BLOCK DIAGRAM

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
1. POWER SUPPLY
2. INFRARED SENSOR
3. LED
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

POWER SUPPLIES
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains
electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power
supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular
function.
For example a 5V regulated supply:

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

TRANSFORMER
Steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power
supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in
UK) to a safer low voltage.
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no
electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating
magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of
the circuit symbol represent the core.
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note
that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of
the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil
which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Transformer
circuit symbol
turns ratio = Vp = Np
Vs
Ns

and

power out = power in

Vs Is = Vp Ip

Vp = primary (input) voltage

Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ip = primary (input) current

Vs = secondary (output) voltage

Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Is = secondary (output) current

RECTIFIER
Converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The
bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave
rectifier can also be made from just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is used, but this
method is rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier
but it only uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying DC.

SINGLE DIODE RECTIFIER

A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying DC which has
gaps when the AC is negative. It is hard to smooth this sufficiently well to supply electronic
circuits unless they require a very small current so the smoothing capacitor does not
significantly discharge during the gaps. Please see the Diodes page for some examples of
rectifier diodes.

Single diode rectifier

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Output: half-wave varying DC

(using only half the AC wave)

A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special
packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses
all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier
because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting,
as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum current they can
pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must be at least three times
the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages). Please see the
Diodes page for more details, including pictures of bridge rectifiers.

Bridge rectifier

Output: full-wave varying DC

(using all the AC wave)

SMOOTHING (FILTER)
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC
supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage
from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and
the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC,
and
then
discharges
as
it
supplies
current
to
the
output.

Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak value
(1.4 RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified to full wave DC of about 4.6V

RMS (1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with smoothing this increases to almost the peak
value giving 1.4 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC.
Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges, giving a
small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply voltage is
satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value for the smoothing capacitor. A
larger capacitor will give fewer ripples. The capacitor value must be doubled when
smoothing half-wave DC.

Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C =

5 Io
Vs f

C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)

Io = output current from the supply in amps (A)
Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed DC
f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK

REGULATOR
Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output
voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they can pass. Negative VO
To make things really simple lets start with a simple power supply and it is also the one they
usually give you in your first electronics project. Well the reason is quite obvious because all
electronics circuits require a DC power supply to work. You really do plug in the wires of
your electronic items in AC mains supply but they do have AC to DC converters too provide
DC to the circuits. All this is done with a power supply in the right place.

Pin diagram for 7805

1. Unregulated voltage in
2. Ground
3. Regulated voltage out

Voltage regulator

This circuit is a small +5V power supply. The circuit will provide a regulated voltage to the
external circuit which may also I am required in any part of the external circuit or the whole
external circuit. The best part is that you can also use it to convert AC voltage to DC and then
regulate it ,simply You need a transformer to make the AC main drop down to a safe value i.e
12-15 volts and then us a rectifier to convert AC into DC.
This circuit can give +5V output at about 150 mA current, but it can be increased to 1 A when
good cooling is added to 7805 regulator chip. The circuit has over overload and terminal
protection. The capacitors must have enough high voltage rating to safely handle the input
voltage feed to circuit. The circuit is very easy to build for example into a piece of overboard.
If you need other voltages than +5V, you can modify the circuit by replacing the 7805 chips
with another regulator with different output voltage from regulator 78xx chip family. The last
numbers in the chip code tells the output voltage. Remember that the input voltage must be at

least 3V greater than regulator output voltage to otherwise the regulator does not work well.
Dont forget to check the pin diagram before connecting the IC.

TRANSFORMER ONLY

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

TRANSFORMER + RECTIFIER

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable
for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

TRANSFORMER + RECTIFIER + SMOOTHING (FILTER)

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

TRANSFORMER + RECTIFIER + SMOOTHING +

REGULATOR

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic
circuits.

