reaction takes place
HCl
H+ + Cl
93
What is another name for H+
proton
Good, an acid can also be defined as a

substance that donates a proton to
water e.g
H2SO4 2H+ + SO42The above process is called ionization.
Write the ionization reaction of
HNO3.
HNO3
H+ + NO3-
Acids are classified into organic and

Classification of
inorganic (mineral) acids. Organic
acids
acids are found in plants and animal
materials. Now lets study this chart
then you tell me the sources of these
acids
Ethanoic acid
Tartaric acid
Citric acid
Ascorbic acid
Latic acid
Amino acid
Fatty acid
Vinegar
Grape
Lime, lemon
Orange
Milk
Proteins
Fat and oil
Inorganic acids are prepared from

mineral materials. Below are some
examples and their constituent element
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Hydrogen and chlorine
Trioxonitrate V acid (HNO3)
Hydrogen, nitrogen and

oxygen
Trioxocarbonate IV acid (H2CO3)
Hydrogen,carbon
oxygen
Tetraoxophosphate V acid (H3PO4)
Basicity
Acid
of
an The basicity of an acid is the number

of hydrogen atom per molecule of an
acid that can be replaced by a metallic
ion. As can be seen below
and
Hydrogen,phosphorus
and oxygen
94
HCl
H+ + Cl-
Here only one hydrogen atom can be

replaced, so it is monobasic. Now take
a look at this
H2SO4 2H+ + SO42How many is replaced now
Two hydrogen atoms
This is called a dibasic acid.

Now write for tribasic in your notes
H3PO4 3H++PO43-
Who can give the basicity of this

CH3COOH H++ CH3COO-
Summary
Evaluation
In the last example, ethanoic acid has Responses (monobasic)

four hydrogen atom but only one of
them can be replaced by a metallic ion
Students listen and take
Teacher reviews the major points of
notes
the lesson.
Questions are asked and
answered
Define an acid
What are organic acids?
Write the basicity of the following
acids; H2CO3, HNO3
Assignment
1. Differentiate
between
organic and inorganic acids
and give two examples of
each.
2. Mention some acids,their
sources and component
elements.
3. Give
examples
monobasic, dibasic
tribasic acids.
of
and
95
Lesson 2
Topic: Acids
Subtopic: Characteristics of acids, Preparation and uses of acids
Duration: 40mins
Specific Objective: By the end of the lesson, the student should be able to
1. Write the physical properties of acids
2. Observe some of these properties
3. State the chemical properties of acids
4. Give the uses of a typical acid studied.
Materials: unripe oranges, lime, lemon, grape, litmus paper, extract from hibiscus, vinegar.
Entering Behaviour: students are already able to
1. Define acids
2. Mention some acids and their sources
3. Differentiate between the terms physical and chemical property
4. Write and balance equations
5. Explain some periodic properties of elements e.g reactivity
6. Give some non-metallic oxides
CONTENT DEVELOPMENT
Set Induction
Teacher set induces students by Students touch ,listen and

allowing them touch some organic acids. are ready to learn
Teacher reviews some concept studied in
the previous lesson
Physical Properties Today we shall study the physical and

of acids
chemical properties of acids. Below are
the physical properties of acids
1. Dilute acids have sour taste
(Teacher taste an unripe orange
and allow one or two students to
Students take down notes,
do same)
carryout classactivity and
ask questions
2. Acids turn blue litmus red.
(an activity is also carried out
96
with litmus paper)

3. The concentrated form of strong
acids are corrosive, e.g HCL,
H2SO4,
Chemical
Properties
Acids
The chemical properties of acids are

of
Reaction with metals: metals more

reactive than hydrogen react with acids
to liberate hydrogen gas as can been seen
in the equation below
2Na + 2HCl 2NaCl +H2(g)
Now use Zn or any other metal to show a
Zn + 2HCl ---ZnCl2 +H2
similar
reaction. (teacher
guides
students)
2. Reaction with trioxocarbonates : acids
react with metallic trioxocarbonates to
liberate CO2(g)
HCl + Na2CO3 NaCl +CO2(g) + H2O
H2SO4 + CaCO3 CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
Are these equations balanced?
Responses
Who can balance them for us, thank you.
Preparation
Acids
of Oraganic acids are obtained freely in Latic acid from milk, citric
nature, can you please give us some of acid from lemon, ethanoic
their sources?
acid from vinegar e.t.c
Good
Inorganic acids are prepared by the
following methods
1. By direct combination of the
constituent elements e.g
H2 + Cl2 2HCl(g)
The HCl then dissolves in water
to give HCl(aq). What is the name
Activated charcoal
of the catalyst used for this
reaction?
97
2. Acids can also be prepared by

dissolving acid anhydrides in
water. An acid anhydride is the What is acid anhydride?
oxide of a non metal e.g CO2,
NO2, SO3. They dissolve in water
to form acids as follows
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
summary
Evaluation
SO3 + H2O ?
H2SO4
P4O10 + 6H20 ?
4H3PO4
Today we have learnt the physical and

chemical properties of acids. You are
going to do an assignment for me, you
are to write the uses of these acids we
have studied and submit it in the next
class.
1. Mention three physical properties
of acids
2. What are the products when an
acid reacts with a trioxocarbonate
?
3. How can acids be prepared in the
laboratory.
Assignment
Write five uses of the acids studied
98
Lesson 3
Topic: Base
Sub topic: definition, example, alkalis
Duration: 50munites
Specifies objective: by the end of the lesion, students should be able to
1.
2.
3.
4.
Define a base
Give examples of base
Differentiate between Alkalis and insoluble bases
Give examples of alkalis
Materials:, chart of some bases and their constituent elements, unripe plantain peel solution.
Entering behaviour. Students are already able to
1. Write ionization equations
2. Identify hydroxyl ion (OH-)
3. Write symbols of metals
Content development
Sub topic
Set Induction
Definition of a base
Teacher activity
Teacher reviews the last lesson
Students activity
Students listen and are
ready for the lesson
A base can be defined as a substance that

