3(jocf

A Practical Approach to Defining

O. Allen Alpay, SPE-AIME,THUMS Long Beach Co.
&
.1,

Introduction
In conventional engineering practice, mathematical
expressions describing the flow of fluids in porous
media are applied to reservoirs via various simplifying assumptions regarding the physical nature of the
reservoir rock and its contents. These well known
assumptions usually consider the reservoir rock to be
either entirely homogeneous and isotropic, or allow
for some simple types of anisotropy in certain
directions.
It is generally recognized that idealization of rock
characteristics in flow calculations is unrealistic in
the face of actual physics! and fextllra] conditions
encountered in geologic formations. The experience
gained from several decades of fluid injection and
recovery operations has left no doubt that an overly
simplified concept of the reservoir rock is hardly
suitable for a valid representation or appraisal of
reservoir behavior. However, dealing effectively with
the characterization of physical and textural variation in a reservoir has been an elusive problem because the reservoir portion that can be investigated
. . . ...11.. :c:;
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+h..,...h
k,.
-..hala. m
:. .usually
UIIUUgII
UUIGIIUIGS
IU31EUUIUCZUL
w wuulpallson with the bulk of the reservoir. Moreover, it is
extremely difficult to construct a precise mathematical analog of the detailed reservoir rock variability even when abundant information is available.
Still, if the evaluation of reservoir performance in
various engineering operations is to be reasonably
realistic, performance calculations must include adequate provisions for the extent of control imposed
on flow by the reservoir rock. Consequently, before

he can. proceed with his projections the practicing

engineer is frequently faced with the need for (1) a
valid description of certain physical and textural
variants in the reservoir, such as porosity, permeability, stratification, and continuity; and (2) means
for enumerating such descriptions.
Numerous investigations of reservoir heterogeneity
and its characterization have been made in recent
years. I-9 Most of the methods proposed, however,
either are too involved mathematically to be practical in routine applications, or require specific inforrn.adml Qn the reservoir that is not a!ways easily
available. Therefore, it appears that few of them
have had wide use outside research or academic
circles. Meanwhile, as new and more complicated
recovery techniques are being introduced by the industry, the need for a thorough understanding of
reservoir anatomy and for a means of characterizing
its variability in an easily comprehensible and practical way is becoming increasingly urgent.
The method presented here is intended to fulfill

tAce,-dsa
+h.a
.-rim A;
+L-.-m--,-l.- T+- ,-.h;,x.+;xrc.
UIUCiG
tions of physical and textural variation in the reservoir that actually interfere with the flow of fluids,
by relying on the investigation of the sedimentarystratigraphic makeup of the reservoir rock. Although
the method may appear to be intended primarily for
fluid-injection recovery applications, it can be used
in all phases of reservoir depletion and development
with or without mathematical models. The data,
sources of information, and analytical techniques
LIGGUC).

1L3

UUJL+LIVL.

:~

LU

UbSbAIUti

Ulti

bUS*Ul-

Here is a method for evaluating the physical and textural variations in reservoir rocks to
construct a flow model using core descriptions, permeability profiles, and well logs. The
method is a practical and versatile alternative to existing complex analytical techniques.
....L1.
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JULY, 1972 %W

. . ..A1.

. ..

841

required for its execution are of the most common

type, familiar to all who are engaged in day-to-day
engineering operations.
The method was developed some years ago in connection with a graduate study on the heterogeneity
of the Cardium sands in the Pembina field, with data
provided by Amoco Production Co. It has since been
applied in various producing regions and found to be
quite versatile.

