INTRODUCTION

1.0 BACKGROUND
Marriage is a social institution that unites people in a special form of mutual dependence for the
purpose of founding and maintaining a family. As a social practice entered into through a public
act, religious or traditional ceremony, it reflects the purposes, character, and customs of the
society in which it is found. Many girls and a smaller number of boys, enter marriage without
any chance of exercising their right to choose (UNICEF, 2001). Many societies have norms that
limit the age of young girls to enter into marriage, but in some cases the age limit does not take
into consideration their physiological readiness for childbearing. Marriage often takes place at
ages much earlier than the legally ratified minimum age. Early marriage is the marriage of
children and adolescents below the age of 18 (UNFPA, 2012).
Child marriage occurs in many countries, the prevalence varies considerably acrossand within
regions and countries. It is most widespread though in developing countries. The most commonly
used and globally comparable measure of the prevalence of child marriage is the proportion of
women 20 to 24 who report being married or living with a man as if married by the age of 18.
(Macro International,2015) Fifty-one countries have a child marriage prevalence of 25 percent or
more. For example, while the national prevalence of child marriage is 52 percent in Burkina
Faso, the prevalence is 87 percent in the countrys Sahel region. In Indonesia, while the national
prevalence is 17 percent, two regions have a prevalence greater than 40 percent. Child marriage
can be more frequent among particular religious or ethnic groups within a country, such as
indigenous groups. For example, in Kenya, rates of child marriage among some indigenous
groups, such as the Somali and the Kisii, are more than three times the national average 98 and
96 percent, respectively, compared to 27 percent nationally. Furthermore, the difference between
the median age of marriage among those from urban Nairobi and indigenous groups from the
North Eastern province of Kenya is six years 24 compared to 18 (UNICEF,2013).
Fifteen million girls are married each year worldwide.(UNICEF,2014) In the developing world,
one in three girls is married before age 18 and one in nine girls is married before age 15.While
child marriage affects both boys and girls, girls and women suffer disproportionately 720 million
women alive today were married as children, compared to 156 million men. Generally, girls are
married at younger ages and there is often a large age difference between the female and male
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spouses. (Jain and Kurz, 2007) For example, in Bangladesh and Mali, which rank among the top
10 countries in child marriage prevalence, the average age gap between spouses is approximately
7.8 and 7.4 years, respectively. A range of social, economic, cultural, and political factors that
vary from one context to another perpetuate this practice.
The practice of early marriage is most common in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. In
specific parts of West Africa, East Africa and South Asia, marriage before puberty is not unusual.
In North Africa, the Middle East, and other parts of Asia marriage shortly after puberty is
common among those living traditional lifestyles. Marriages of female adolescents between
sixteen and eighteen years of age are also common in parts of Latin America and Eastern Europe.
The sub-Saharan Africa has the second highest rate of early and forced marriage. A total of 14.3
million girls are married in the region before they reach the age of 18. The prevalence of early
marriage varies across the continent with West and Central Africa at 43 per cent and Eastern and
Southern Africa at 36 per cent. Among the countries where the rate of early and forced marriage
exceeds 70 per cent Niger, Chad, and Mali adolescent fertility and maternal mortality rates are
also high. (UNICEF, 2009) Civil unrest and natural disasters, including droughts and famine,
further contribute to high rates in the region (UNDP, 2009) in countries where the legal age of
marriage differs by sex, the age for women is always lower. In Benin, Cameroon, Gabon, Mali,
Niger, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, the legal age of marriage is 18 for males and only
15 for females.
In Zambia, early marriage and forced is seen as a way to improve the economic status of the
family, to strengthen ties between families, to ensure that girls are virgins when they marry, and
to avoid the possibility of a girl reaching an age where she is no longer desirable as a wife. The
practice of early marriage is now (for a while) understood to have very harmful effects on the
health, psychological, physiological and socio-economic well-being of young girls (as well as for
the newborns). However, this knowledge is not broadly shared across most of the population.
Zambia has one of the highest child marriage prevalence rates in the world. In 2007 about 42%
of women aged 20-24 years married by the age of 18, data shows little to no change since 2002
(42%). The rates of child marriage vary from one region to another, and are as high as 60% in the
countrys Eastern Region followed by Luapula (50%), Northern (48%), North-Western (47%),
Central (46%), Southern (38%), Western (34%), Copperbelt (32%) and Lusaka (28%) (UNFPA,
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2012). In Zambia, girls who are affected by poverty, lack of education and longstanding
traditional practices that discriminate against girls and women are most vulnerable to child
marriage. A research carried out by (UNFPA, Zambia, 2012) found that 65% of women aged 2024 with no education and 58% with primary education were married or in union at the age of 18,
compared to only 17% of women with secondary education or higher. Household wealth
influences the prevalence of child marriage among all wealth quintiles. Girls from the poorest
20% of the households were about 5 times as likely to be married or in union before age 18 than
girls from the richest 20% of the households.
While Zambia has established 21 as the minimum age of marriage for boys and girls, the
effectiveness of the law is hindered by inconsistencies with other laws and policies on children,
and by the existence of a customary legal system that exists in parallel and allows girls to be
married as soon as they have reached puberty.In 2013, the Government of Zambia launched a
nation-wide campaign to end child marriage, spearheaded by the Ministry of Chiefs and
Traditional Affairs, to draw attention to the harmful impact of child marriage and to encourage
communities to delay marriage for their daughters. The campaign has since been followed by a
symposium on child marriage, which brought together key stakeholders including Ministries,
traditional leaders, civil society organizations, youth, media and UN agencies to explore ways to
collaborate to end child marriage in Zambia (UNICEF, 2014).These campaigns have raised
awareness about child, early and forced marriage by investing in projects that prevent the
practice and to support girls and women who are already married. This has built partnerships to
ensure that the country fully implement the 2030 Agenda which will help girls, their families
and communities learn about the risks of child, early and forced marriage is critical to changing
social norms and traditions.
The United Nations Convention on the Rights Child obliges
government to protect children against all forms of abuse, exploitation and violence. But many
countries still lack a proper child protection system, or the system is weak, poorly coordinated
and under-funded or the public (and potential and actual victims) do not trust the system, or even
know that it exists.