1. Produces hydroxgy ion (OH) when
dissolved in water e.g
NaOH Na+ + OH2. Accepts a proton e.g
H+ + OH H20
3. That reacts with an acid to form
salt and water only e.g
HCl+ NaOH NaCl +H20
Examples of bases
when metals react with oxygen they form

metallic oxides, which are also called
bases e.g
2Mg + O2 -> 2MgO

down notes
99
2Ca + O2 -> 2CaO

These metallic oxides are basic in nature,
some can dissolve in water to form
hydroxides e.g
Na20 + H20 -> 2NaOH
teacher guides student to write other
example

down notes
all metallic oxides and hydroxides are

bases, examples are KOH, LiOH,
Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2
Alkalis
Students what is another name for the

group 1 elements,
Alkali metals
Good,
can you give me some elements in this
group, Good
Sodium, potassium,
lithium
The oxides of the metals are soluble in H20

to form Alkalis
Therefore an alkali is a soluble base. They
are also known as strong bases e.g KOH,
NaOH, LiOH
Difference between
a base and alkali
The difference between a base and an

alkali, is that all alkalis are soluble in water
while not all base are soluble in water
Summary
Now students tell me what you have learnt
today
Good you have learnt very well.
Responses and
comments are made by
students
100
Evaluation
Please answer the following questions in

your notes
What is an alkali?
State the difference between an alkali and a
base
How are metallic oxides formed?
The name of the product formed when an
acid reacts with a base is called?
101
Lesson 4
Topic: Base
Sub topic: Characteristics, Preparation and uses of bases
Specific objectives: by the end of the lesson, the students should be able to
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
State the physical properties of bases

Differentiate between the properties of acids and bases
Differentiate between an insoluble base and an alkali
Show the chemical properties of bases with equation
Mention how bases are prepared
Give some uses of sample bases studied
Materials:, locally substituted bases, litmus paper.

Entering behaviour: students are already able to
1. Define a base
2. Differentiate between a base and an alkali
3. Mention some bases.
Content Development
Sub topic
Set induction
Physical properties of
bases
Teacher Activity
Teacher adds water to ashes of plantain
peel and ask students to feel the solution
The following are the physical properties

of bases
Students Activity
Students feel the
solution and ready for
the lesson
Students take down

notes.
1. Soluble bases turn red litmus

paper blue (teacher demonstrates)
2. They are soapy when felt.
(students in experimental group
feels samples of a base)
3. They have a bitter taste
4. Concentrated alkalis are very
corrosive
Students write down

equations to show
neutralization reactions.
102
Chemical properties
of a base
A typical base react with an acid to form

salt and water only. E.g
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
The above reaction is called a
neutralization reaction.
Alkalis react with Ammonium salts in the

presence of heat giving out ammonia gas
e. g
Sodium tetraoxosulphate
VI, ammonia gas and
water.
2NaOH + (NH4)2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2NH3

+2H2O
What are the names of the products
formed. Good.
Bases or alkalis can be prepared

by the following methods:
Preparation of bases
1. Burning a metal in oxygen e. g

2Ca + O2 2CaO
2Zn + O2 2ZnO
2. When metallic oxides are
dissolved in water to give alkalis
e. g
Na2O + H2O 2NaOH
K2O + H2O 2KOH
Students listen, balance

equations and copy
notes
3. Some metals like sodium react

readly with water to give their
hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
Now write the equation for this
reaction?
Is the equation balanced?
Na + H2O 2NaOH + H2
Balanced.
So far we have seen and observed the
physical properties of base, chemical
Responses are made by

students
103
properties and how they are prepared.

Summary
Any question?
Evaluation
Define a base
Differentiate between a base and an alkali
Mention some bases you have studied
Assignment
write the uses of bases especially the one
you have studied?
104
Lesson 5
Topic: Acid Base reactions
Sub topic: measurement of acidity and alkalinity, acid-base indicators.
Duration: 50minutes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
State the meaning of pH

Draw a pH scale
Measure the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance
Define and indicator
Note color changes of different indicators in acidic and basic medium.
Materials: samples of local indicators; Hibiscus, Purple hart, Zobo.

1.
2.
3.
4.
Define acid and state their physical properties as well as their chemical properties.
Define bases and alkalis state their physical and chemical properties.
State what is formed when an acid reacts with a base
Identify the difference between strong acid and alkalis
Content development
Sub topic
Set induction
Teacher activity
Students activity
Teacher reviews the previous lesson, then

concludes by; not all acids and base have
same strength?
Some are weak and others are strong.
We can only determine their strength by
measuring the degree of their acidity or
alkalinity using a pH scale.
Definition of pH
The term pH denotes hydrogen ion

concentration or potential hydrogen. It is a
measure of the strength of hydrogen ion in a
substance.
The pH scale is used in measuring the
strength of acids and base. The pH scale has
values ranging from 0 14.(teacher shows a
Students ask questions,

listen and copy notes
105
chart of pH scale)
Point 7 indicates neutral as can be seen in the
diagram. Students from 6.9 to 0 shows what?
Increasing acidity
Increasing alkalinity
While from 7.1 to 14 indicates?

