Running head: HOW DOES RACISM EFFECT MENTAL HEALTH IN AFRICAN

AMERICANS

How Does Racism Effect Mental Health in African Americans?

Sierra-Katherine Brooks
Seton Hall University

HOW DOES RACISM EFFECT MENTAL HEALTH

Abstract
Although the United states has progressed since the times of slavery,
the effects of slavery and discrimination against African Americans still
remains. The stressors of systemic and interpersonal racism are both
variables in the mental health of African Americans. This paper attempts to
discover and understand the effects that racism has on the mental health of
African Americans. It also provides an in depth history of the African
American struggle in the United States in order to proved a bases for the
discussion. Research also covers steps that future and current counselors can
use. These steps aim to create more multi-culturally competent and sensitive
counselors who are able to work with a wide array of individuals, especially
those who cite racism as their main stressor.

HOW DOES RACISM EFFECT MENTAL HEALTH

Racism is defined in the Oxford Dictionary as Prejudice,

discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone of a different race
based on the belief that ones own race is superior. This definition has
remained consistent with the treatment received by African Americans since
the beginning of slavery in the United States. In order to understand the
impact of current racism, the history of racism must also be explored and
analyzed. This paper will research the effects of racism on mental health in
the African-American community, and the ways in which professionals in the
counseling field can be better prepared to work with a community with such
a unique set of stressors.
The best place to start when approaching the history of AfricanAmericans is from the beginning. According to The Library of Congress the
first African slaves were brought to the colonies in 1619 as indentured
servants. They grew in popularity because of how cheaply they could be
purchased and over the course of 200 years they were used as slave labor,
and often bought in sold in a manner that resembled livestock auctions.
During this time many slaves were abused, murdered, and denied basic
human rights. During this time slaves that resisted or tried to escape were
murdered or mutilated, often publicly, to serve as a deterrent for the others.
Although slaves were subject to abuse, they remained resilient and
with the help abolitionists, started the underground railroad. The earliest
reported use of this network of safe houses is in 1780. The underground
railroad aided in the freedom of an estimated 100,000 slaves by 1850 and
spread abolitionist feelings in the north. These feelings, and the continued

HOW DOES RACISM EFFECT MENTAL HEALTH

disconnect of the south and the north led to the Civil War in 1861 and by
1863, after a victory for the north, Abraham Lincoln issued a preliminary
emancipation proclamation. This stated that all slaves were to be free, even
in the rebelling states (Library of Congress, 2015).
Although slavery was abolished racism was still very prevalent, and
even with their freedom, blacks were often mistreated, murdered, beaten
and systematically oppressed. In the south they lived under Jim Crow laws
which provisioned many mandates for what blacks were and were not
allowed to do. Some of the laws included were that a black person was not
allowed to look in the eyes of a white person, blacks could not eat in the
same restaurant as a white person and if a black had been accused of having
a romantic or sexual relationship with a white woman they were often
beaten, or hung for all to see. In a response to the treatment of blacks the
NAACP was founded in 1905, which had a purpose to advance black people
and fight for equality and protection (Library of Congress, 2015).
The NAACP was monumental in bringing to light the treatment of
blacks, and in demanding an end to it. Over the course of five decades they
fought for the rights of blacks. A tremendous victory came with the Brown V.
Board of Education decision in 1954, which state that separate is not created
equal and schools need to me integrated. This decision gave great
momentum to the Civil Rights movement and fostered great leaders such as
Rosa Parks and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. This movement led to the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 being passed which established the Equal Employment
Opportunity commission, it also guaranteed equal voting rights for blacks.

HOW DOES RACISM EFFECT MENTAL HEALTH

This Act, and also many others such as the Fair Housing Act (1968) and
Affirmative Action in 1978, created great opportunities for blacks and were
created in the hopes of creating an equal playing field for all (Library of
Congress, 2015).
Although great strides have been made to assure equality for African
Americans in this country, racism is still a current factor in many African
American lives. Williams and Williams-Morris (2000) define Racism as a
pervasive, adverse influence on the health of racial and ethnic minority
populations in the United States (p.243). When trying to understand the
effects of racism, it is important to note that racism comes in many forms
and can present itself at anytime in subtle or prominent ways (Okazaki,
2009). There have been numerous studies conducted to record the
prevalence of racism, which is often categorized as race-related stress or
perceived discrimination. It has been found that between 40% and 98% of
the recorded responses from African Americans have stated, that they have
had exposure to racial discrimination (Forsyth, 2012). Racism can present
itself in many ways such as:
Internalized (the incorporation of racist attitudes, beliefs or
ideologies into ones worldview), interpersonal (interactions between
individuals) and systemic (for example, the racist control of and access
to labor, material and symbolic resources within a society) (Paradies et
al., 2015).
This paper will examine the correlation of interpersonal racism and
systemic racism and the effect they have on the mental health of African
Americans. Interpersonal racism happens between people, and can occur in