The development of the National Child

Protection is still in the early stages in Zambia. The National Plan of Action under the National
policy of 2006 which contains elements related to child protection was being piloted in 2010.
Traditionally Zambian children are viewed as passive participants in the world of adults,
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however there are efforts to increase childrens participation, those supported by the Ministry of
Education in the child rights clubs and student councils. Ultimately, there is progress towards
improving the rights of children in government intention, yet the gap between intention and
practice is still large, with rural areas predominantly adhering to customary practices under the
guidance of conservative traditional leaders who still need to be brought on board with regards to
the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the child (save the children, 2010).
Article 34 of the UNCRC indicates that children and young people have the right to be protected
from sexual abuse. Being married before the legal age is a form of sexual abuse. Hence the
government should make sure that children are protected from all forms of abuse (UNCRC,
2012).Article 16 of CEDAW States that the state shall ensure that women have equal rights
with men in relation to marriage and as parents, as well as in respect of other aspects of family
life. This also means that, to protect a womans right to exercise her free will in getting married,
no marriage of a child woman below the minimum age of marriage should be legally recognized
(CEDAW, 2011).
However,many causes and effects of Early and Forced Marriages were discovered according to
the researches above. Despite the physical damage and the persistent discrimination to young
children especially girls, little progress has been made toward ending the practice of child
marriages. For example the government has introduced re-entry policy, they have also introduced
recreational programmes and also adults education. But, there is little sensitization of these
programs hence the problem threatens to increase with the expanding youth population in
developing countries. It is for this reason that the research will focus on the root cause and effect
of early and forced marriages in Zambia from the perspective of University of Zambia Students.
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Forced child marriage is a life-changing reality for many of the worlds children especially girls.
Some as young as 8 or 9 are forced to trade their childhoods for a life that can be defined by
isolation, violence and illness. It is a practice rooted more in tradition than religious custom, and
one that spans the globe, from Asia to Africa to the Americas (USAID, 2012).
In Zambia, the practice of child forced marriage has continued to disproportionately affect girls
in certain cultures and communities with significant consequences to their education, health and
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social life have little opportunity to develop awareness of their rights and are in no position to
claim or demand them. Forced and child marriages have severe psychological, emotional,
medical, financial, and legal consequences. Early marriages often interrupt a victims education.
This deprives them of their right to education, as well as limits any possibility of economic
independence from their spouse, making it more difficult to escape from an unwanted marriage
(UNICEF, 2008).
The Empirical studies (UNICEF, 2014; UN, 2006) conducted in Zambia have focused on the
factors that contribute to early and forced marriage. These included, gender inequality, poverty
and tradition and cultural practices. The studies also focused on forms of violence against
women. However there has been little research on this form of violence, such as husbands
forcing the wife to have sex and hard labor for the girl. These studies have not focused on the
investigation concerning the root causes and effects of early and forced marriages from a human
rights perspective (UNICEF, 2010).