Circuit Diagram:

Circuit Description:
The 230/240VAC line voltage is applied to the transformer primary. Step down transformer is
used to convert 230VAC to 12V/1A output voltage in the transformer secondary. This 12VAC
supply is applied to the bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier voltage rating should be double
the Vrms of secondary AC and higher forward current rating. The bridge rectifier has four
diodes in that, available as singular. This is the most important and it produces full-wave
varying DC or pulsating DC. This rectified output is smoothed by using shunt capacitor filter
(C1). The larger the filter capacitor lowers the ripple. The larger capacitor C1 across the input
bypasses AC ripples to ground. The pure DC output reaches the regulator IC. The 7805
Voltage regulator IC (U1) gives 5V /1A regulated output. The capacitor (C2) across the
output improves transient response. Low power red LED is used in the output for power
indication. It has voltage drop of 1.8V and gives brightness at 20 mA. This is done by current
limiting resistor (R1).
R = (Vout Vf) / I
Where, Vout output voltage; Vf- led voltage drop; I- led forward current.
From this we get R as 160E. We use the standard value of 220E. The higher value of limiting
resistor gives low brightness but longer life time. So, here 470E is used.

RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits,
repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were
used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor
or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving
parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated
operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical
circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are
performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

Relay Working Principle:

When a coil of wire is wound on a non magnetic material such as plastic, paper etc., it is
called a air-core solenoid or simply a solenoid .if a soft iron core is inserted into the coil, it
becomes an electromagnet. This electromagnet is the basic component for relay and many
other electromechanical devices such as electric bell, circuit breaker etc,.
Operation
When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an armature that is
mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or breaks a connection
with a fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by
a force approximately half as strong as the magnetic force to its relaxed position. Usually this
is a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a
high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.
If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the
energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a
spike of voltage and might cause damage to circuit components. Some automotive relays
already include that diode inside the relay case. If the coil is designed to be energized with
AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This shading ring
creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature
during the AC cycle by analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device; a
solid-state relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To achieve
electrical isolation, a light-emitting diode (LED) is used with a photo transistor.
Types

Latching relay

Latching relay with permanent magnet

A latching relay has two relaxed states (bi-stable). These are also called "impulse", "keep", or
"stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is
achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing
coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in
position while the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example,
the first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil
example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay
off. This type of relay has the advantage that one coil consumes power only for an instant,
while it is being switched, and the relay contacts retain this setting across a power outage. A
remanent core latching relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change
state.

Reed relay
A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside
an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against atmospheric
corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under the
influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid. Reed relays can switch faster than larger
relays, require only little power from the control circuit, but have low switching current and
voltage ratings. In addition, the reeds can become magnetized over time, which makes them
stick 'on' even when no current is present; changing the orientation of the reeds with respect
to the solenoid's magnetic field will fix the problem.

Top, middle: reed switches, bottom: reed relay

Mercury-wetted relay
A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with
mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) where the
mercury reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for low-current signals

where surface contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high-speed applications
where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive
and must be mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of
liquid mercury, these relays are now rarely used. See also mercury switch.

Polarized relay
A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase
sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone exchanges to detect
faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician
could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical
current that would operate the relay.

Machine tool relay

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer
machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts
(sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to
normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly
installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of
automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller
(PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.
A relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical equipment: for example, a timer circuit
with a relay could switch power at a preset time. For many years relays were the standard
method of controlling industrial electronic systems. A number of relays could be used
together to carry out complex functions (relay logic). The principle of relay logic is based on
relays which energize and de-energize associated contacts. Relay logic is the predecessor of
ladder logic, which is commonly used in Programmable logic controllers.

Ratchet relay
This is again a clapper type relay which does not need continuous current through its coil to
retain its operation.

Contactor relay
A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads,
although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for common
contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with
alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize; however,
silver oxide is still a good conductor.[2] Such devices are often used for motor starters. A
motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The overload sensing
devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder
pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in

series with the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized.
Contactor relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a
chief concern.

Solid-state relay
A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar
function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing
long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor
has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given
SSR could handle. The minimum voltage drop for such a relay is equal to the voltage drop
across one transistor (~0.6-2.0 volts), and is a function of the material used to make the
transistor (typically silicon). As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle
100 to 1,200 Amperes, have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic
relays, they may be falsely triggered by transients.

Solid state relay with no moving parts

Solid state contactor relay

A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink,
used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent
on/off cycles are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact
bounce due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals from
Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or
other microprocessor and microcontroller controls.

25 A or 40 A solid state contactors

Buchholz relay
A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if
gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil. it is connected in between conservator tank and
main tank. it is use in above 750 kva transformer. This relay is developed by max buchholz

Forced-guided contacts relay

A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together, so
that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together.
If one set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay
will be able to move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to
check the status of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided
contacts", "captive contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".

