Measurement & Instrumentation

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Experiment No.1
To study the characteristics of a Phototransistor to measure the intensity
of
light
Experiment No.2
conductive Cell.

To control the intensity of light by sounding a buzzer using a Photo-

Experiment No.3
To study the characteristics of a refractive infrared sensor and its
application for counting and speed measurement.
Experiment No.4

Determine axle speed value using a Hall Effect position sensor.

Experiment No.5
container.

To use thermocouples as temperature sensor elements inside the

Experiment No.6
sensor.

Measure the temperature inside the oven using a thermistor temperature

Experiment No.7

To use a capacitive sensor to measure the liquid level in tank.

Experiment No.8
Use LVDT as an element to measure the diaphragm distortion that is
consequence of the pressure inside the pressure chamber.

Experiment No.1
To study the characteristics of a Phototransistor
Apparatus:

Phototransistor

Lamp Filament

Power Amplifier

Voltmeter

Potentiometer

Theory:
A phototransistor is a bipolar device that is completely made of silicon or another semiconductive material and is dependent on
light energy. Phototransistors are generally
encased in an opaque or clear container in
order to enhance light as it travels through it
and allow the light to reach the
phototransistors
sensitive
parts.
A
phototransistor generally has an exposed
base that amplifies the light that it comes in
contact with. This causes a relatively high
current to pass through the phototransistor.
As the current spreads from the base to the
emitter, the current is concentrated and converted into voltage.
Applications:
Phototransistors are used for a wide variety of applications. In fact, phototransistors can be used
in any electronic device that senses light. For example, phototransistors are often used in smoke
detectors, infrared receivers, and CD players. Phototransistors can also be used in astronomy,
night vision, and laser range-finding.
Advantages
They produce a higher current than photodiodes and also produce a voltage, something that
photo resistors cannot do. Phototransistors are very fast and their output is practically
instantaneous. They are relatively inexpensive, simple, and so small that several of them can fit
onto a single integrated computer chip.

Disadvantages
While phototransistors can be advantageous, they also have several disadvantages.
Phototransistors made of silicon cannot handle voltages over 1,000 Volts. They do not allow
electrons to move as freely as other devices, such as electron tubes, do. Also, phototransistors are
also more vulnerable to electrical surges/spikes and electromagnetic energy.
Diagram:

Procedure:

Connect the circuit as shown in figure and adjust the sliding carbon potentiometer of
10K in position 2 so that the resistance with the load of the phototransistor will be
approximately 2K.
Connect the power supply (ON), adjust the wire wound potentiometer of 10K for that
the voltage will be null at the output of the power amplifier.
Note the output voltage of the collector of the phototransistor:
With your hand covering the transparent casing (0a).
With the phototransistor exposed to ambient light (0b).
Now increase the output voltage of the power amplifier through intervals of
1V and observe the voltage in the collector of the phototransistor.
Insert the values in table.

Table:
Sr. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Voltage of the Filament Lamp

(V)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Voltage of the Phototransistor

(V)
5.03
5.02
4.95
4.66
4.03
2.88
1.13
0.45
0.35
0.31
0.29

Experiment No.2
To study the behavior of a Photo-conductive Cell
Apparatus:

Photoconductive Cell

Lamp Filament

Power Amplifier

Voltmeter

Potentiometer

Comparator

Electronic Switch

Buzzer

Theory:
The photoconductive cell is a two terminal semiconductor device whose terminal resistance will
vary (linearly) with the intensity of the incident light. For obvious reasons, it is frequently called
a photo resistive device. A photoconductive cell consists of a thin transparent surface film of
some metal, which is placed on thin layer of semiconductor like selenium, which in turn is
placed over a metal layer of iron. A high potential difference is applied across surface film and
iron layer. When light of suitable frequency falls on the transparent film, the electrical resistance
of selenium layer decreases. This changes the current flowing in the circuit.
Diagram:

Procedure:
5

Connect the circuit as shown in figure and adjust the sliding potentiometer of 10K in
position 2 so that the resistance with the load of the photoconductive cell will be
approximately 2K.
Adjust the potentiometer of 100K, so that the voltage at which we want to make the
buzzer sound (for example 1V) will enter the comparator.
At the luminous intensity increases (turning the potentiometer of 10 windings) the output
voltage of the photo conductive cell will decrease; when it falls below 1V, the buzzer
begins to sound.

Note:
Using a digital voltmeter, it can be seen how the voltage at the output of the photoconductive cell
falls when the voltage of the lamp filament increases, due to a reduction in the resistance of the
cell.