1.2 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this research are divided into two; the general objectives
and the specific objectives.
1.2.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVES
(a) To investigate the causes and effects of early and forced marriages
in Zambia from the perspective of the University of Zambia students.
1.2.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
(a) To find out how socio-economic factors contribute to early and
forced marriages in Zambia
b) To establish the extent to which culture contribute to early and forced marriages in Zambia.
(c)
establish the consequences of early and forced marriages for wider Zambian society.
(d) To establish the consequences of early and forced marriages for married children.
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To

(e) To establish the mechanisms that have been put in place to address early and forced marriages
in Zambia.
.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTION

1.

To what extent does culture contribute to early and forced marriages?

2. How do social-economic factors contribute to early and forced marriages in Zambia?

3.

What are the consequences of early and forced marriages in Zambia for married children?

4. What are the consequences of early and forced marriages for the wider Zambian society?
5. What mechanisms have been put in place to address early and forced marriages in
Zambia?
1.4 RESEARCH RATIONALE
Zambia has one of the highest child marriage rate in the world with 42% of women aged 2024 years married by the age of 18 or below, a rate that has not evolved since 2002. In most
cases, girls who are affected by poverty, lack of education and long standing traditional
practices that discriminate against girls are the most vulnerable to early and forced marriage.
Increased risks for sexually transmitted diseases, premature birth of girls offsprings are
effects of child marriages(UNICEF, 2015).
The study is relevant as it will investigate seriousness of the problem on early and forced
marriage on children. The study will provide students with a variety of information on those
risks that affect children who are forced into early marriages. On a theoretical level, the study
will contribute to the existing body of knowledge on early and forced marriages in Zambia.
Empirical evidence of the research will help on a practical level to inform policy makers, and
legal framework as they formulate laws and policies based on the findings. NGOs and other
stakeholders will be provided with an insight about the problem as they look into reducing
the vice. Academically, it will be a partial fulfilment of a bachelors degree. The research
will further help come up with recommendations of the limitations.

2.0

LITERATURE REVIEW
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In order to have an in depth understanding of the research problem, reviews of literature in

various studies conducted in relation to early and forced marriages serves as vital. This part of
the research proposal will explore past findings on the researches relevant to the topic of study.
Child marriage stems from a multitude of causes and situations as demonstrated by growing
evidence and the consequences of the practice are far-reaching, for both the individuals
concerned and their communities.
2.1

