Introduction to

Engineering Materials

Key Points
n
n

One cause of engineering disaster is misuse of material

It is vital that the professional engineer should know how to
select materials which best fit the demands of the design
economic and aesthetic demands, as well as demands of strength
and durability.
The designer must understand the properties of materials and
their limitations.

Introduction
A multidisciplinary field concerned with the generation and
application of knowledge relating to the composition,
structure, and processing of materials to their properties
and uses. The field encompasses the complete knowledge
spectrum for materials ranging from the basic end to the applied
end. It forms a bridge of knowledge from the basic sciences to
various engineering disciplines.

Definition of Terms
n
n

Composition the chemical make up of a material

Structure a description of the arrangement of atoms as seen at
a different level of detail.
Synthesis refers to how materials are made from naturally
occurring or man-made chemicals.
Processing - refers to how materials are shaped into useful
components.

The Difference
n

Materials Science gives emphasis on the underlying

relationships between the synthesis and processing,
structure and properties of materials.
Materials Engineering focuses on the translation or
transformation of materials to useful device or
structure.

The Common Point

n

Materials Scientists and Materials Engineers

establish the relationship between the properties
of materials and its performance.

The Common Goal

n
n

Make existing materials better

Invent or discover new phenomena, materials, devices and
applications

A Brief History

Some defining points of a given era

depends on the material of choice during
the time.

The Breakthrough
the thermodynamic properties
related to atomic structure in
various phases are related to the
physical properties of a material

Josiah Willard Gibbs

Space race added to the

d e ve l o p m e n t o f m a t e r i a l s ,
highlighting the importance of
materials engineering

Fundamentals of Materials Engineering

n

The purpose of materials engineering is to obtain knowledge

about the materials so that alternate materials with the desired
characteristics may be produced.
The science of materials engineering examines the connection
between the structures of materials at molecular scales and their
macroscopic characteristics.
The materials engineering is a broad based science that includes
essentials of chemistry, physics, mechanical, and civil
engineering.

Uses of Materials in Industry

n

The discipline of materials engineering is used in the industry not

only to create perfection in the presently used materials, but also
assist in the creation of modern products and new technologies.

The industrial application of the materials engineering include

the design of materials, improvements in processing and the
analytical techniques.

Impact on Future Developments

n

The advancement of the materials engineering has a significant

role in this development.

The evolving of materials is faster today than ever before in the

history, thus enabling improvement in the functioning of existing
products, and the development of new technologies that have
improved all aspects of our lives.
Materials Engineering has become an important
discipline of engineering that has a considerable
impact on the global economy

Classification of Materials
Metals and Alloys
n Polymers
n Ceramics
n Composites
n Semiconductors
n

Metals and Alloys

n

n
n

Metals may be mixed with other elements especially other metals

to produce alloys which will have improved properties.
All metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
Metals in common use are corrosion resistant except iron and
steel which rust quickly.
Metals are elements that readily lose electrons to form positive
ions (cations) and have metallic bonds between metal atoms.
Metals are sometimes described as a lattice of positive ions
surrounded by a cloud of delocalized electrons. Metals form
ionic bonds with non-metals.

Metals
n

Cast iron - All cast irons consist of more than 2% carbon. This
high carbon content makes them excellent materials to use for
casting and at much lower temperatures than those required to
cast steel. They also have better flow characteristics when molten
helping them to fill the mould more easily.
Copper - A reddish or pink metal. Very good conductor of heat
and electricity. Ductile and is used to manufacture wire for
electrical use. PCBs have copper tracks on them.
Aluminum - Aluminum is a strong silver metal. It turns easily
being softer than steel. Aluminum has a low melting point and it
is the metal used for sand casting.

Metals - Applications
n
n
n
n

Carrying large loads

Resisting impact damage
Conductors
Protection of equipments from overheating

Polymers
n

Polymers are made from long chain molecules which may have cross linking
bonds affecting flexibility/stiffness.