Overload protection relay

Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over-loading the motor,
or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor
windings. One type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating
element in series with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a
bimetallic strip or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload
relay is exposed to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation
for motor ambient temperature is provided.
Pole & Throw
Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A
relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the
coil in one of three ways:

Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or make contact.
Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit
is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or break contact.
Change-over, or double-throw, contacts control two circuits: one normally-open contact and
one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C contact or
transfer contact.
The following types of relays are commonly encountered:
SPST Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is
ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology SPNO
and SPNC is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.
SPDT Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.
DPST Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two
SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has
six terminals in total. It is ambiguous whether the poles are normally open, normally closed,
or one of each.
DPDT Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals.
Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight
terminals, including the coil.
QPDT - Quadruple Pole Double Throw. Often referred to as Quad Pole Double Throw, or
4PDT. These have four rows of change-over terminals. Equivalent to four SPDT switches or
relays actuated by a single coil or two DPDT relays. In total, fourteen terminals including the
coil

RELAY DRIVER
A ULN2803 is an Integrated Circuit (IC) chip with a High Voltage/High Current Darlington
Transistor Array. It allows you to interface TTL signals with higher voltage/current loads. In
English, the chip takes low level signals (TLL, CMOS, PMOS, NMOS - which operate at low

voltages and low currents) and acts as a relay of sorts itself, switching on or off a higher level
signal on the opposite side.
A TTL signal operates from 0-5V, with everything between 0.0 and 0.8V considered "low" or
off, and 2.2 to 5.0V being considered "high" or on. The maximum power available on a TTL
signal depends on the type, but generally does not exceed 25mW (~5mA @ 5V), so it is not
useful for providing power to something like a relay coil. Computers and other electronic
devices frequently generate TTL signals. On the output side the ULN2803 is generally rated
at 50V/500mA, so it can operate small loads directly. Alternatively, it is frequently used to
power the coil of one or more relays, which in turn allow even higher voltages/currents to be
controlled by the low level signal. In electrical terms, the ULN2803 uses the low level (TTL)
signal to switch on/turn off the higher voltage/current signal on the output side.

The ULN2803 comes in an 18-pin IC configuration and includes eight (8) transistors. Pins 18 receive the low level signals; pin 9 is grounded (for the low level signal reference). Pin 10
is the common on the high side and would generally be connected to the positive of the
voltage you are applying to the relay coil. Pins 11-18 are the outputs (Pin 1 drives Pin 18, Pin
2 drives 17, etc.).

ULN2803
The eight NPN Darlington connected transistors in this family of arrays are ideally suited for
interfacing between low logic level digital circuitry (such as TTL, CMOS or PMOS/NMOS)
and the higher current/voltage requirements of lamps, relays, printer hammers or other similar
loads for a broad range of computer, industrial, and consumer applications. All devices
feature opencollector outputs and freewheeling clamp diodes for transient suppression. The
ULN2803 is designed to be compatible with standard TTL families while the ULN2804 is
optimized for 6 to 15 volt high level CMOS or PMOS.

IR SENSOR
Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible
light, measured from the nominal edge of visible red light at 0.74 micrometers (m), and
extending conventionally to 300 m. These wavelengths correspond to a frequency range of
approximately 1 to 400 THz, and include most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects
near room temperature. Microscopically, IR light is typically emitted or absorbed by
molecules when they change their rotational-vibration movements.
Infrared light is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices
using infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being
detected. In astronomy, imaging at infrared wavelengths allows observation of objects
obscured by interstellar dust. Infrared imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in
insulated systems, observe changing blood flow in the skin, and overheating of electrical
apparatus.
An infrared sensor is an electronic device that emits and/or detects infrared radiation in order
to sense some aspect of its surroundings. Infrared sensors can measure the heat of an object,
as well as detect motion. Many of these types of sensors only measure infrared radiation,
rather than emitting it, and thus are known as passive infrared (PIR) sensors.
All objects emit some form of thermal radiation, usually in the infrared spectrum. This
radiation is invisible to our eyes, but can be detected by an infrared sensor that accepts and
interprets it. In a typical infrared sensor like a motion detector, radiation enters the front and