Now, if you have two solutions with pH 3.4
and 5.9, which is more acidic?
Definition of
indicators
Solution 3.4 is more

acidic
Apart from a pH meter, an indicator can be

used to measure acidic or basic substances.
An indicator is a substance that shows
distinctly different colours in acid and basic
media. They are obtained from plant
materials, a commonly used indicator is
litmus.
Class what is the colour of litmus in
an acid?
And in a base?
Red
Blue
Good
Other examples include methyl
orange, phenolphthalein etc.
(Students in experimental group are
presented local indicators)
Now observe these indicators and their Students observe color
changes in acidic and
colour change in acid and base, then
basic medium.
write them down in your note.
(students are allowed to carry out
demonstration).
Summary
Today we have learnt that not all acids

and bases have the same strength, can
someone tell me how to determine
their strength?
By using a pH scale or
meter
Clap for yourselves

What else can we use to determine
acidity or basicity?
An indicator
106
Good.
The term pH stands for ?
Evaluation
If two solutions with pH 5.6 and 9.2

respectively, which of them could be
an acid?
Indicators are usual obtained from?
State the colour of a named indicator
in an acidic and basic medium.
107
Lesson 6
Topic: Acid-Base reactions
Sub topic: Neutralization reaction
Duration: 50minutes
Specific Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to
1.
2.
3.
4.
Define neutralization
Write neutralization equations
Note the products of neutralization reactions
Demonstrate neutralization reactions
Materials: usual titration apparatus: Burette, Pipette, Beaker, Conical flask,

Retort stand, Samples of local acids, local Bases and local Indicators
.
1. State the chemical properties of acids and bases
2. Mention some indicators
3. State the colour change of some indicators in acid and basic mediums
Content development
Sub topic
Set induction
Definition of
neutralization
reaction
Teachers activity
Student activities
Teacher reviews the previous lesson and

also discusses about acids and bases
A neutralization reaction is one in which

all the replaceable hydrogen ion in an
acid is completely replaced by a metallic
ion to from salt and water only.

down notes
It takes the form

Acid + Base salt + H2O
Now mention some acids and bases?
HCl, H2SO4,NaOH,
Let us write some neutralizations reaction Ca(OH)2, KOH
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)
108
H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + H2O

Now
CH3COOH + NaOH
CH3COONa + H2O
Neutralization reaction are carried out as
titration reactions, a solution of known
concentration (standard solution) is
gradually added to a base until
neutralization is reached
Meaning of
neutralization point
Neutralization point is that point

when all the H+ from the acid
have completely reacted with the
OH- in the base to form?
Students write and

balance equations
Students listen and copy

notes.
H2O
H2O. It is usually noted by a sharp

change in the indicator used.
Practical activities
Now let us carry out some

neutralization reactions. (teacher
brings out apparatus for titration
reactions)
Burette for measuring an accurate
amount of acid
A pipette for the base, these others are

beakers, conical flasks, retort stand etc.
Teacher what is this

called?
And this
Now watch me carry out a neutralization

Students watch and assist
reaction. The acid is carefully poured into
in setting up the apparatus
a burette with the aid of a funnel, while a
pipette is used to measure an accurate
amount of a base into a conical flask.
Then two drops of a suitable indicator is
added to the base after which the acid is
carefully added to the base until
neutralization point is reached.
Summary
In our next class, you will all do that

Teacher summarizes the lesson by
reviewing some concepts learnt.
109
Appendix C: Daily Lesson Plan used for Control Group

Lesson 1
Topic: Acids
Unit: Definition, examples and Basicity of an acid
Specific Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to
1. Define acids
2. Differentiate between organic and inorganic acids.
3. Mention some acids,their sources and component elements.
4. Explain the term Basicity of an acid.
5. Give examples of monobasic, dibasic and tribasic acids.
Materials for the lesson: samples of standard ethanoic acid,
Entering behavior: students are already able to
1. Write formula of chemical compounds
2. Identify cations and anion
3. Write balanced equations.
Content Development
Sub-topic
Teacher Activity
Student activity
Set Induction
Teacher introduces the days lesson by They listen and respond.

informing students of the acid content
in some food substances.
Today we shall talk about acids.
Definition of an An acid is a substance which donates Students write down the

acid
hydrogen ion (H+) as its only positive definition
ion when dissolved in water.
An example is given as
When HCl is dissolved in water the
following reaction takes place
HCl
H+ + Cl
110
What is another name for H+
proton
Good, an acid can also be defined as a

substance that donates a proton to
water e.g
H2SO4 2H+ + SO42The above process is called ionization.
Write the ionization reaction of
HNO3.
HNO3
H+ + NO3-
Acids are classified into organic and

inorganic (mineral) acids. Organic
acids are found in plants and animal
materials. Now lets study this chart
then you tell me the sources of these
acids
Ethanoic acid
Tartaric acid
Citric acid
Ascorbic acid
Latic acid
Amino acid
Vinegar
Grape
Lime, lemon
Orange
Milk
Proteins
Fatty acid
Classification of
Fat and oil
acids
Inorganic acids are prepared from
mineral materials. Below are some
examples and their constituent element
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Hydrogen and chlorine
Trioxonitrate V acid (HNO3)
Hydrogen, nitrogen and

oxygen
Trioxocarbonate IV acid (H2CO3)
Hydrogen,carbon
oxygen
Tetraoxophosphate V acid (H3PO4)
The basicity of an acid is the number

of hydrogen atom per molecule of an
acid that can be replaced by a metallic
ion. As can be seen below
and
Hydrogen,phosphorus
and oxygen
111
HCl
Basicity
Acid
of
H+ + Cl-
an Here only one hydrogen atom can be Two hydrogen atoms

replaced, so it is monobasic. Now take
a look at this
H3PO4 3H++PO43-
H2SO4 2H+ + SO42How many is replaced now
Responses (monobasic)
This is called a dibasic acid.