Three Classifications of Polymers

Thermoplastics which may be reformed with heat. e.g. PVC, HIPS,
nylon, polycarbonate, PET, acrylic.
Thermosetting plastics which once molded or formed cannot be
reformed by heat. e.g. Melamine(MF), epoxy resin, Urea formaldehyde
(UF).
Elastomers - rubbers long chain elastic molecules. e.g. neoprene, natural
rubber. Used for car tires and elastic bands.

Polymers - Applications
n

n
n
n

Nylon is used for bearings and the cases for power tools also
used for fishing line and ropes. Nylon is very strong and wear
resistant it is also slippery without the need for lubrication.
Originally used as a silk substitute - stockings and climbing
ropes.
PVC is used for casings for electrical consumer items and is also
used in its flexible form as the insulating sheath on electrical
cable and flex.
Melamine is used as the protective layer on work surfaces and
laminated flooring.
UF is used to make electrical components when a good insulator
is needed such as plug tops and switch buttons.
Acrylic is used for safety shields but is not as tough as
polycarbonate. Polycarbonate is used for the lenses in safety eye
protection e.g. goggles.

Ceramics
n

Ceramics are made by heating together materials such as silica,

chalk and clays. Other chemicals may be included to act as flux
and to change color etc.
Engineering Ceramics
Silicon carbide
Zirconia
Silicon nitride
Diamond
Cubic boron nitride
Tungsten Carbide

Ceramics - Properties
n

Engineering ceramics are ideally suited for high performance applications

where a combination of properties such as wear resistance, hardness, stiffness
and corrosion resistance are important. In addition to these properties,
engineering ceramics have relatively high mechanical strength at high
temperatures. They are good electrical insulators, They often have a close
thermal expansion coefficient to metals (they can be bonded to metals - e.g.
carbide tipped tools).
Ceramics have been regarded as hard but brittle, however modern ceramics
have been developed which are viable alternatives to metals and their alloys in
many applications - engineering ceramic parts and components are more
durable and have longer life-spans under given operational conditions.
Ceramic cutting tools, for instance, require less sharpening or replacement due
to wear, and will last at least 60 to 100 times longer than steel blades.

Ceramics - Applications
n
n

Mechanical components include wear plates and thermal barriers,

bearings for high speed and high stiffness spindles, bushes, gears.
Process components include pump shafts, seats, bearing
surfaces, gears and even complete pump bodies, valve guides and
seats.
Ceramics are used for cutting tools including razor blades for
film and tape cutting to 300mm diameter circular slitters for the
paper industry.
Ceramic turbine blades are used in most turbochargers providing
lighter units than the steel alternatives allowing improved
performance at higher temperatures.

Composites
n

Are mixtures of materials which give improved properties. One

of the materials is the matrix or binding chemical and the other is
the reinforcer. A good example is GRP - glass reinforced
polyester (plastic) resin. where the glass fibers increase the
strength of the polyester resin. Carbon fiber reinforced epoxy
resin is stronger and lighter than steel.
Concrete is a composite (the cement is the matrix and the gravel
and steel rods are the reinforcer) as are bricks made from clay
reinforced with straw.
Natural composites include wood, shell and bone.

Composites - Applications
n

Car bodies - especially sports cars, F1 racing cars, boat

hulls, lightweight struts and supports in bridge building
and the construction industry. Aerospace - use of
carbon fiber composites as well as high tech ceramic
parts has revolutionized this industry.

Functional Class of Materials

Aerospace
n Biomedical
n Electronic
n Energy Technology
n Magnetic
n Photonic
n Structural
n Smart Materials*
n

Properties of Materials
Economic
n General Physical
n Mechanical
n Thermal
n Electrical and Magnetic
n Environmental
n Production
n Aesthetic
n

Technology EnabledToday

Emerging Materials
n
n

Graphene is an allotrope of carbon.

The term graphene was coined as a combination of
graphite and the suffix -ene by Hanns-Peter
Boehm,who described single-layer carbon foils in 1962.

Graphene
n

Can carry more electricity more efficiency, faster and with more
precision than any other material.
Graphene stretches up to 20 percent of its length. And yet it is
also the stiffest known material even stiffer than diamond.
Holds the record for conducting heat it's better than any
other known material.