HOW DOES RACISM EFFECT MENTAL HEALTH

any setting. This form of interpersonal racism negatively affects mental

health status, because of the subjective experience of the discrimination.
Studies focusing on the African American experience first gained momentum
in the 1990s. Many of the studies since then found that racial discrimination
was positively correlated with higher levels of psychological distress and
lower levels of happiness. (Williams & Williams-Morris, 2000). A meta-analytic
review of 66 studies from 1996 to 2011 found that exposure to interpersonal
racism in the African American community led to anxiety, depression, low
self-esteem and other psychiatric symptoms (Pieterse, Todd, Neville & Carter,
2012). These symptoms can be easily treated with access to proper mental
health care and the knowledge required to seek it. However, these
symptoms that are heightened by interpersonal racism, are often left
untreated because of systemic racism (Williams & Williams-Morris, 2000). An
area of life that is a reflection of systemic racism is a low socio-economic
status (SES). The median family income in 1996 for white households was
$38,787, and for African American families it was $23,482. This disparity has
only grown since 1996 according to the US Census. In 2014 the median
household income for African Americans was $35,398, and that of white,
non-Hispanics, was $60,256. In Chart 1, taken from the Census Bureau,
shows that consistently throughout history African-Americans have made
less money than any other race recognized in the census.
Chart 1

HOW DOES RACISM EFFECT MENTAL HEALTH

These numbers reflect the systemic racism in the African American

community. Lack of wealth affects many realms of life such as education,
housing, and quality of life. Education is a major area that is affected by
systemic racism. Until 1954 all school were segregated by race (Library of
Congress, 2015). Prior to the ruling that changed the segregation laws
schools that were for African American students were severely inadequate
when compared to schools for white children. According to Civilrights.org, the
schools often had few books, little supplies and no room for the amount of
students that needed to attend (2015). Although schools have long since
integrated, the separation of race is still present because of the systemic
racism that governs housing which also then determines where most children
attend school (Williams & Williams-Morris, 2000). The segregation of housing

HOW DOES RACISM EFFECT MENTAL HEALTH

was largely driven by the idea that African Americans were inferior to whites.
In order to keep the neighborhoods separated it required many major
industries to help. The real estate industry, banking institutions and housing
policies of the federal government all had a hand in making this separation
possible. Residential segregation has been a central mechanism by which
racial inequality has been created and reinforced in the United States
(Williams & Williams-Morris, 2000). Public schools are funded by the taxes
taken from the households in their area. If they are in an area with low SES,
then the school will be underfunded. This means that the school would not
be able to provide a quality education to their students, who are majority
minority. This lack of adequate education would lead to low college entry
rates and lack of preparedness for the world. This in turn would create
individuals who would most likely identify with a low SES and live in areas set
up for people who fit into this category (Williams & Williams-Morris, 2000).
According to Smith (2015) persons with the lowest level of socioeconomic
status are estimated to be about two to three times more likely to have a
mental disorder than those with the highest socioeconomic level. This means
that the higher chance of mental illness because of their income is added to
the pressure of broad spectrum racism against African Americans and the
impact that has on their mental health also. Thus creating an environment in
which mental illness can thrive. African Americans are a major part of history
in the United States, and that history is significant in regards to the mental
health of African Americans because it provides a context in which their

HOW DOES RACISM EFFECT MENTAL HEALTH

unique stressors were created. According to the National Alliance on Mental

Illness Africans Americans are 20% more likely to experience serious mental
health problems than the general population (2015). It would be responsible
of counselors to understand the factors that contribute to this increased
likelihood of mental illness, and to learn ways to empathize and aid this
population. Understanding how racism affects African Americans can greatly
improve the relationship between counselor and client.
According to Smith (2015) the Surgeon General released a report that
discovered people of color are less likely to receive necessary mental health
care than their white counter parts, and also found that when they do seek
help they often receive aid that is of poorer quality (p. 56). It is important to
understand all of these factors when counseling a patient who identifies as
African American in order to provide quality and accurate care. Although
there is much research on how to to support clients who experience racism,
there is no single and comprehensive guide for practice. While in training
counselors need the opportunity to to practice cross-cultural dialogue. When
asked to have racially charged dialogue an individual often realizes their
implicit bias (Malott & Schaefle, 2014). In these dialogues it is important for
facilitators to allow the highly charged and unpredictable interactions to
occur. If they attempt to leverage their authority in order to divert the
dialogue, to less threatening role modeling they are displaying the avoidance
behavior that is trying to be transformed in future counselors. Although there
is no guide, stages have been created from the synthesizing of empirical