Now write for tribasic in your notes

notes
Who can give the basicity of this

CH3COOH H++ CH3COO-
Questions are asked and

In the last example, ethanoic acid has answered
four hydrogen atom but only one of
them can be replaced by a metallic ion
Summary
Evaluation
Teacher reviews the major points of

the lesson.
Define an acid
What are organic acids?
Write the basicity of the following
acids; H2CO3, HNO3
Assignment
4. Differentiate
between
organic and inorganic acids
and give two examples of
each.
5. Mention some acids,their
sources and component
elements.
6. Give
examples
monobasic, dibasic
tribasic acids.
of
and
112
Lesson 2
Topic: Acids
Subtopic: Characteristics of acids, Preparation and uses of acids
Duration: 40mins
Specific Objective: By the end of the lesson, the student should be able to
1. Write the physical properties of acids
2. Observe some of these properties
3. State the chemical properties of acids
4. Give the uses of a typical acid studied.
Materials: ethanoic acid, litmus paper.

Entering Behaviour: students are already able to
1. Define acids
2. Mention some acids and their sources
3. Differentiate between the terms physical and chemical property
4. Write and balance equations
5. Explain some periodic properties of elements e.g reactivity
6. Give some non-metallic oxides
Content Development
Set Induction
Teacher reviews some concept studied in Students listen and are

the previous lesson
ready to learn
Physical Properties Today we shall study the physical and

of acids
chemical properties of acids. Below are
the physical properties of acids
1. Dilute acids have sour taste
2. Acids turn blue litmus red.
(an activity is also carried out Students take down notes,
carryout classactivity and
with litmus paper)
ask questions
3. The concentrated form of strong
acids are corrosive, e.g HCL,
H2SO4,
113
Chemical
Properties
Acids
The chemical properties of acids are

of
Reaction with metals: metals more

reactive than hydrogen react with acids
to liberate hydrogen gas as can been seen
in the equation below
2Na + 2HCl 2NaCl +H2(g)
Now use Zn or any other metal to show
Zn + 2HCl ---ZnCl2 +H2
a similar reaction. (teacher guides
students)
2. Reaction with trioxocarbonates : acids
react with metallic trioxocarbonates to
liberate CO2(g)
HCl + Na2CO3 NaCl +CO2(g) + H2O
H2SO4 + CaCO3 CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
Are these equations balanced?
Responses
Who can balance them for us, thank you.
Preparation
Acids
of Oraganic acids are obtained freely in Latic acid from milk, citric
nature, can you please give us some of acid from lemon, ethanoic
their sources?
acid from vinegar e.t.c
Good
Inorganic acids are prepared by the
following methods
3. By direct combination of the
constituent elements e.g
H2 + Cl2 2HCl(g)
The HCl then dissolves in water
to give HCl(aq). What is the name
Activated charcoal
of the catalyst used for this
reaction?
4. Acids can also be prepared by
dissolving acid anhydrides in
water. An acid anhydride is the What is acid anhydride?
oxide of a non metal e.g CO2,
NO2, SO3. They dissolve in water
114
to form acids as follows

CO2 + H2O H2CO3
summary
Evaluation
SO3 + H2O ?
H2SO4
P4O10 + 6H20 ?
4H3PO4
Today we have learnt the physical and

chemical properties of acids. You are
going to do an assignment for me, you
are to write the uses of these acids we
have studied and submit it in the next
class.
1. Mention three physical properties
of acids
2. What are the products when an
acid reacts with a trioxocarbonate
?
3. How can acids be prepared in the
laboratory.
Assignment
Write five uses of the acids studied
115
Lesson 3
Topic: Base
Sub topic: definition, example, alkalis
Duration: 50munites
Specifies objective: by the end of the lesion, students should be able to
1.
2.
3.
4.
Define a base
Give examples of base
Differentiate between Alkalis and insoluble bases
Give examples of alkalis
Materials:, chart of some bases and their constituent elements, sodium hydroxide solution.
Entering behaviour. Students are already able to
4. Write ionization equations
5. Identify hydroxyl ion (OH-)
6. Write symbols of metals
Content development
Sub topic
Set Induction
Definition of a base
Teacher activity
Teacher reviews the last lesson
Students activity
Students listen and are
ready for the lesson
A base can be defined as a substance that

4. Produces hydroxgy ion (OH) when
dissolved in water e.g
NaOH Na+ + OH5. Accepts a proton e.g
H+ + OH H20
6. That reacts with an acid to form
salt and water only e.g
HCl+ NaOH NaCl +H20
Examples of bases
when metals react with oxygen they form

metallic oxides, which are also called
bases e.g
2Mg + O2 -> 2MgO

down notes
116
2Ca + O2 -> 2CaO

These metallic oxides are basic in nature,
some can dissolve in water to form
hydroxides e.g
Na20 + H20 -> 2NaOH
teacher guides student to write other
example

down notes
all metallic oxides and hydroxides are

bases, examples are KOH, LiOH,
Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2
Alkalis
Students what is another name for the

group 1 elements,
Alkali metals
Good,
can you give me some elements in this
group, Good
Sodium, potassium,
lithium
The oxides of the metals are soluble in H20

to form Alkalis
Therefore an alkali is a soluble base. They
are also known as strong bases e.g KOH,
NaOH, LiOH
Difference between
a base and alkali
Summary
The difference between a base and an

alkali, is that all alkalis are soluble in water
while not all base are soluble in water
Now students tell me what you have learnt

today
Good you have learnt very well.
Evaluation
Please answer the following questions in
Responses and
comments are made by
students
117
your notes
What is an alkali?
State the difference between an alkali and a
base
How are metallic oxides formed?
The name of the product formed when an
acid reacts with a base is called?
118
Lesson 4
Topic: Base
Sub topic: Characteristics, Preparation and uses of bases
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
State the physical properties of bases