Review - Conductors
n

Conductors are materials that permit electric current to

flow easily through it.

Review - Insulators
n

Insulators are materials with negligible electrical

conductivity.

Comparing the Three

Electricity and Electronics

n

Both are concerned with generating, transferring, and utilizing

electrical energy.
The chief difference is that electricity is concerned with using
that electrical energy in power applications for heat, light, and
motors
Electronics is concerned with power control and
communications applications such as electronic thermostats,
electric motor speed control and radio.

Early History
n

1782 The term semiconducting was first used by Alessandro

Volta.
1833 the first documented observation of semiconductor
effect, Michael Faraday.
1874 Karl Ferdinand Braun observed conduction and
rectification

Semiconductor
n

A semiconductor is a solid whose electrical conductivity can be controlled

over a wide range, either permanently or dynamically.
Semiconductor is a material that has a conductivity level between the extremes
of an insulator and a conductor.
Semiconductors are tremendously important technologically and
economically.
Semiconductor devices with dynamically controlled conductivity are the
building blocks of integrated circuits, like the microprocessor.
Semiconductors revolutionized the information age and served as the stepping
stone of the greatest breakthroughs in the field of engineering in general.

Semiconductor
Semiconductors serve as the raw material
needed for various semiconductor devices like
the integrated circuit (IC).
n Among the different examples given for
semiconductors, silicon is the most popular
because of its availability.
n

Semiconductors - Intrinsic
The free electrons in the material due only to
natural causes are known as intrinsic carriers.
n Valence electrons can absorb kinetic energy
from natural causes like light and thermal energy
to break the covalent bond to become free.
n An increase in temperature of a semiconductor
results in an increase in the number of free
electrons in the material.
n

Silicon
n

Silicon starts from the very raw material called

Silica which appears in the form of sand (beach
sand)

Silicon Interesting Facts

n

The lowest acceptable purity for electronic grade silicon is

99.9999999%. This means that for every billion atoms, only one
non-silicon atom is allowed.
Silicon is the second most abundant element in our planets
crust. Oxygen (47.3%) and silicon (27.7%) together make up
75% of the weight of Earths crust. Most of the crusts silicon
exists as silicon dioxide; we are familiar with this as sand or
quartz.
Silicon is the eighth most abundant element in the Universe; it is
made in stars with a mass of eight or more Earth suns. Near the
end of their lives these stars enter the carbon burning phase,
adding helium nuclei to carbon to produce oxygen, neon,
magnesium and silicon.

Silicon Harmful Effect

n

Silicon is not known to be toxic, but if breathed in as a

fine silica/silicate dust it may cause chronic respiratory
problems. Silicates such as asbestos are carcinogenic.

Silicon Appearance and Characteristics

n

n
n
n
n

Silicon is a hard, relatively inert metalloid and in

crystalline form is very brittle with a marked metallic
luster.
Silicon occurs mainly in nature as the oxide and as
silicates.
The solid form of silicon does not react with oxygen,
water and most acids.
Silicon reacts with halogens or dilute alkalis.
Silicon also has the unusual property that (like water) it
expands as it freezes.

Silicon Some Uses

n

Silicon is alloyed with aluminum for use in engines as

the presence of silicon improves the metals castability.
Silicon can enhance irons magnetic properties; it is also
an important component of steel, which it toughens.
Silica (SiO2) in sand and minerals in clay is used to
make concrete and bricks. Silica, as sand, is also the
main constituent of glass.
Pure, crystalline silicon dioxide (quartz) resonates at a
very precise frequency and is used in high-precision
watches and clocks.
Silicon chips are the basis of modern electronic
and computing.