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finding and theoretical suggestions into a four-stage model, that guides and
and enhances counselor practice (Malott & Schaefle, 2014).
Stage 1: Counselor Multicultural and Racial Competencies, this stage
focuses on the competencies and skills required to work across diverse
populations. These competencies should be considered required learning
before entering the counseling field. The competencies include counselor
awareness of personal biases, knowledge of clients worldviews, and the
knowledge and skills to deliver culturally aligned interventions (Malott &
Schaefle, 2014). Counselors would need to have a knowledge of historical
and current sociocultural experiences of various racial groups such as African
Americans They also must pay attention and recognize the unique traits and
experiences within and across groups. Other racial competencies include
understanding and awareness of the significance of race and racial privileges
also the knowledge of systemic racism (Malott & Schaefle , 2014).
Stage 2: Counseling Frameworks, this stages examines a limited
number of approaches and how they would be applied to clients facing
racism. There are frameworks that are more conducive to addressing the
racism experienced by clients than others (Malott & Schaefle, 2014). It is
suggested that practitioner us a mental health framework that is
biopsychosocial in nature. This means that it recognizes the influence and
interplay between an environment and emotional and social status. This
would allow the examination of factors such as racism (Ridley, 2005). An
example that Ridley identifies is multimodal therapy as an approach that
incorporates biopsychosocial perspective (2005). Other approaches that

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would be beneficial when addressing the racism experienced by clients are

relational-cultural therapy (RCT) and a trauma-informed approach (Malott &
Schaefle , 2014).
Stage 3: Skills in Initiating the Conversation, in this stage it focuses on
the importance of having the skills to engage clients and understand that the
process is not always easy or straightforward (Malott & Schaefle, 2014).
There may be clients of color who do not want to discuss racism or their
concerning problems are not directly related to racism. However, it is also
important for practitioners to understand that clients may not be able to
articulate, or recognize the negative effects of racism (Zayas, 2001). Clients
may also avoid the topic of racism in a counseling session because of the
fear of a possible negative counselor reaction. These worries could subside if
counselors initiate discussions about racism throughout their counseling
sessions with people of color. This would bring a feeling of comfort and
indicate to the client that there is a willingness to discuss such topics (Malott
& Schaefle, 2014). A study done by Burkhard, Knox, Groen, Perez & Hess
found that clients appreciated when counselors acknowledged the effect that
racism had on people of color and that acknowledgement allowed clients to
feel more understood and prepared to address the effect of racism in their
presenting problems (2006).
Stage 4: Interventions, this would come after the exploration of race
and discussion of the negative effects of racism on the client, it would
involve the exploration of possible interventions. One of the major parts of
intervention is strengthening the clients identity and drawing on positive

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assets and strengthening functioning in the face of racisms stressors (Malott

& Schaefle, 2014). Clients would explore and create positive views of their
racial identity and process their emotional reactions to racism. Counselors
should aid clients of color to recognize when they are affected by societally
based perspectives of their race or ethnic group. When this is recognized
counselors should work with clients to create more positive internal
definitions, in order to reject the harmful external ones (Zayas, 2001).
Another form of intervention would be providing clients with coping skills
when experiencing racism. Counselors would explore experiences of racism
with clients in order to understand their coping strategies. This knowledge
would be used to create effective plans and strategies for coping in future
experiences with racism (Malott & Schaefle, 2014). Coping strategies are
often influenced by cultural and gender norms, however, teaching clients to
use more active coping strategies to manage racism and discrimination
stressors tend to exhibit healthier behavior and report positive mental health
outcomes (Malott & Schaefle, 2014). When presenting coping strategies to
clients it is important to evaluate their effectiveness collaboratively. There is
no one-size-fits-all when it comes to coping strategies. They may affect
clients differently, some may provide helpful and adaptive to some, and
others may only aid in producing more stress and a reduction of functioning
(Malott & Schaefle, 2014). Providing coping strategies is a constant
collaborative effort until clients and counselors discover strategies that work
the best for each individual client.

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Racism is an experience that African Americans experience on different

levels, each with a different intensity and presence. There are some forms of
racism that are systemic and can be hard to identify by some clients. Others
are interpersonal encounters that clients can experience in interactions with
others, and can be presented with wavering forms of severity. There is an
extensive history of racism against African Americans in the United States,
and this history is an important aspect of what is experienced currently.
Although racism can be a constant variable in an African Americans life,
culturally trained counselors can provide significant help when racism begins
to effect the mental health of African Americans. It is important to conduct
extensive multi-cultural training, and to continue this education when
practicing. Multicultural competencies, counseling frameworks, initiating
conversation about racism, and interventions are important steps to follow
when working with African-American clients who present racism as their
stressor. Counselors must understand the importance of racism, whether it
be obvious or covert, on their clients of color and practice the skills
necessary to provide adequate and culturally sensitive counseling.

References

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