Differentiate between the properties of acids and bases
Differentiate between an insoluble base and an alkali
Show the chemical properties of bases with equation
Mention how bases are prepared
Give some uses of sample bases studied
Materials:, sodium hydroxide solution, litmus paper.

1. Define a base
2. Differentiate between a base and an alkali
3. Mention some bases.
Content Development
Sub topic
Set induction
Physical properties of
bases
Teacher Activity
Teacher reviews the previous lesson
Students listen, recall

and ready for the lesson
The following are the physical properties

of bases
1. Soluble bases turn red litmus
paper blue (teacher demonstrates)
2. They are soapy when felt.
3. They have a bitter taste
4. Concentrated alkalis are very
corrosive
Chemical properties
Students Activity
A typical base react with an acid to form

salt and water only. E.g
Students take down

notes.
Students write down
119
of a base
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

The above reaction is called a
neutralization reaction.
equations to show
neutralization reactions.
Alkalis react with Ammonium salts in the

presence of heat giving out ammonia gas
e. g
2NaOH + (NH4)2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2NH3
+2H2O
What are the names of the products
formed. Good.
Preparation of bases
Sodium tetraoxosulphate
VI, ammonia gas and
water.
Bases or alkalis can be prepared

by the following methods:
1. Burning a metal in oxygen e. g
2Ca + O2 2CaO
2Zn + O2 2ZnO
2. When metallic oxides are
dissolved in water to give alkalis
e. g
Na2O + H2O 2NaOH
K2O + H2O 2KOH
3. Some metals like sodium react
readly with water to give their
hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
Now write the equation for this
reaction?
Is the equation balanced?
Students listen, balance

equations and copy
notes
Na + H2O 2NaOH + H2
Balanced.
Summary
So far we have seen and observed the

physical properties of base, chemical
properties and how they are prepared.
Any question?
Responses are made by

students
120
Evaluation
Define a base
Differentiate between a base and an alkali
Mention some bases you have studied
Assignment
write the uses of bases especially the one
you have studied?
121
Lesson 5
Topic: Acid Base reactions
Sub topic: measurement of acidity and alkalinity, acid-base indicators.
Duration: 50minutes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
State the meaning of pH

Draw a pH scale
Measure the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance
Define and indicator
Note color changes of different indicators in acidic and basic medium.
Materials: sodium hydroxide , litmus paper.

1.
2.
3.
4.
Define acid and state their physical properties as well as their chemical properties.
Define bases and alkalis state their physical and chemical properties.
State what is formed when an acid reacts with a base
Identify the difference between strong acid and alkalis
Content development
Sub topic
Set induction
Teacher activity
Teacher reviews the previous lesson.
Students activity
Students listen and get
ready for the days
lesson.
Some acids and bases are weak and others

are strong.
We can only determine their strength by
measuring the degree of their acidity or
alkalinity using a pH scale.
Definition of pH
The term pH denotes hydrogen ion

concentration or potential hydrogen. It is a
measure of the strength of hydrogen ion in a
substance.
The pH scale is used in measuring the
strength of acids and base. The pH scale has
Students ask questions,

listen and copy notes
122
values ranging from 0 14.(teacher shows a

chart of pH scale)
Point 7 indicates neutral as can be seen in the
diagram. Students from 6.9 to 0 shows what?
Increasing acidity
While from 7.1 to 14 indicates?
Increasing alkalinity
Now, if you have two solutions with pH 3.4

and 5.9, which is more acidic
Yes you there
Solution 3.4 is more

acidic
thank you
Definition of
indicators
Apart from a pH meter, an indicator can be

used to measure acidic or basic substances.
An indicator is a substance that shows
distinctly different colours in acid and basic
media. They are obtained from plant
materials, a commonly used indicator is
litmus.
Class what is the colour of litmus in
an acid?
And in a base?
Red
Blue
Good
Other examples include methyl
orange, phenolphthalein etc.
Summary
Today we have learnt that not all acids

and bases have the same strength, can
someone tell me how to determine
their strength?
What else can we use to determine
acidity or basicity?
Good.
Evaluation
The term pH stands for ?

If two solutions with pH 5.6 and 9.2
respectively, which of them could be
an acid?
By using a pH scale or
meter
An indicator
123
Indicators are usual obtained from?