Semiconductors

Recall
All matter is made of atoms; and all atoms
consist of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
n An atom is the smallest particle of an element
that retains the characteristics of that element.
n The nucleus consist of positively charged
particles called protons and uncharged particles
called neutrons.
n The basic particles of negative charge are called
electrons.
n

Recall
n

Exercise
Aluminum
n Carbon
n Iron
n Copper
n Germanium
n

Covalent Bond
When atoms combine to form a solid crystalline
material, they arrange themselves in a
symmetrical pattern.
n The atoms within the crystal structure are held
together by covalent bonds which are created by
the interaction of the valence electrons of the
atoms.
n Each shared electron is attracted equally by the
atoms sharing it.
n

Silicon Covalent Bond

Si
Si

Si
Si

Si

Doping
n

n
n

In semiconductor production, doping intentionally introduces

impurities into an extremely pure (also referred to as intrinsic)
semiconductor for the purpose of modulating its electrical
properties. The impurities are dependent upon the type of
semiconductor. Lightly and moderately doped semiconductors
are referred to as extrinsic.
The process of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor.
The addition is controlled

Doping
Impurities used in the doping process:
a) elements that have 5 valence electrons (pentavalent); also known
as N type dopant,
e.g. Phosphorous, Antimony , Arsenic
b) elements that have 3 valence electrons (trivalent); also known as
P type dopant, e.g.
Boron, Gallium, Indium
n

N-type Semiconductor
Si
Si

Sb
Si

Si

P-type Semiconductor
Si
Si

B
Si

Si

Doping

N type Material results from doping a semiconductor with pentavalent dopants.

P type material results from doping a semiconductor with trivalent dopants

Semiconductor Devices

Semiconductor Devices

Semiconductor Devices
n

n
n

These are devices that runs many of our electronic

equipment such as computers, cellphones, automated
appliances like washing machine, airconditioner and
others. Usually, they appear in the form of integrated
circuit.
Very useful in this information-dependent era.
As they are the foundation of modern technology, there
is a need to closely study their characteristics.

States of Matter: Order and Crystals

The physical matter we observe in our universe
can be characterized as solid, liquid, and gaseous.
n One way to characterize these states of matter is
by density and hardness of material and the
ability of matter to flow.
n

Atomic Arrangement of Solid Materials

n
n
n

Amorphous- There is no definite atomic arrangement

Polycrystalline- Atoms are randomly arranged
Singlecrystalline or Monocrystalline - The atoms are
uniformly arranged

Crystal Structure

Important Note
n

Crystals are made up of identical building blocks,

maybe an atom or group of atoms.

Definition of Terms
Lattice- represents a set of points in space
which form a periodic structure. Each point sees
exactly the same environment.
n A lattice by itself is a mathematical abstraction.
n The identical building block mentioned, is called
basis.
n

Forming A Crystal Structure

If R represents a point in the lattice, then any other point in the lattice can
be represented by R such that
R = R + m1a1 +m2a2 + m3a3
where: m1,m2, m3 are integers
a1,a2 and a3 are vectors
Such lattice is known as Bravais lattice or Bravais net.

Lattice

Definition of Terms
n

Unit Cell representative of a volume of crystal

to form a lattice.

Unit Cell

Unit cell
Sample 2D lattice

Unit Cell

Reproduction of original lattice

Alternative unit cell

Cubic Lattice
Simple Cubic each corner of the cube is
occupied by an atom
n Body Centered Cubic - similar to simple cubic,
in addition however to the corner atoms, an
atom is found at the center of the cube.
n Face Centered Cubic also similar to the simple
cubic, in addition however to the corner atoms,
an atom is found at the center of each face of
the cube.
n

Simple Cubic

Body Centered Cubic

Face Centered Cubic

Coordination Number
n

The number of atom touched by a given atom

inside a lattice structure.