EMPIRICAL REVIREW

A marriage is a legally recognition union between a man and a woman in which they are united
sexually co-operate economically and may have children through birth or adoption (Strong et al,
1998). Through the literature review, early and forced marriage is either one or both the married
couple being under the age of 18 years or high school (Hutchinson and McNall1994). The review
of these studies will help in having a clear understanding about early and forced marriages in
Zambia.
According to UNICEF, Africa has the highest incidence rates of child marriage, with over 70%
of girls marrying under the age of 18, in three nations. Niger has one of the highest rates of early
marriage in sub-Saharan Africa. Among Nigerian women between the ages of twenty and
twenty-four, 76% reported marrying before the age of 18 and 28% reported marrying before the
age of fifteen. This UNICEF report is based on data that is derived from a small sample survey
between 1995 and 2004, and the current rate is unknown given lack of infrastructure and in some
cases, regional violence. Root causes that led to child marriage family factors, cultural, social,
economic, and or contextual factors such as displacement and risks associated with natural
disasters and internal armed conflict. Interviews were conducted using semi-structured interview
schedules to gather information from the relevant persons.
In a research carried out in Uganda by Lindsay (1985) Two Research Assistants(RAs) were
selected from each district. One was from a social science background and the other from a legal
background. The data was qualitatively analyzed to elucidate how specific factors singly or in
combination lead to the issue of child marriage. The effect of context is also seen in a study done
in two districts of Uganda (Wolff, Blanc, and Gage 2000). In one district, where bride wealth that
does not include the exchange of livestock is more common and women are more likely to
control their own income, bride wealth payment had no association with sexual negotiation
outcomes In the other, where bride wealth involving cattle exchange is the norm and there are
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low levels of female education, bride wealth appears to have a negative association with
influence over sex (Tembo and Matenga, 2008).Found that young couple married or not, face
many difficulties including financial hardship, communication problems three generational
living, and sexual adjustment. Financial hardship comes with activity to support themselves
especially if a child is involved and to live without financial assistance from their parents or
government. The study revealed that at least if a girl gets married, the husband would become a
bread winner and support a girl and her family.
A study carried out in Malawi by Kapakasa (1992) the study looked at children dropping out of
school in rural areas because of initiation ceremonies.The studyshows that initiation brings
several problems for children especially girls. The study that was taken was a random sampling
of 40 participants between the age of 20 and 30 in which 30 were female participants and 10
were male participants. They took part in a semi- structured interview and discussed the reason
for initiations ceremonies. The study revealed that some parents were more willing to cover the
cost of initiation than to cover the cost of schooling thus showing the importance attached to
initiation ceremonies. Retrogressive ceremonies like female genital mutilation (FGM) and
thereafter engagement for marriage results to low attitude towards education by girls. Initiated
girls also find it difficult to return to school or concentrate on their studies because their next
expectation is marriage. Initiation ceremonies were still important in some African communities
because they mark the passage from childhood to adulthood. During initiation ceremonies,
knowledge and valueconcerning procreation, morals and sexual skills, birth control and
pregnancy were passed to the girls. After initiation it is considered shameful for girls to return to
school unlike the boys (Omare, 2007). Most girls view themselves as adults.
Another related participatory poverty assessment study done in Zambia by Norton, Owen &
Milimo (1994). Interviews were conducted using semi-structured interview schedules to gather
information from the relevant persons of 30 participants of which 15 were male and 15 were
female of ages between 15 and 18. The studyrevealed that girls are withdrawn from school after
grade four because of bride wealth payment which is alleged to diminish for an educated girl. As
boys grow up they socialize differently, with girls being taught one set of values and boys
another. At a very young age, girls begin to understand and imbibe the culture of meekness,
subservience, conformity and domesticity. They accept duties assigned in accordance with
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traditional gender specific advisor of labor. Son preferences and parents perceptions and
attitudes towards schooling of girls give education in Africa and elsewhere have long been
plagued with pedagogy of difference by way of education that stresses the difference between
boys and girls even men and women rather than similarities (FAWE, 2009), such pedagogy
differences start at home and end in community.Prior to the study, the research team
hypothesized that school drop outs may be linked to incidents of early marriage.
In the research carried out in the US by the Tahirih Justice Center (2011), 3000 known
suspected cases of forced marriage were identified by survey in a 2 year period. This national
survey of 500 service providers reported cases of forced marriages in immigrant communities
from 56 different countries and a range of different faiths. The central finding of the survey
reflects how child marriages have affected not only girl children but also boys, their families and
the community generally. The effects are compounded by many factors including; lack of
knowledge about what constitute a child ideas about what the age at which girls or boys are
considered ready for marriage and the association of puberty with readiness for marriage for both
girls and boys.
The degree to which a woman has input into decision making is an indicator of her power to
influence events that affect her and her children. In three studies that looked at decision making,
younger married girls often had less say than older married girls on a number of variables . A
research done bySanthya and colleagues (2003) found out that the majority of young women had
no say in decisions regarding household purchase of various items (food, small gifts, jewelry,
clothes, livestock, expensive items), especially in Gujarat. Women aged 20 years and older,
compared with adolescent females. They alsofound that, with one exception (inheritance of
property), younger married girls appear to be less involved than older married girls in decisions
regarding economic resources.
In a research conducted in six districts of Zambia: Katete, Lusaka, Luwingu, Mufulira,
Mwinilunga and Senanga conducted by Gillian Mann, Padraig Quigley and Rosal Fischer of
Child Frontiersfor UNICEF Zambia in April 2015. Child marriage is a widely practiced across
all the six sites which were chosen and data were collected. This study found that there are many
types of child marriage in Zambia. The most common unions are those that take place between
peers girls (from age 12 or 13) and boys (from age 14), usually with an age difference of about
9