Experiment No.3
To study the characteristics of a refractive infrared sensor and its application for counting and
speed measurement
Apparatus:

Refractive infrared sensor

Amplifier
Voltmeter

Counter

DC Motor

Theory:
Reflective Infrared sensor (RIR) does not detect long wavelength infrared radiation emitted by a
human or animal body. Instead, a device using an RIR sensor emits its own short wavelength
infrared beam and the RIR detects the infrared that is reflected back to it from any human or nonhuman object within its automatically programmable detection zone. It can continuously detect
the presence of both a moving and stationary object.
Short wavelength infrared used by the RIR will pass through most materials that are transparent
to visible light. It reflects from both light and dark surfaces but reflection is stronger from light
and smooth surfaces. Dark surfaces and textured surfaces that scatter light will result in less
reflected light which the sensor within the RIR circuit will interpret as reflections from a more
distant object. A reflective infrared system will therefore not produce an accurate measure of
distance from the sensor to a detected object.
However, the purpose of the RIR is not to measure distance but to detect a stationary object, to
detect motion toward and away from the sensor and to automatically control its detection
distance with some variations as described above, none of which a pyroelectric infrared sensor
can do. Table 1 shows a comparison between a pyroelectric and reflective infrared sensor system.
Diagram:

Procedure:
Connect the circuit as shown in figure and adjust the potentiometer of 10K at
maximum path to obtain a 10K pull up resistance at the reflection sensor output.
Refractive infrared sensor is assembled on the apparatus. On its
front it is placed a revolving disc with one part of its surface
white and other black.
In the white part, a difference that is used to get the central
axle speed value.
At the sensor output there will be obtained a group of pulses with
a frequency that coincides with the axle revolving speed and with
amplitude up to 400mV.
There are two reflective sensors placed one on the top of the
other in front of the revolving wheel.
On the front board there is a switch to change the sensor as
shown in the above described circuit.
Table:
Sr No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

I/P Motor
(V))
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Speed (rev/sec)
8
16
24
32
40
50
57
68

Graph:

Experiment No.4
To obtain the axle speed value using a Hall Effect position sensor
Apparatus:

Hall Effect Sensor

DC motor

12V DC power supply

5V DC power supply

Theory:
A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to a magnetic
field. Hall effect sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and
current sensing applications. In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analog transducer,
directly returning a voltage. With a known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall plate can be
determined. Using groups of sensors, the relative position of the magnet can be deduced.
Frequently, a Hall sensor is combined with circuitry that allows the device to act in a digital
(on/off) mode, and may be called a switch in this configuration. Commonly seen in industrial
applications such as the pictured pneumatic cylinder, they are also used in consumer equipment;
for example, some computer printers use them to detect missing paper and open covers. When
high reliability is required, they are used in keyboards.

Hall sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as for internal
combustion engine ignition timing, tachometers and anti-lock braking systems. They are used
in brushless DC electric motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet.
Diagram:

Procedure:
In this experiment Hall Effect position sensor is used that provides a signal which has got
constant amplitude and changeable frequency depending apparatus Centre axle rotation speed.
Table:
Sr No.

I/P Motor
(V))

Speed (rev/sec)

16

24

29

41

47

Graph:

10

Experiment No.5
To use thermocouples as temperature sensor elements inside the container
Apparatus:
Temperature main module
Heating coil
Voltmeter
Stopwatch
Theory:
A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two different conductors forming electrical
junctions at differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as
a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature.
Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor.
Commercial thermocouples are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard
connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of
temperature measurement, thermocouples are self-powered and require no external form of
11

excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy; system errors of less than one
degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.
Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include temperature
measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel, and other industrial processes.
Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and businesses as the temperature sensors in
thermostats, and also as flame sensors in safety devices for gas-powered major appliances.
Diagram:

12

Experiment No.6
To measure the temperature in the oven using a thermistor temperature sensor
Apparatus:

Main module

5V DC power supply

5K potentiometer

NTC Thermistor

Heating Resistance

Voltmeter
13

Theory:
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature, more so than in
standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely
used as inrush current limiter, temperature sensors (NTC type typically),self-resetting
overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating elements.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) in that the material used in a
thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. The temperature
response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors
typically achieve a greater precision within a limited temperature range, typically 90 C to
130 C.
Diagram:

Procedure:

In this experiment we will be using a NTC thermistor as sensor element to measure the
temperature inside the oven module, for it, the above circuit must be built.
In the above described circuit, the 5K potentiometer must be at its maximum path in order to get
a 5K resistance in series with the thermistor, forming a voltage divisor that will vary the output
voltage Vo according to the temperature detected by the thermistor.
Once the circuit is built and the potentiometer is adjusted the only thing left is to activate the
oven heating resistance as described in previous practices and to supply the above described
circuit using the main module.
After this the obtained measures must be noted down.
Table:
Sr No.