Simple Cubic

Body Centered Cubic

Body Centered Cubic

Face Centered Cubic

Face Centered Cubic

Semiconductors
Structures, Lattice Points and Plains

Side Notes
Modern electronic research lives constantly on the edge of
the state of the art in device technology, and it is no longer
adequate for an engineer or scientist to possess only a
phenomenological knowledge of the material physics that
underlies device operation. Rather, a thorough knowledge of
the physics of the basic materials processes, as well as the
device physics, is necessary for those working in the area of
semiconductors.
D.K. Ferry

Remember!
Essentially, all semiconductors of interest for
electronics and optoelectronics have one
underlying FCC lattice.
n They have two atoms per basis having
coordinates of (000) and (a/4, a/4, a/4)
n The semiconductor material follows another
type of crystal structure, this is known as the
diamond structure (for silicon or germanium)
or the zinc blende (for GaAs).
n

The Diamond Structure

n

The diamond structure may be viewed as 2

interpenetrating fcc sub lattices with one
displaced from the another by a translation
along a body diagonal direction equal to a/4. a
represents the lattice constant which is 1 side of
the cubic lattice. This type of structure consists
of 2 atoms per basis with the 2 atoms being the
same.

The Diamond Structure

Zinc Blend
n

If the crystal structure comprises of 2 different

atoms such as that of GaAs, then this structure
is called zinc blend.

Examples
Diamonds Si, Ge, C
n Zinc Blend GaAs, AlAs, CdS
n

Some Terms
Semiconductors with diamond structures are
also called elemental semiconductors
n Semiconductors with zinc blend structures are
called compound semiconductors
n

Atomic Density of a Cubic Lattice

1. Determine the equivalent number of atoms
for each cube
n 2. Determine the lattice constant, a
n 3. Divide #1 by cubic value of #2
n

Sample Problem 1
n

The lattice constant of silicon is 5.43 Angstrom.

Calculate the number of Silicon atoms in a cubic
centimetre.(atomic density)

In order to solve problem 1

Remember that in Silicon, there are two atoms
per lattice point.
n Silicon is made up of the fcc lattice
n

4.997 x 10^22 atoms/cubic cm

Sample Problem 2
n

Calculate the atomic density of Ga atoms in

GaAs which lattice constant is 5.65 A.

In order to solve problem 2

In GaAs, there is one Ga atom and one As atom
per lattice point.
n GaAs is fcc
n

2.22 x 10^22 atoms/cubic cm

Plains and Points in a Lattice

n

Within a crystal, different plane of different

atomic properties exist

Miller Indices
There is a standard procedure for naming a
crystal plane. The planes are named by a
technique called Millers indices.
n Used to indicate the different planes in a crystal
structure.
n

Miller Indices
n

The orientation of a surface or a crystal plane

may be defined by considering how the plane (or
indeed any parallel plane) intersects the main
crystallographic axes of the solid. The
application of a set of rules leads to the
assignment of the Miller Indices , (hkl) ; a set of
numbers which quantify the intercepts and thus
may be used to uniquely identify the plane or
surface.

Miller Indices

Step 1 :
n
n

Identify the intercepts on the x- , y- and z- axes.

In this case the intercept on the x-axis is at x = a ( at the point (a,0,0) ), but
the surface is parallel to the y- and z-axes - strictly therefore there is no
intercept on these two axes but we shall consider the intercept to be at infinity
( ) for the special case where the plane is parallel to an axis. The intercepts
on the x- , y- and z-axes are thus
Intercepts : a , ,

Step 2 :
n
n

Specify the intercepts in fractional co-ordinates

Co-ordinates are converted to fractional co-ordinates by dividing by the
respective cell-dimension - for example, a point (x,y,z) in a unit cell of
dimensions a x b x c has fractional co-ordinates of ( x/a , y/b , z/c ). In the
case of a cubic unit cell each co-ordinate will simply be divided by the cubic
cell constant , a . This gives
Fractional Intercepts : a/a , /a, /a i.e. 1 , ,

Step 3 :
n
n

Take the reciprocals of the fractional intercepts

This final manipulation generates the Miller Indices which (by convention)
should then be specified without being separated by any commas or other
symbols. The Miller Indices are also enclosed within standard brackets (.)
when one is specifying a unique surface such as that being considered here.

Miller Indices : (100)

So the surface/plane illustrated is the (100)
plane of the cubic crystal.