State the colour of a named indicator
in an acidic and basic medium.
Lesson 6
Topic: Acid-Base reactions
Sub topic: Neutralization reaction
Duration: 50minutes
Specific Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to
1.
2.
3.
4.
Define neutralization
Write neutralization equations
Note the products of neutralization reactions
Demonstrate neutralization reactions
Materials: usual titration apparatus: Burette, Pipette, Beaker, Conical flask,

Retort stand, ethanoic acid solution, sodium hydroxide solution.
.
1. State the chemical properties of acids and bases
2. Mention some indicators
3. State the colour change of some indicators in acid and basic mediums
Content development
Sub topic
Set induction
Definition of
neutralization
reaction
Teachers activity
Student activities
Who can tell us some of the chemical

properties of an acid?
They react with base to

form salt and water only.
That type of reaction is called

neutralization reaction, say it
Neutralization reaction
A neutralization reaction is one in which

all the replaceable hydrogen ion in an
acid is completely replaced by a metallic
ion to from salt and water only.
HCl, H2SO4,NaOH,
Ca(OH)2, KOH
Students write and
balance equations
124
It takes the form

Acid + Base salt + H2O
Now mention some acids and bases?
Students listen and copy

notes.
Let us write some neutralizations reaction

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)
H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + H2O
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa +
H2O
Neutralization reaction are carried out as
titration reactions, a solution of known
concentration (standard solution) is
gradually added to a base until
neutralization is reached
Meaning of
neutralization point
Practical activities
H2O
Teacher what is this

called?
Neutralization point is that point when all

the H+ from the acid have completely
reacted with the OH- in the base to form?
And this
H2O. It is usually noted by a sharp

change in the indicator used.
Students watch and assist

in setting up the apparatus
Now let us carry out some neutralization

reactions. (teacher brings out apparatus
for titration reactions)
Burette for measuring an accurate amount

of acid
A pipette for the base, these others are

beakers, conical flasks, retort stand etc.
Now watch me carry out a neutralization
reaction. The acid is carefully poured into
a burette with the aid of a funnel, while a
pipette is used to measure an accurate
amount of a base into a conical flask.
Then two drops of a suitable indicator is
added to the base after which the acid is
125
carefully added to the base until

neutralization point is reached.
Summary
Teacher summarizes the major points in
the lesson.
126
Appendix D: CHEMISTRY ACHIEVEMENT TEST

INSTRUCTIONS: Answer all questions; choose the option that best
answers the questions below.
Time Allowed: 30mins
1.
Acids have ..taste [A] Sweet [B]Salty [C] Sour

[D] Bitter.
2.
An acid changes the color of litmus from [A] red to blue [B] blue to red
[C] red to orange [D] blue to purple.
3.
Acids react with bases in ..reaction [A] oxidation

[B] displacement [C] neutralisation [D] decomposition.
4.
Which of the following metal will react with an acid to liberate hydrogen
gas [A] Iron [B] Silver [C] Mercury [D] Gold.
5.
An example of an organic acid is [A] HCl [B] HNO3 [C] CH3COOH

[D] HCO3.
6.
Lactic acid can be obtained from [A] Grape [B] Vinegar [C]
Meat [D] Milk.
7.
The product of the following reaction when balanced is H2SO4 + NaOH

= ? + H2O is [A] Na2O [B] NaSO4 [C] Na2SO4 [D] NaS.
8.
A weak acid is one which [A] is not corrosive [B] does not producer salt
with alkali [C] does not conduct electricity in aqueous solution [D] all of
the above.
9.
A base feels.when felt [A] sticky [B] slippery [C] severe

[D]silky
10.
An alkali is ..[A] an unreactive base [B]an insoluble

base [C] a soluble base [D]an acidic base.
11.
A base produces one of the following when dissolved in water [A] H+

[B] H3O+ [C] H2O [D] OH-
127
12.
What is the basicity of the following acids CH3COOH, H3PO4 and HCl
[A] 3, 3, 1 [B] 1, 3, 1 [C] 4, 3, 1 [D] 1, 1, 1.
13.
An example of an alkali is [A] Mg(OH)2 [B] KOH [C] Al(OH)3 [D]

Zn(OH)3.
14.
Which one of the following is not used for an acid-base titration [A]
burette [B] funnel [C] filter paper [D] beaker?
15.
An indicator does what [A] shows the concentration of the acid [B]
indicates the basicity [C] indicates neutralisation point [D] helps the base.
16.
Indicators are dyes obtained from [A] acids [B] bases [C] charcoal [D]
plants.
17.
A solution of known concentration is called [A] a saturated solution [B]

a molar solution [C] a standard solution [D] a dilute solution.
Supply answers to the following

18. In an acid-base reaction the only product apart from water is a
128
19.
Which of these is best used in measuring an accurate amount of acid to be

used?
20.
To accurately measure 25cm3 of a base we use figure
21.
What are the names of figure c and d.
22.
What criteria would you use to describe the acidity of a substance ? [A]
Basicity [B] No of atoms [C] Hydrogen ion concentration [D] colour of
acid.
23.
What solution will you consider more acidic ? [A] CH 3COOH of pH 5

[B] CH3COOH of pH 7 [C] CH3COOH [D] CH3COOH of pH 10
24
How would you decide if a solution is acidic or basic? [A] Feeling with
our hands [B] tasting the solution [C] using a solution of red cabbage [D]
pouring it on ones cloth.
25.
Which of the following can be used to describe an indicator ? [A] must be

red in color [B] show different color change in acid and base solution
[C] always exist in the liquid state [D] does not have any effect on acid
or base.
129
Appendix E: Answer to chemistry achievement test

1. C
2. B
3. C
4. A
5. C
6. D
7. C
8. A
9. B
10. C
11. D
12. B
13. B
14. C
15. C
16. D
17. C
18. Salt
19. A
20. B
21. Conical Flask and Beaker
22. C
23. A
24. C
25. B
130
APPENDIX F: LIST OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OWERRI EDUCATIONAL