TABLE

Discussion
The term reservoir heterogeneity is quite often a
convenient catch-all phrase of uncertain meaning.
loosely applied to rock variability in an ambiguous
context. Here, however, it is used primarily in relation to flow anomalies or the dynamic aspects of
flow in porous media. rather than simply to convey
the anatomic complexity of such media in a geological sense; this use of the term shOuid be re~@Zed
and borne in mind in reading the rest of the dis-

USED

41 Full-cored
,A!~

14

IN THE

STUDY

spacing)

wells

p~~m@-j!@

Porosity
Fluid saturations

per foot of
core

Fuii-core microstratigrapnic
descriptions

108 Logs
39 SP-resistivi~
23 Micrologcaliper
46 Gamma ray-neutron

Area of Study and Data

The area of investigation covers approximately 7.5
sq miles in the south-central portion of the Pembina
field, Alta., Canada. The reservoir rock is the Cardium formation of Late Cretaceous and consists of
fine sands-silts-shales (with very little calcareous admixture, if any) capped with an erratic conglomerate
section that may or may not be productive. The gross
pay thickness varies from 15.5 to 26.5 ft. The overall structural attitude of the region is one of homoclinal beds dipping southwest approximately 45 ft/
mile. NO faults have been reported in the area. A
schematic illustration of the subsurface reservoir
geometry of the Cardium, constructed from structure
and isopachous maps. is shown in Fig. 1. Table 1
gives the type of data used. At the time of the study,
a water-injection recovery program had been under
way in the field for about a year.

lDATA

60 Wells (80-acre

individual

well production

data

cussion. In f .ct, the method described in the following paragraphs is based entirely on this understanding.
In engineering applications, reservoir heterogeneity
has a distinct me~ning, but a highly restricted one,
compared with th~t conceived in the geological sciences, To an engineer, physical variations or lithologic/mineralogic/textural
changes that will not interfere with flow behavior in the reservoir are merely
academic. The engineer, in carrying out his objectives, is concerned only with the effects. created by
reservoir anatomy as manifestly expressed by flow
behavior in the interwell region. Consequently, this
view will dictate that coverage and characterization
of reservoir heterogeneity in engineering applications
be limited to only those reservoir anatomical components whose effects on flow are critical to the recovery of reservoir hydrocarbons. and will avoid entirely all nonengineering aspects of reservoir anatomy.
Recovery in a reservoir may depend critically on
one or all of the following: ( 1) the displacement
mechanism involved, (2) the vertical and areal coverage attained by the displacing fluid at breakthrough, [3) the chmge in vertical and areal coverage
L- A:. -l,.:
+1..:A
cc+-.
l....enl, +fi.h..h
..+...,-A.
A L..
Uy
lIIC
UIS~lclG1ll&
II(.
I1U UllCl
UIGCIAtIIIUU&l,
ii LLdlllCU
and (4) the produced-fluid

ratio after breakthrough

4
\

Fig: I BIQck

842

diagram

showing

the idealized

geometry

of the reservoir

sand

in the study

area.

JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

to an economic limit. These yardsticks would apply

either to fluid-injection recovery. or with appropriate
modification. to most cases of primary depletion. The
task of defining reservoir heterogeneity, then. simply
consists of isolating those components of reservoir
anatomy that either control or contribute to Items 1
through 4 above.
A breakdown of reservoir heterogeneity into
classes related to various reservoir anatomical components that control recovery in a reservoir is presented in Table 2. In the table some types of heterogeneity are identified as the result of the microscopic
aspects of sedimentary textures, such as the effects
that pore-to-pore differences in a reservoir have on
fluid flow. Others are considered to relate to much
larger scale (macroscopic) relative textural differences arranged both areally and vertically in the
reservoir. Finally. very large (megascopic) heterogeneities characterized by flow control on a regional
scale are tied in with such major physical attributes
of the reservoir as reservoir geometry, faulting, folding. or natural fracture systems.
Heterogeneity at the microscopic level can be determined by laboratory displacement tests on iarge
.--.11
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f.fim
the
~~~et.v~~~.
qim~lar-lv
-. >11ICI1l
VI
LU1L3
La L,,
,,,,1
. . . . . . . . . .. .
conventional structure contour and isopachous maps
of the pay interval provide sufficient characterization
of the megascopic heterogeneities. By the same token.
hyperpermeabilitv trends can be identified. mapped,
and characterized by a combination of methods such
as pressure transient testing and logging. and by an
aerial photography technique described in the literature. Consequently. the class of heterogeneities that
requires the most attention in most cases is at the
TABLE

2ELEMENTS
OF ANATOMY THAT AFFECT
CONTROL
FLUID FLOW IN A RESERVOIR

1.
Microscopic
Heterogeneity

Il.
Macroscopic
Heterogeneity

Pore-to-pore; i.e.,

Well-to.well or intra.
formational: i.e.,

Formational: either
fieldwide or regional;
i.e.,

A. Pore.size dis.
tribution

A. Stratification
characteristics:

A. Reservoir geometry

B. Pore geometry

[11.
Megaacopic
Heterogeneity

(1) Nonuniform

(1) Over-all structural framework;

faults, dipping
strata, etc.

stratification

C. Dead-end pore
space

(2) Stratification
contrasts

(2) Over-all stratigraphic framework; bar,

blanket, channel
fill, etc.
~,

Uwmrnarnmahilitv
!., p. r ., ., .-.-....,

Oriented natural
fracture systems
(4) Insulation to
crossflow
B. Permeability
characteri~ics:
(1) Nonuniform
permeability

(3) Directional
permeability

JULY, 1972

OR

macroscopic level outlined in Sections II A, and II B

of Table 2. The following paragraphs will describe
the characterization of these in relation to the area
chosen for the study.
Definition of Stratification Characteristics

The principal reason in defining stratification characteristics in a reservoir is the probability of encountering the so-called layer-cake permeability configuration that has long been recognized and dealt with
in various recovery models currently in use. In fact,
there is a considerable volume of published material
discussing this type of reservoir anatomy and its
effects on injectivity and recovery.
lZ Simply
stated, in the layer-cake or stratified permeability
configuration each layer is unique with respect to
its range and continuity of permeabilities; hence,
each layer possesses an over-all permeabilityy average
and areal extent different from that of its neighbor.
Most reservoirs are extensively stratified; consequently, the condition is quite common.
To simplify a complex concept, it may be stated
that permeability in a sedimentary rock is primarily
. -1 .-.--l. +--.
....-I ,-.A;t;nc aw c g~~~~ @)cj
LCALUI U1 W1lU1.,UIM
re]a~eu
[U SWl
surface area. interconnected pore space, grain packing, and the grain size composition, the last one
bein$-perhaps the most critical. On the other hand,
strat]hcation in a broad perspective is frequently the
resuIt of changes in the grain size composition of
the sediment during deposition. (It should be remembered that terms such as sandstone, siltstone, or
shale technically signify only the average grain size
class of the sediment, or the rock.) Thus, it is not
surprising to find that in many. reservoirs the cGtifiguration of lithologic stratification is, in essence,
analogous to the configuration of permeability stratification. Consequently, a three-dimensional descrip-1 AL-1:. -1..-:-. l..n.,~,.a-,
.hnllld
in a
n .e.,w..l
.acervmir
tiort 01 LIIC mhuiu~i~
UIGa
Uwn ,,
-----coincide with the permeability zonation as well.
Since control of lithologic stratification to a large
extent is furnished by the environment of deposition,
a reconstruction of the geologic history of the area
and the sequence of sedimentary events in the final
resting site of the sediments should be the starting
point in investigating stratification. Furthemlore, as