Miller Indices
1. Draw the (124) plane

Exercise1
Intercepts: a, a,
Fractional Intercepts: 1,1,
Miller Indices :(110)

Exercise 2
Intercepts: a, a, a
Fractional Intercepts: 1,1,1
Miller Indices :(1,1,1)

Exercise 3
Intercepts : a , a ,
Fractional intercepts : , 1 ,
Miller Indices : (210)

Miller Indices
n

If the unit cell parameter a is equal to 0.5nm

what is the spacing between parallel (124) planes.
=/2+2+2

Looking Back
Recall that our interest is on semiconductors
n These semiconductors produce devices essential
in our field
n Recall that our very first raw material is sand.
The sand will undergo Si extraction process. The
end product on this stage is actually a
polycrystalline Si.
n

The Czochralski Method

Discovered by Jan Czochralski in 1916s
n The method of crystal growth used to obtain
single crystal of semiconductor
n

Czochralski Method
Low grade Si is first produced by heating Silica
with carbon in an electric furnace.
n The carbon pulls away oxygen leaving behind a
pure Si. Ferrosilicon is chlorinated to yield
n SiCl4 (silicon tetrachloride) or (Silicon chloride
hydride) SiHCl3 in liquid form. This mixture is
further purified through multiple distillation and
other procedures before it is reacted with H2.
n The Poly Si will be subjected to the first major
process known as Crystal Growth and Wafer
n

Czochralski Method
n

Chunks of poly si are placed in a graphite crucible and then heated to around
1400oC melting point of Si. A Seed crystal of single crystalline structure is
then lowered to the molten mixture until they come in contact. The seed is
slowly raised up. Surface tension causes the molten material to rise with the
seed. As the molten material moves up it cools down and solidify. Upon
cooling, the atoms in the melt reorient its atomic structure in accordance with
the seed producing a single crystalline material.

Czochralski Method
n

The pulled up crystal will be prepared for slicing.

Recall that within this crystal, several planes of
different atomic properties exist. The crystal will
be oriented on an angle that will allow us to slice
it to produce either 111 plane or 100 plane.
These 2 planes are the ones needed for
semiconductor device fabrication.

Sample Problems
Given a BCC lattice of atomic density of
1.6x10^22 atoms/cubic cm, find the lattice
constant if the basis is single atom.
n A compound semiconductor has a lattice
constant of 5.2 A, find the atomic density of
each elements both having equal number of
atoms per cube.
n Given the lattice constant 5.1 A, and atomic
density of 3.015x10^22 atoms/cubic cm, what is
the lattice structure if the basis is single atom.
n

Exercise
Intercepts: 1/2a, a,
Fractional Intercepts: ,1,
Miller Indices :(210)

Solve Miller Indices

a. (632) b. (100) c. (2-21)

Exercise
n

What are the planes, at least two, related by

symmetry elements and equivalent to the (100)
surface.

Carrier Modeling

Review!
Classification of materials
n Properties of materials
n Functional class of materials
n Coordination number of SCC
n Coordination number of BCC
n Coordination number of FCC
n

Review!
Given a SCC lattice of atomic density of
1.6x10^22 atoms/cubic cm, find the lattice
constant if there are two atoms per basis.
n Calculate the atomic density of As atoms in
GaAs which lattice constant is 5.65 A.
n The lattice constant of silicon is 5.43 Angstrom.
Calculate the number of Silicon atoms in a cubic
centimetre.
n

Review!
Intercepts
n Fractional Intercepts
n Millers Indices (hkl)
n Given intercepts, a, 2a and 3a, find the distance
between the
given planes.
=/2+2+2
n

Carriers
Entities that transport charge from place to
place inside a material.
n Therefore they give rise to electric current.
n Electron is the most common type of carrier but
there is another, equally important, carrier called
holes.
n

Quantization Concept
n

In 1913, Niels Bohr hypothesized that the

electrons of an element were restricted to certain
well-defined orbits; or equivalently, Bohr
assumed that the orbiting electrons could taken
on only certain values of angular momentum.

Quantization Concept
The quantization of the electrons angular momentum was, in turn, coupled
directly to energized quantization. If the electrons angular momentum is
assumed to be n h . Then,

where EH is the electron binding energy within the hydrogen atom, m0 is the
mass of a free electron, q is the magnitude of the electronic charge, 0 is the
permittivity of free space, h is Plancks constant, h = h / 2 , and n is the
energy quantum number or orbit identifier.