reaches the sensor itself at the center of the device. This part may be composed of more than
one individual sensor, each of them being made from pyroelectric materials, whether natural
or artificial. These are materials that generate an electrical voltage when heated or cooled.
These pyroelectric materials are integrated into a small circuit board. They are wired in such
a way so that when the sensor detects an increase in the heat of a small part of its field of
view, it will trigger the motion detector's alarm. It is very common for an infrared sensor to
be integrated into motion detectors like those used as part of a residential or commercial
security system.
Most motion detectors are fitted with a special type of lens, called a Fresnel lens, on the
sensor face. A set of these lenses on a motion detector can focus light from many directions,
giving the sensor a view of the whole area. Instead of Fresnel lenses, some motion detectors
are fitted with small parabolic mirrors which serve the same purpose.
An infrared sensor can be thought of as a camera that briefly remembers how an area's
infrared radiation appears. A sudden change in one area of the field of view, especially one
that moves, will change the way electricity goes from the pyroelectric materials through the
rest of the circuit. This will trigger the motion detector to activate an alarm. If the whole field
of view changes temperature, this will not trigger the device. This makes it so that sudden
flashes of light and natural changes in temperature do not activate the sensor and cause false
alarms.

Infrared motion detectors used in residential security systems are also desensitized somewhat,
with the goal of preventing false alarms. Typically, a motion detector like these will not
register movement by any object weighing less than 40 pounds (18 kg). With this
modification, household pets will be able to move freely around the house without their
owners needing to worry about a false alarm. For households with large pets, sensors with an
80-pound (36 kg) allowance are also made.

Object Detection using IR light

It is the same principle in ALL Infra-Red proximity sensors. The basic idea is to send infra
red light through IR-LEDs, which is then reflected by any object in front of the sensor.
Then all you have to do is to pick-up the reflected IR light. For detecting the reflected IR
light, we are going to use a very original technique: we are going to use another IR-LED, to
detect the IR light that was emitted from another led off the exact same type!
This is an electrical property of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) which is the fact that a led
produces a voltage difference across its leads when it is subjected to light. As if it was a
photo-cell, but with much lower output current. In other words, the voltage generated by the
leds can't be - in any way - used to generate electrical power from light, it can barely be
detected. Thats why as you will notice in the schematic, we are going to use a Op-Amp
(operational Amplifier) to accurately detect very small voltage changes.

Components positioning:
The correct positioning of the sender LED, the receiver LED with regard to each other and to
the Op-Amp can also increase the performance of the sensor. First, we need to adjust the
position of the sender LED with respect to the receiver LED, in such a way they are as near
as possible to each others , while preventing any IR light to be picked up by the receiver LED
before it hit and object and returns back. The easiest way to do that is to put the sender(s)
LED(s) from one side of the PCB, and the receiver LED from the other side, as shown in the
3D model below.
This 3D model shows the position of the LEDs. The green plate is the PCB holding the
electronic components of the sensor. you can notice that the receiver LED is positioned under
the PCB, this way, there wont be ambient light falling directly on it, as ambient light usually
comes from the top.
It is also clear that this way of positioning the LEDs prevent the emitted IR light to be
detected before hitting an eventual obstacle.

Another important issue about components positioning, is the distance between the receiver
LED and the Op-Amp. Which should be as small as possible? Generally speaking, the length
of wires or PCB tracks before an amplifier should be reduced, otherwise, the amplifier will
amplify - along with the original signal - a lot of noise picked up from the electromagnetic
waves traveling the surrounding.
Here is an example PCB where the distance between the LED and the Op-Amp is shown.
Sure this distance is not as critical as you may think, it can be up to 35mm without causing
serious problems, but trying to reduce this distance will Always give you better results.
Actually, when I design the PCB, I start by placing the receiver LED and the Op-Amp, as
near to each others as possible, and then continue the rest of the design.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light emitting diode (LED) is known to be one of the best optoelectronic devices out of the
lot. The device is capable of emitting a fairly narrow bandwidth of visible or invisible light when its
internal diode junction attains a forward electric current or voltage. The visible lights that an LED
emits are usually orange, red, yellow, or green. The invisible light includes the infrared light. The
biggest advantage of this device is its high power to light conversion efficiency. That is, the
efficiency is almost 50 times greater than a simple tungsten lamp. The response time of the LED
is also known to be very fast in the range of 0.1 microseconds when compared with 100
milliseconds for a tungsten lamp. Due to these advantages, the device wide applications as
visual indicators and as dancing light displays.
We know that a P-N junction can connect the absorbed light energy into its proportional electric
current. The same process is reversed here. That is, the P-N junction emits light when energy is
applied on it. This phenomenon is generally called electroluminance, which can be defined as the
emission of light from a semi-conductor under the influence of an electric field. The charge
carriers recombine in a forward P-N junction as the electrons cross from the N-region and
recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free electrons are in the conduction band of
energy levels, while holes are in the valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes will
be lesser than the energy levels of the electrons. Some part of the energy must be dissipated in
order to recombine the electrons and the holes. This energy is emitted in the form of heat and
light.
The electrons dissipate energy in the form of heat for silicon and germanium diodes. But in
Galium- Arsenide-phosphorous (GaAsP) and Galium-phosphorous (GaP) semiconductors, the
electrons dissipate energy by emitting photons. If the semiconductor is translucent, the junction
becomes the source of light as it is emitted, thus becoming a light emitting diode (LED). But