ZONE I
S/N Name of School

Owerri Municipal
1
Boys Sec, Sch. New Owerri
2
Comprehensive Development Sec. Sch. Douglas
Owerri
3
Emmanuel College Owerri
4
Govt. Sec. Sch. Owerri
5
Govt. Technical College Owerri
6
Ikenegbu Girls Sec, Sch. Owerri
7
Urban Development Sec. School Owerri
Owerri North
1
Agbala Sec. Sch. Agbala
2
Akwakwuma Girls Sec. Sch. Akwakwuma
3
Cassita Maria Sec. Sch. Emekuku
4
Comm. Sec. Sch. Obibiezena
5
Community Sec. Sch. Emekuku
6
Comprehensive Sec. Sch. Amakohia
7
Comprehensive Sec. Sch. Emekuku
8
Comprehensive Sec. Sch. Orji
9
Development Junior Sec. Sch. Mbaona Emei
10 Egbu Comprehensive Sec. Sch.
11 Emekuku High School Emekuku
12 Emii Secondary Technical
13 Naze Secondary School
14 Ogbeke Obibi Sec. School
15 Uratta Secondary School
Owerri West
1
Amakohia Ubi Secondary School
2
Ara Secondary School
3
Army Day Secondary School
4
Bishop Lasbrey Girls Secondary School
5
Comprehensive Secondary School Avu
6
Eziobodo Secondary Technical School
7
Ihiagwa Secondary School
8
Ndegwu Secondary School
9
Nekede Secondary School
10 Oforola Community Secondary School
11 Orogwe Community Sec. School
12 Sec. Technical School Irette
Source: Secondary Education Management Board Owerri, Imo State.
Total
236 236
150 310 460
147
843
282
66
650
146
147
843
282
650
212
10
12
39
129
49
25
44
58
15
50
15
48
8
200
77
18
20
98
26
12
10
17
86
31
27
18
200
77
30
59
227
75
37
54
58
32
136
46
75
10
33
97
26
20
11
24
42
3
52
8
25
46
71
47
18
19
13
23
58
2
67
5
35
79
168
47
44
39
24
47
100
5
119
13
131
Appendix G: Sampled Schools for the Study

Group
Boys
Population
school
Experimental Boys
50
model new
Owerri
Control
Emmamuel 43
college
Owerri
Total
93
Girls
population
school
Girls sec
53
sch.
Akwakuma
Bishop
23
Lasbrey
girls Irete
76
Total
103
66
169
132
AppendixH:StudentsRawScoresforAchievementandInterest
ExperimentalGroup:Girls
GirlsSecondarySchoolAkwakuma
S/N StudentsName
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Achievement
Pretest
Score
26
28
16
18
14
28
34
22
24
20
20
40
44
8
32
24
36
10
36
32
40
24
36
16
50
40
26
36
24
26
34
38
32
28
26
14
44
26
20
28
20
20
40
32
Achievement
Posttest
Score
36
64
48
38
64
44
56
44
50
38
44
42
46
24
38
38
52
56
54
60
50
46
44
45
38
54
50
58
38
48
64
68
60
56
48
50
54
56
72
60
48
44
64
72
InterestPre
testScore
InterestPost
testscore
41
55
31
50
46
49
42
53
40
40
52
50
45
34
37
46
40
51
50
57
49
53
58
45
50
53
35
42
37
48
45
50
40
37
48
56
53
51
46
30
25
37
52
60
67
78
54
68
76
74
67
78
68
62
72
71
62
67
70
54
67
94
64
74
86
72
76
54
79
78
69
51
76
70
82
76
62
64
87
82
80
69
82
54
53
68
80
86
133
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
28
32
30
24
20
12
22
18
20
44
46
54
48
64
58
64
48
36
48
40
68
46
32
38
60
32
40
58
49
76
52
54
79
74
70
75
ControlGroup:Girls
BishopLasbreyGirlsSecondarySchoolIrete
S/N Studentsname
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Achievement
Pretest
Score
28
24
20
15
24
30
12
20
22
20
10
28
13
16
15
20
12
15
17
20
16
24
32
Achievement
Posttest
Score
56
54
50
50
54
74
16
62
38
40
74
58
16
50
32
46
42
46
34
42
54
52
54
InterestPre
testScore
InterestPost
testScore
42
32
36
48
40
58
52
45
40
54
50
45
58
42
36
58
48
42
50
45
58
47
46
65
61
64
70
72
73
62
73
59
64
69
57
79
61
68
72
75
57
66
68
72
70
66
134
ExperimentalGroup:Boys
BoysModelSecondarySchoolNewOwerri
S/N Studentsname
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Achievement
Pretest
Score
36
20
8
24
15
28
24
28
28
17
20
16
22
32
20
28
20
24
24
28
44
24
36
28
12
13
32
20
22
24
20
16
32
40
36
24
16
16
8
24
32
20
12
40
Achievement
Posttest
Score
62
60
42
54
60
74
86
90
52
54
46
50
56
58
60
50
74
58
66
40
52
40
48
42
36
38
44
46
48
50
50
42
48
54
60
50
56
36
56
86
58
46
32
72
InterestPre
testScoree
InterestPost
testScore
42
44
50
56
40
51
46
56
60
49
55
57
42
33
45
51
48
34
50
34
43
54
46
50
40
47
32
46
58
54
40
50
48
44
50
58
52
56
55
61
61
40
32
42
67
75
58
72
56
64
54
62
75
71
67
80
67
57
72
77
74
75
73
62
65
63
75
75
83
80
67
80
67
61
65
74
54
79
74
72
77
76
72
82
81
38
75
38
135
45
46
47
48
49
50
32
28
16
8
12
20
50
54
40
48
32
66
48
50
52
48
46
60
76
68
62
74
57
88
Achievement
Pretest
Score
16
28
36
24
4
4
28
36
24
32
28
28
24
20
28
12
16
16
18
10
24
28
8
16
24
8
16
24
16
20
12
8
12
20
16
12
Achievement
Posttest
Score
28
40
44
64
20
24
12
42
32
56
30
32
40
44
28
36
24
40
32
36
44
32
50
24
44
28
32
36
32
48
32
36
48
40
24
28
InterestPre
testScore
InterestPost
testScore
43
42
52
44
55
60
32
60
43
56
51
52
43
51
48
60
53
44
43
59
45
52
63
42
53
53
40
52
41
41
49
48
57
66
79
46
55
67
75
82
73
62
69
70
57
82
72
73
62
77
66
77
72
80
44
78
60
62
74
59
71
67
82
55
75
67
58
64
70
75
82
69
ControlGroup:Boys
EmmanuelCollegeOwerri
S/N Studentsname
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
136
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
12
15
8
16
20
24
13
20
24
30
20
36
60
44
55
43
59
42
48
60
70
76
62
79
72
70
76
77
137
Appendix I: Two-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for CAT