Quantization Concept

Electron Volt
The electron volt (eV) is a unit of energy equal
to 1.6 10-19 joules.
n The amount of energy gained by a charge of a
single electron moved across an electric potential
difference of one volt.
n Volt (J/C) multiplied by electron charge (C),
gives a unit of Joules.
n

The Bonding Model

Presents a 2D view of the lattice.
n Ball and stick
n Takes advantage of the fact that the structure of
a polycrystalline or crystalline material is uniform
and virtually identical
n

Bonding Model
n

An isolated Si atom was found to contain four

valence electrons. However, Si atoms incorporated
in the diamond lattice exhibit a bonding that
involves an attraction between each atom and its
four nearest neighbours.

Bonding Model
Under a temperature of 0 K, the bonding between atoms can be considered
stable. However, above this temperature, bond breaking may occur causing
a crystal condition known as point defect.

Energy Band Model

n

n
n
n
n

Band a range of some physical variable as of radiation

wavelength or frequency. A range of very closely spaced
electron energy levels in solids, the distribution and nature of
which determine the electrical properties of materials.
Gap a suspension of continuity
Model a tentative description of a system or theory that
accounts for all of its known properties
Energy the work that the physical system is capable of doing
Valence- the capacity of an atom or group of atoms to
combine in specific proportions with other atoms or group of
atoms.

The Conduction Band

The upper band of allowed states.
n When drawn, it is represented by a line labeled
by Ec, which represents the lowest possible
energy state in the conduction band
n Usually empty
n When electrons are in the conduction band, they
can move freely around the crystal
n

The Band Gap Energy

The energy needed to break a bond in crystal.
n When a bond is broken, the electron has
absorbed enough energy to leave the valence
band and jump to the conduction band.
n

The Valence Band

The lower band of allowed states.
n When drawn, it is depicted by a line labeled by
Ev which represents the higher energy state in
the valence band.
n Always nearly completely filled.
n When electrons leave the valence band, they
leave a hole which can move around the crystal,
adding conductivity to the semiconductor.
n

Energy Band Model

The valence electrons of the Si atom have their
so called binding energy which is related to their
angular momentum as they orbit around the
nucleus.
n For a group of Si atoms, the electronic energy
states within this group of atoms can be
considered identical if they are apart at a
considerable distance.
n If the atoms are brought closer, there will be
considerable modification associated with the
n

Energy Band Model

As the electrons are brought together to form a
crystal. Allowed electronic states are no longer
atomic states but associated with crystal as a
whole. Ec is the lowest possible conduction
band energy, Ev is the highest possible valence
band energy.
n Eg = Ec - Ev is the energy band gap.
n

Review

Carriers
n

At the valence bond, while the electrons are

moving, for each and every possible momentum
state of an electron, there is another state with
an oppositely directed momentum of equal
magnitude. The net effect is zero current.

Carriers
n

To realize current, the bonding between a pair

of Si atoms must be broken. In this case, the
electron breaks free to acquire enough energy to
move into the conduction band. This in turn
creates a carrier.

Carriers
n

Similarly, absence of electron creates an empty

slot which is known as a hole. Hole is another
type of carrier in semiconductor devices just like
the electrons.

Carriers
Electrons and holes are the main carriers being
considered.
n Electrons are negatively charged.
n Holes are positively charged.
n q = 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb
n -q for electrons
n +q for holes
n

Band Gap and Material

Classification
Materials can be classified as insulator,
conductor and semiconductor.
n The band gap, represented in the energy band
model, can help classify the materials.
n

Group Work
n

Represent the following scenarios using both the

bonding model and the energy band model.
a. no carriers
b. an electron jumping to the conduction band
c. a hole

Differentiates insulator, conductor and semiconductor

Create an energy band model of diamond (Eg=5eV), Silicon

(Eg=1.12eV), Germanium (Eg=0.66eV) and a conductor.