no precise method or tool exists to determine exactly
what a reservoir may look like between two wells.
reservoir anatomy in the interwell area has to be
inferred, by intuition about sedimentary -stratigraphic
conditions. from point data or from other information that may be known only for a short distance
from the well. Thus a knowledge of the environmental background and depositional history of the
reservoir rock. and a thorough understanding of their
implications, improve the o&is si.gnificaritly ifi filwi
of the correct interpretation of the data regarding
stratification characteristics and the question of
continuity.
Sedimentary Hktory of the Study Area. A detailed
discussion of the sedimentary history of the Cardium
in the Pem.bins area is presented in the lkiatiire.13
It will suffice here to state that the deposition of the
Cardium sands is believed to have taken place on the
843

of Nonuniform
Stratification. Of the
available sources of information used in the study,
the radioactivity log was found to be the most definitive on the lithologic stratification of the pay zone
of the Cardium. The suitability of the gamma ray
iOg for tracing reservoir stratigraphy is to be expected,
considering that stratification within the Cardium is
largely the result of alternating fine sand-silt-clay size
material in the section, and that the gamma ray log
responds to the natural emission given off by UZ38,
Th, and K salts usually concentrated in the fines
contained in sediments.
Fig. 2 shows the typical gamma ray log of the
reservoir section compared with the Iithologic description and the laboratory core permeability profile
of the reservoir interval. The comparison reveals that
the gamma ray log reads the individual units in the
section with extraordinary clarity and detail, provided that the time constant for the sonde and the
logging speed are compatible with the regional radioactivity level. Fig. 2 also shows that the reservoir
pay section consists of four characteristic lithologic
intervals, labeled Zones I, II, II, and IV. These zones,
which constitute the major fiow intervais in the reservoir, are separated by what appear to be dense, impermeable shale sections. The major zones can be
further subdivided into smaller internals, indicated
by subscripts a, b. The latter intervals in turn consist of even smaller intervals, each comprising perhaps one or more BGS identified by subscript; ~, 2.
Before the gamma-ray-based lithologic breakdown
was traced from well to well, a set of correlation
fences was constructed using the full-core microstratigraphic descriptions available at 14 well locations. These fences, together with the permeability
profiles displayed by the 41 cored wells, were used
as a reference for the subsequent gamma ray log
correlations. For added detail, other available types
of logs as shown in Table 1 were also consulted.
The thickness of each recognizable and correlatable interval of the smallest order was noted in each
well on the log curves. If a particular interval was
absent in a well, a zero was entered in its place in
the record. These thickness figures were later con-

seaward margin of a broad sedimentary shelf bordering the Alberta syncline during a period of tectonic
instability. The variations in the influx of sediments
and the hesitation in the retreat or advance of the sea
caused by tectonic adjustments in the region resulted
in a rather irreguiar distribution of the sediments in
the basin, hence. the extremely irregular interbedding
of very fine sand- and silt-size material within the
deposits. The mix of environments quite probably
ranged from littoral to tidal flat, or deltaic, throughout the sedimentary cycle.

Investigation

It appears
that no single bed would be thick enough to be areally
continuous under the depositional conditions prevailing during Cardium sedimentation. Indeed, an investigation of full cores indicated that most of the
permeable units in the reservoir are thin; therefore
their chances of surviving subsequent removal in
spots by scavenging currents were not very good.
It is extremely difficult to detect and identify a
very thin bed at stratigraphically analogous points in
a reservoir like the Cardium while tracing reservoir
stratigraphy from weii to weii. If, however, a number
of thin intervals (microstrata) are taken together as
a band to encompass a somewhat larger depositional interval during which environmental conditions
appear to have been similar, the task of identification
is simplified. Thus, instead of attempting to identify
the individual microstrata between wells and risking
misinterpretation of stratigraphy in the reservoir, an
entire band is identified collectively and the texturally
similar microstrata are traced together from well to
well within the confines of this band to establish
their collective continuity. Such a cluster of microstrata with similar textural characteristics that is,
produced in proximity to one another in both time