when the junction is reverse biased no light will be produced by the LED, and, on the contrary the
device may also get damaged.
The constructional diagram of a LED is shown below.

LED Construction
All the semiconductors listed above can be used. An N-type epitaxial layer is grown upon a
substrate, and the P-region is produced by diffusion. The P-region that includes the
recombination of charge carriers is shown is the top. Thus the P-region becomes the device
surface. Inorder to allow more surface area for the light to be emitted the metal anode
connections are made at the outer edges of the P-layer. For the light t be reflected as much as
possible towards the surface of the device, a gold film s applied to the surface bottom. This
setting also enables to provide a cathode connection. The reabsorption problem is fixed by
including domed lenses for the device. All the wires in the electronic circuits of the device is
protected by encasing the device. The light emitted by the device depends on the type of
semiconductor material used. Infrared light is produced by using Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) as
semiconductor. Red or yellow light is produced by using Gallium-Arsenide-Phosphorus (GaAsP)
as semiconductor. Red or green light is produced by using Gallium-Phosphorus (GaP) as
semiconductor.
LED Circuit Symbol
The circuit symbol of LED consists of two arrow marks which indicate the radiation emitted by the
diode.

LED Circuit Symbol

LED Characteristics

LED Characteristics
The forward bias Voltage-Current (V-I) curve and the output characteristics curve is shown in the
figure above. The V-I curve is practically applicable in burglar alarms. Forward bias of
approximately 1 volt is needed to give significant forward current. The second figure is used to
represent a radiant power-forward current curve. The output power produced is very small and
thus the efficiency in electrical-to-radiant energy conversion is very less.
The figure below shows a series resistor R series connected to the LED. Once the forward bias of the
device exceeds, the current will increase at a greater rate in accordance to a small increase in
voltage. This shows that the forward resistance of the device is very low. This shows the
importance of using an external series current limiting resistor. Series resistance is determined by
the following equation.

Rseries = (Vsupply V)/I

Vsupply Supply Voltage
V LED forward bias voltage
I Current

LED Circuit
The commercially used LEDs have a typical voltage drop between 1.5 Volt to 2.5 Volt or current
between 10 to 50 milliamperes. The exact voltage drop depends on the LED current, colour,
tolerance, and so on.
LED as an Indicator
The circuit shown below is one of the main applications of LED. The circuit is designed by wiring
it in inverse parallel with a normal diode, to prevent the device from being reverse biased. The
value of the series resistance should be half, relative to that o f a DC circuit.

LED as an Indicator
LEDS displays are made to display numbers from segments. One such design is the sevensegment display as shown below. Any desired numerals from 0-9 can be displayed by passing
current through the correct segments. To connect such segment a common anode or common
cathode cathode configuration can be used. Both the connections are shown below. The LEDs
are switched ON and OFF by using transistors.
Advantages of LEDs

Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the LED.
Voltage range 1 to 2 volts.
Current 5 to 20 milliamperes.
Total power output will be less than 150 milliwatts.
The response time is very less only about 10 nanoseconds.
The device does not need any heating and warm up time.
Miniature in size and hence light weight.
Have a rugged construction and hence can withstand shock and vibrations.

An LED has a life span of more than 20 years.

Disadvantages

A slight excess in voltage or current can damage the device.

The device is known to have a much wider bandwidth compared to the laser.

The temperature depends on the radiant output power and wavelength.