Between-Subjects Factors
GROUP
1.00
SEX
2.00
1.00
2.00
Value Label
experiment
al
control
male
female
N
103
66
93
76
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: posttest Achievement
GROUP
experimental
control
Total
SEX
male
female
Total
male
female
Total
male
female
Total
Mean
53.4400
50.6604
52.0097
35.2558
47.5652
39.5455
45.0323
49.7237
47.1420
Std. Deviation
13.1245
10.1847
11.7294
11.0671
14.4971
13.6090
15.1904
11.6454
13.8703
N
50
53
103
43
23
66
93
76
169
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: posttest Achievement
Source
Corrected Model
Intercept
PREACH
(covariate
GROUP
SEX
GROUP * SEX
Error
Total
Corrected Total
Type III Sum

of Squares
10543.975a
29764.598
df
4
1
Mean Square
2635.994
29764.598
F
19.852
224.158
Sig.
.000
.000
1825.428
1825.428
13.747
.000
2309.532
545.912
2461.744
21776.617
407901.000
32320.592
1
1
1
164
169
168
2309.532
545.912
2461.744
132.784
17.393
4.111
18.539
.000
.044
.000
a. R Squared = .326 (Adjusted R Squared = .310)
138
Appendix J: Two-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for CIS
Between-Subjects Factors
GROUP
1.00
SEX
2.00
1.00
2.00
Value Label
experiment
al
control
male
female
N
103
66
93
76
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: posttest Interest
GROUP
experimental
control
Total
SEX
male
female
Total
male
female
Total
male
female
Total
Mean
69.1200
70.0000
69.5728
69.6512
67.0870
68.7576
69.3656
69.1184
69.2544
Std. Deviation
10.3068
10.5411
10.3863
8.6654
5.8923
7.8604
9.5357
9.4361
9.4636
N
50
53
103
43
23
66
93
76
169
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: posttest Interest
Source
Corrected Model
Intercept
PREINT
(covariate)
GROUP
SEX
GROUP * SEX
Error
Total
Corrected Total
Type III Sum

of Squares
2988.854a
10112.317
df
4
1
Mean Square
747.214
10112.317
F
10.163
137.546
Sig.
.000
.000
2843.668
2843.668
38.679
.000
177.898
29.187
60.524
12057.205
825600.000
15046.059
1
1
1
164
169
168
177.898
29.187
60.524
73.520
2.420
.397
.823
.122
.530
.366
a. R Squared = .199 (Adjusted R Squared = .179)

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1

IMPACT OF SUBSTITUTING STANDARD

DIKE, REGINA CHIOMA

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

Dike, Regina Chioma

A Thesis Submitted to The Department of Science

Dike, Regina Chioma

----------------------------------Prof. F.C. Offiah

-----------------------------------Prof. F.C Offiah

-----------------------------------Prof. Ogo T. Ibeneme

------------------------------------Prof. Joel Eriba

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Purpose of the Study

Significance of the Study

Scope of the Study

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Conceptual Frame work

Concept of Substitution in chemistry

Concept of Local materials in chemistry

Concept of Achievement in Science

Sensory Stimulation Theory

Social Development Theory

Interest theories view

Historical Development for Substitution in Science Education

The Teaching of Science

Gender Difference in Achievement

Gender Difference in Interest

Effects of Interest on Learning in school and educational success

Teaching Chemistry to Develop Entrepreneurial Skill

Resources for Teaching Science

Relationship between Educational Resources and Students Achievement

Effectiveness of substituting Local Materials

The Role of Teachers in Substituting local materials

Empirical Studies Related to this Study

CHAPTER THREE: METHOD

Area of the Study

Population of the Study

Sampling and Sampling Technique

Instrument for Data Collection

Validation of the Instrument

Reliability of the Instruments

Local materials used

Method of Data Collection

Methods of data analysis

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND

Implication of the findings

Limitations of the study

Suggestions for further research

2: Mean achievement scores of students in experimental

4: Mean achievement score of students in experimental and

6: Summary of ANCOVA result for CAT

7: Summary of ANCOVA result for CIS

B: Daily Lesson Plan used for experimental group

C: Daily Lesson plan used for control group

D: Chemistry Achievement Test

E: Answer to Chemistry Achievement Test

F: List of Secondary Schools in Owerri Educational Zone I

G: Sampled Schools for the Study

H: Students raw scores on achievement and interest

I: Two-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for CAT

J: Two-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for CIS

K: Chemistry Interest Scale