and space shall be termed a band of genetic similarity and abbreviated in the rest of this discussion
as BGS. The recognizability and traceability of BGS
in an otherwise very complex. individually untraceable stratigraphy of uncertain identification and continuity is the essence of the method under consideration.
Concept of Band of Genetic Similarity.

TYPICAL
IN

GAMMA
RAY
RESERVOIR

LOG

PERMEABILITY

MICR08TRAT1GRAPHIC

=cncm
WELL

PRWI
WELL

4s

L=
46

-5-

-=

:=:=:-=====

20

10

Y-----=------

Fig. 2Relationship

of gamma

ray log to microstratigraphy

and core permeability

,a, ,n.,

JUUKllti

. ,

,-.r
ur

profile

mFTnnr
rJ21Ku

in the reservoir.

-.,.

LEu1vl

. -fir..

Ta. --.,

113LI11VULUUI

30

toured by interval on a map of the study area to

portray the variation of thickness and areal limits of
the intervals. The maps provided the interpolated
thickness of a given interval at any given point in
the interwell region. An example is shown in Fig. 3.
~Qn!MStS and continuity: In addition
~~m~~fic=~~on
to the isopachous map, a sand index (S1) map was
prepared for each differentiable interval. The S1 was
. ..+...le -;
.m,-l
~,,.+;ca~
-1-.L. LUal>C-llllG
.-- - c.. - .~dl. . LILIG
ii5 UK
ddi~&l
1111A

aJIU

yucuxbn.tiw

from the gamma ray log by expressing the magnitude

of the gamma ray curve deflection for the interval as
a fraction of the maximum deflection recorded in the
reservoir. The S1 figures reflect the increase of the
fines in the reservoir in either horizontal or vertical
reservoir sections relative to the cleanest part of the
reservoir where the largest gamma ray deflection is
recorded. The deflections were measured from the
shale line; hence the smaller the S1, the greater the
amount of the fine admixture in the interval.
The S1, which in this study was found to be a
number between 1.00 and 0.40, was used as an
analog both of the permeability contrasts between
superimposed layers and of the areal variation of
average permeability in each interval. The premise
for this was the earlier assumption that permeability
in the reservoir is related, for the most part, to the
increase or decrease of the fines in the section, and
thus the coarse-to-fine ratio, S1, in each interval
would be expected to increase or decrease with permeability, or vice versa. An example of the S1 map
is shown in Fig. 4.
The log curves were used after appropriate correction factors were applied. Spurious deflections due
to ctnticticnl
0.-.10.. u, ~ari~~i~n~ in ?h~ garn.n~~ ~ount were
eliminated from the curves by comparing identical
log sections recorded in the same well in different
. . WI
-- ------ ..-.. - c-. ,.me.,a..+;-m
runs. CiiartS
parent log readings to true readings are available in
logging handbooks.
pIULCdUICS

IUI

WIIVGIUII~

the

iip-

Statistical Lithe-Textural Model. It is recognized that

the manner of zoning a reservoir described above is

not entirely objective, although any such breakdown

is understood to be based on multiple control and
overlapping data. In certain instances it may be more
desirable to rely on a purely mechanical approach;
that is, dividing the reservoir into a number of layers
of contrasting characteristics using analysis of variance techniques, then correlating the layers between
wells by means of suitable statistical criteria.
-:-A few triai runs on an IBM 7090 computer, ..using
~rOU~ Of wells
~~~ p~~,wl~a~~i~~ &@ from. a Sm.aii
according to the zonation method described by Testerman,l~ resulted in approximately the same stratigraphic configuration as previously determined. This
was taken as a further indication of the interchangeability of the permeability stratification with the
lithologic stratification in the Cardium pay zone.
Characterization
of Stratification. The stratigraphic
complexity of the reservoir was expressed by recording the total number of the BGS in each well and
contouring the resulting count on a map of the study
area (Fig. 5).
The figure obtained in this manner represents the
variation of stratigraphic density in the area; it
does not imply that actual physical boundaries exist
in the reservoir where the contours are drawn. However, where contours crowd each other, a rapid
change from one predominant lithologic character to
another (with an associated permeability change) may
be inferred. The situation can perhaps be more aptly
described as a microfacies change between certain
wells. An increase in the density of the contour lines
in an area portrays an increase in the complexity of
reservoir stratification.
The implications of Fig. 5 may be further supplemented by a simple statistical quantification of stratigraphic reservoir complexity. For example, in this
-c-mc- +h,,oLaL.*
L.IWqu
fil~mt;ficti~n
......v-.. -.. ...-j
mnv be made with the S1
because the interfingering of various textural units
such as shale and sand is reflected both by the lateral
change in the coarse-to-fine particle ratio within an
interval between wells and by the variation of the
coarse-to-fine ratio vertically over the stratigraphic