Time(sec)

Output Voltage(V)

14

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

44
50.5
57.5
66.7
78.8
90.3
106.8
135
163
194

Graph:

Experiment No.7
How to use a capacitive sensor to measure the liquid level in tank
Apparatus:

24V DC power supply (changeable source)

12V DC power supply

10K potentiometer

I/V converter

DC Amplifier

Power Amplifier

Comparator
15

Capacitive Sensor

Underwater pumps

Voltmeter
Theory:
Capacitive sensing is a technology, based on capacitive coupling, that takes human body
capacitance as input. Capacitive sensors detect anything that is conductive or has
a dielectric different from that of air.
Many types of sensors use capacitive sensing, including sensors to detect and measure
proximity, position or displacement, humidity, fluid level, and acceleration. Human interface
devices based on capacitive sensing, such as trackpads,[1] can replace the computer
mouse. Digital audio players, mobile phones, and tablet computers use capacitive
sensing touchscreens as input devices.[2] Capacitive sensors can also replace mechanical buttons.
There is also a musical instrument, the theremin, that uses capacitive sensing to allow a human
player to control volume and pitch without physically touching the instrument.

Diagram:
Before hands, make the following circuit test:

16

Once it has been verified that both tanks have a specified water level previous to every practice,
make the following circuit.

F or this practice we will connect using the provided cables the main module and the BS6 just as is shown in the previous diagram.
17

The capacitive level is excited with a 24V de voltage to obtain an output signal in mA dc
that is proportional to the liquid level that covers the sensor gage.
This signal is the current that goes through the sensor with 24V dc excitation and goes
from 11 to 20mAdc approximately from the lower level until the gage is respectively
covered.
You must connect a multimeter at the Vo output to measure the obtained voltage in
comparison to the water level.
Once all the system is connected you must activate the right pump motor in order to
move the water of the right tank to the left tank where is the capacitive sensor.
As the water level covers the measure gage we can see how the voltage level at the Vo
output rises.
If afterwards we clear the water from the left tank activating the corresponding pump, the
Vo voltage level will drop as the liquid level in the measure gage falls.
Both pumps work with a 12V de voltage.
You must take special care while connecting the pumps with the corresponding power
supply polarity.
To invert the pumps polarity can cause an irreversible damage.
Once we have the corresponding liquid level height voltage values, we can control the
pump operation with a voltage comparator and other additional elements necessary to
provide the necessary power to make the pump work.
We suggest to use the following circuit:

TABLE:
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Water level (cm)

7.5
8
8.5
9
9.6
10
10.5
11
11.6
12

Voltage (v)
1.16
1.17
1.20
1.19
1.21
1.24
1.27
1.32
1.36
1.43

Experiment No.8
18

To use a LVDT as an element to measure the diaphragm distortion that is consequence of the
pressure inside the pressure chamber.

Apparatus:
Main module
12 Vdc Power supply
BS-3
Linear variation differential transformer (L VDT)
Voltmeter dc
Theory:
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) (also called just a differential
transformer, linear variable displacement transformer, or linear variable displacement transducer)
is a type of electrical transformer used for measuring linear displacement (position). A
counterpart to this device that is used for measuring rotary displacement is called a rotary
variable differential transformer (RVDT).
Diagram:

19

Procedure:

During this practice we will use a L VDT sensor to measure the pressure due to the lateral
diaphragm distortion that the BS-3 system pressure chamber has.
The L VDT is a linear displacement sensor that detects the relative movement of a
ferromagnetic core between the primary and the secondary.
It must be powered with a 12V de voltage, that starts the detection and control circuits
included in the L VDT used in this equipment, this way we obtain an output signal in de
voltage (Vo), that is proportional to the axle placement inside the LVDT.
Once all the connections have been made and the LVDT has been fed, the compressor fed
by relay with 12VDC must be activated as it has been previously explained.
The LVDT will give a DC voltage signal proportional to the displacement caused by the
membrane distortion due to the pressure.

20

TABLE:
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Pressure (bar)
0.03
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.10
0.12

Voltage (v)
-0.61
-0.73
-0.74
-0.76
-0.88
-1.62
-1.65

21