two to three years. The research further found that Parents and guardians see child marriage as a
potential opportunity to benefit financially from the bride price for their daughter and also as an
opportunity to ease the strain on household resources. Orphaned boys and girls were found to be
married at an early age. It was found that marriage was a common response to teenage pregnancy
because it was found that children in rural areas had limited access to a range of programmes,
information and services and, in many cases, few opportunities for leisure and recreation, skill
development and employment and evidence from this research showed that some girls marry
because they cannot go to school (UNICEF, 2015).
In all the above studies, researchers have not focused on the in depth root causes and effects of
early and forced marriages on children, families and the wider society. Most of the studies
carried out only catered the adults and not the children. They also have not focused on the
appropriate age at which a person is supposed to get married especially a girl child.Whatever the
reasons and causes leading to early marriage, the consequences for the girls is consistent with
what has been found in studies from other parts of the world. Drawn from the above studies,
Education is usually interrupted, economic security in the majority of cases is at risk, the girls
quickly become responsible for child care and domestic work, and their autonomy, status and
position within the family and community is low. However, the above studies where not designed
to generate information about the prevalence of early marriagebut rather its causes and
consequences.
2.2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The researcher intends to use a theoretical framework encompassing two approaches in order to
study and understand the reasons why early and forced marriages still occur strongly in some
certain parts on the country.
2.2.1

CULTURAL THEORY

This theory will be used to understand how culture can influence and promote early and forced
marriages among societies.
The cultural theory acknowledges that the diversity of world views within one society might
result in reciprocal blind spots, making it really hard to understand each other. But on the other
hand, the diversity of world views provides security against one-track solutions for society as a
whole(Douglas and Wildavsky, 1983). Diversity and incompatibility among beliefs and value

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systems might thus be a painful experience for a democratic society seeking consensus decisions,
but they are never the less perceived as a positive attribute by cultural theorists
As opposed to other theories about risk, Cultural Theory starts with the assumption that
individuals within a society have very different values and beliefs about how society ought to be.
People have differing cultural biases or ideologies which are socially created, often incompatible,
and mediated through inter subjective value systems. These ideologies determine people's
understanding of the world (Wynne, 1992). Thus certain cultures have come to treat early and
forced marriages as a normal way of life like the culture of the Indians who believe that parents
should arrange marriages for their children who tend to be at a younger age.
2.2.2

THE SUB-CULTURE OF POVERTY

The sub-culture of poverty theory will be used to try and understand how poverty in a familys
generation affects the early and forced marriages of girls and boys in society. It tries to show how
the passing on of a particular culture or way of life from generation to generation contributes to
early and forced marriages.
The theory is attributed to Oscar Lewis. The Sub-culture of poverty theory is a concept which is
derived from a variety of anthropological, sociological and eugenic studies, and was expressed in
its modern. He suggested that the poorest section of society forms a sub-society or a sub-culture
which is distinctive and largely self-perpetuating. The theory emphasized on the key statement
about the generations is repeated elsewhere; once it comes into existence it tends to perpetuate
itself from generation to generation because of its effect on the children. By the time same
children are aged six or seven they have usually absorbed into the basic values and attitudes of
their sub-culture and are not psychologically geared to take full advantage of changing
conditions or increased opportunities which may occur in their lifetime. According to this theory,
peoples lives are bound to the design of the generation which is passed down from generation to
generation. In applying this concept of culture to the understanding of poverty, Oscar draws his
attention to the fact that poverty in modern nations is not only a state of economic deprivation, of
disorganization, or of the absence of something. It is also something positive in the sense that it
has a structure, a rationale, and defense mechanisms without which the poor could hardly carry
on. In short, it is a way of life, remarkably stable and persistent, passed down from generation to
generation along family lines.
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3.0

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In this chapter the research methodology that will be used is described. The geographical area
where the study will be conducted, the study design and the population and sample are described.
The instrument that will be used for data collection and analysis methods to maintain validity
and reliability of the instrument are described and the ethical considerations will be discussed
and lastly the possible limitations and how they are going to be dealt with or solved.
3.1

RESEARCH DESIGN

This study shall adopt a survey research design. Sapsford (2007) defines survey research as the
collection of quantifiable data from a population for purposes of description on identify
verifications that may point to casual relationships. This design is appropriate for the study
because it captures peoples opinion, beliefs and attitudes about factors affecting participation of
early and forced marriages in Zambia. The descriptive survey design is also suitable because it
involves collection of information, then assessing, finally, describing the data analysis regarding
the effect of child forced marriages in Zambian society.
3.2

RESEARCH SETTING/ SITE

the research will be conducted at university of Zambia main campus because it is; less

time consuming, cost effective and the selected sample will be easily accessible to the researcher
3.3

TARGET POPULATION

According to Mugenda & Mugenda (1999) target population is the group of individuals, events
or objects which a researcher wants to generalize the result of a study. In this research, the
population from which the sample will be drawn consist of all full time students at the University
of Zambia Great East road campus during the 2015/2016 academic year. The population will
consist of various ages, sex, school and year of study.

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3.4

SAMPLE SIZE

The sample size will be (100) respondents which is large enough to be representative of the
population. Mouton (1996:132) defines a sample as elements selected with the intention of
finding out something about the total population from which they are taken. This sample
population is selected because it is convenient to the limited time we have, it is cost effective,
manageable, reliable and adequate.
3.5

SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND METHODS

In this study, we shall use disproportionate stratified random sampling. This is a form of
sampling used in situations where one does not apply a uniform sampling fraction (F) but
variable sampling fractions arrive at the sample. The criteria for stratification will be sex. This
procedure would ensure a fair representation of the sample so that both sexes have an equal
chance to be included in the sample. The proportion of the two sexes will be the same and are
given by: F =m/N and f/N where m=sample size for male, N=size of population and f=sample
size for female.
F=m/N and F=f/N

where m=sample size for male

f=sample size for female
F=size of population.

3.6

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The instrument to be used in the collection of data is self-administered questionnaire of 50. A

questionnaire is a printed self-report form designed to elicit information that can be obtained
through the written responses of a subject (Burns & Grove 1993:368).

The

justification for the use of self- administered questionnaires is quite clear in that it gives adequate
time to respondents to answer questions freely without any influence. There are two types of
question in which social science researchers use as questionnaire that is closed ended questions
and open ended questions. In the open ended questions, the respondents are required to give their
opinion in the spaces provided. In the closed ended questions the respondents specifically
respond using tick for their answers. In this case we shall use both open ended and closed ended

13

questions because there are easier to administer and because the participants will be given time
to think and respond according to their opinions in their free time
3.7 INSTRUMENT RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
3.7.1 RELIABILITY
Polit and Hungler (1993:445) refer to reliability as the degree of consistency with which an
instrument measures the attribute it is designed to measure. Reliability will be ensured by
minimizing sources of measurement error like data collector bias. Data collector bias will be
minimized by the researchers being the only ones to administer the questionnaires, and
standardizing conditions. The physical environment where the data will be collected will be
made comfortable by ensuring privacy, confidentiality and general physical comfort.
Respondents will be requested not to write their names on the questionnaires to ensure
confidentiality.
3.7.2 VALIDITY
The validity of an instrument is the degree to which an instrument measures what it is intended
to measure (polit and Hungler 1993:448). To achieve content validity, questionnaires will include
a variety of questions on the knowledge of early and forced marriages. The questions will be
based on the information gathered during literature review and the questions will be formulated
in simple language for clarity and ease of understanding.
External validity will be ensured by making sure the persons approached to participate in the
study complete the questionnaires, this will help in generalization of the findings to the larger
population.

3.8 PILOTING/ PRE-TESTING THE STUDY

There are many techniques of accessing instrument reliability but in this research, pre-testing
technique will be used. The advantage of this method is that it detects mistakes from the
questionnaire. For example ambiguous questions, it is thus important to rephrase the questions
(make necessary changes to the questionnaire).

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3.9 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

Questionnaires will be personally distributed by the researcher to the research participants to
complete. Clear instructions on how to complete the questionnaire will be included in the
questionnaire cover page. All participants will be required to complete the questionnaires in the
presence of the researcher, this will be done to prevent participants from giving questionnaires to
other people to complete on their behalf.

3.10 DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Questionnaire will be checked to identify those items wrongly responded to, spelling mistakes in
the responses and any blank spaces left unfilled by the respondents. The data shall then be
organized and then analyzed with the use of computer. Because of the large sample of the
research, the computer will be more convenient for processing the raw data. SPSS software will
be used to process and analyse the data to be collected. On the other hand, the actual analysis of
the computed data will be done by members of the research group collectively. Descriptive
statistics will be used to analyze the data. The data shall be presented in tables, charts and graphs
with emphasis to frequencies and percentages then results will be reported by restating objectives
on selected variables.
4.0 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION
Conducting research requires not only expertise and diligence, but also honesty and integrity.
This is done to recognize and protect the rights of research participants. To render the study
ethical, confidentiality, harm, informed consent and anonymity will be observed.
Research participants consent will be obtained before they complete the questionnaires. Burns
and Grove (1993; 776) defined informed consent as the prospective subject agreement to
participate voluntarily in a study, which is reached after assimilation of essential information
about the study. The subject will be informed of their rights to voluntarily consent or decline to
participate, or to withdraw participation at any time without penalty. Subjects will be informed
about the purpose of the study, the procedures that will be used to collect the data, and assured
that there will be no potential risks or costs involved.
Anonymity and confidentiality will be maintained throughout the study. Burns and Grove
(1993:762) defined anonymity as when research participants cannot be linked by the researcher,
15

with his or her individual responses. In this study anonymity will be assured by giving research
participants ids or sudo names, so that the actual names are not exposed.
Confidentiality means that the information research participants provide
will not be publicly reported in a way which identifies them (Polit and Hungler). In this study,
confidentiality will be maintained by keeping the data collected confidential and not revealing
the research participants identities when reporting or publishing the study (Burns and Grove
1993:99). No identifying information will be entered into the questionnaires, and the
questionnaires will be numbered (Polit and Hungler, 1995).
The possibility of causing harm to research
participants will be examined. The researcher will examine carefully whether the participants
involvement is likely to harm them in any way. Harm in the sense, that research that might
include hazardous experiments, discomfort, anxiety, harassment, invasion of privacy, or
demeaning or dehumanizing procedures. If harm likely occurs, the researchers will make sure
that the risk is minimal i.e. the extent of harm or discomfort is not greater than the ordinarily
encountered in daily life. If the way information will be sought creates anxiety or harassment, the
researchers will need to take steps to prevent this.

4.1 POSSIBLE LIMITATIONS

In this study they are minor limitations which may pose a great challenge to the research team.
Some of the limitations include the following;
1. Not all persons will be willing to answer the questions honestly
2. Over-exaggerated response from respondents
3. Difficult to retrieve the
questionnaires

4.

Knowing that they are under a study, some respondents may respond in a biased manner.
5. The findings of this study cannot be generalized beyond university of Zambia

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4.2 SOLUTIONS
1. Instructions will be clearly indicated on the cover page.
2. The researcher and respondent will agree on a specific day and time for the collection of the
questionnaire.
3. The researcher will ensure that respondents are express themselves
freely and decline to answer questions that they may not be comfortable with.
4. The researcher will also ensure that the respondents are
comfortable.

5. The research is an academic

requirement for the researchers bachelors degree.

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