w.

o
-

Fig. 3lsopachs

JULY, 1972

2000

for Subzone

o
-

4000

lVt, in the study

area.

Fig. 4-Variation

4000

of SI in Subzone

IV,.
845

section in a given well. Thus additional contour maps

of S1 were prepared on the basis of three statistics:
1. The mean value of the S1 (=) in well profile,
2. The standard deviation of the S1 (SI~) in well
profile,
--, -. . .
3. The kurtosk of the S1 (>1),) m weii profiie.
The areal variation of each of these statistics is
shown in Figs. 6 through 8. The formulas used in
the computation of the mean, standard deviation,
and kurtosis are given in the Appendix.
The mean S1 in Fig. 6 shows what percentage of
the section is flow conductive sand, A high mean
S1 is indicative of the predominance of sandy units
in the reservoir at that locality, therefore, it is indicative of a higher permeability. By the same token, a
low mean S1 is indicative of a section of predominantly low permeability. In Fig. 6, note that the
center of the investigation area is penetrated by a
shale wedge, flanked on both sides by an increasingly more sandy section. It may be inferred from
a comparison of Fig. 5 which shows the variation
of the number of individual strata in the section
with Fig. 6 that the central wedge may indeed be a
low-permeability bank restricting flow communication between the east and west halves of the area.
(The low individual layer count for the central area
in Fig. 5 indicates that stratigraphic interfingering
prevalent on each side of the wedge does not continue through it.) Figs. 5 and 6 further convey that
the far western portion of the area is also a region
of io-w-stratai ~~unt _ a region that this ti~le appears
to be predominantly sandy.
Being highly sensitive to the extreme highs and
lows of the data, the mean is a rather poor indicator
of the character of a distribution. Accordingly, other
statistics such as standard deviation and kurtosis
must be used to supplement it.
---- Of tmriStandard de~iaticm is a ~etiei%ii iiieasure
ability in a distribution. Kurtosis, on the other hand,

describes whether a distribution is peaked (leptokurtic), or contains a sag in the middle with perhaps
two modes (platykurtic). A strongly peaked distribution with a single mode has a high kurtosis and is
typical of a statistically homogeneous population.
O,....
fil,,fil,, a. L..ta.,..aan,,. n. -;WDA.t. t;ct;cnl nnn&ullvGISGIY,
ulation has a bimodal, sag-in-the-middle type of distribution with a characteristically low kurtosis.
The choice of these two latter statistics was
prompted by the premise that an increase in the
number of shale stringers in BGS sets in the section
would likely result in greater variability for the S1,
hence a larger standard deviation for the well or the
interwell area. However. this situation theoretically
should be accompanied by a bimodal distribution for
the S1 for that weii (or the interweii area) with one
peak in the sand and the other in the shale range if
the over-all textural contrast among BGS is pronounced; hence, a low kurtosis figure. If the over-all
textural contrast in a cross-section of the reservoir is
not pronounced, however, it is feasible that a given
standard deviation will be associated with a higher
kurtosis vaiue. Hence, the variation of standard deviation must be interpreted in the light of the companion variation in kurtosis.
According to Figs. 7 and 8, the most pronounced
variability of S1 is in the western half of the area,
indicating perhaps a high degree of interfingering of
sand and shale. This further confirms the implications
of Figs, 5 and 6. Apparently the reservoir anatomy
rhancn=c
I clear , nrdnminantlv
winch, character
-,.
M..5-0 frm-tl
. . . ... &-.--.
=.--- ....... ...., -----.. ....
in the far western end to a predominantly shaly character in the center of the area, then begins to acquire
new sand stringers toward the far eastern portion.
In a more qualitative vein, composite interpretation of Figs. 5 through 8 leads to the construction of
Fig. 9, which suggests that in terms of anatomical
llGLCIU&llLUU>

rnmnlpy
itv
-... s-.-....,

there

. ..v. v

are

. ..-

US

~~~~~~i

lllIALU

sectors

DLUL,

in

aLL%UA

the

ys-

2wL%3 d

investigation:
Very low heterogeneity; essentially
sand.
Sector II Moderate heterogeneity; essentially
sand, interbedded with shale.
Sector HI Extreme heterogeneity; highly interbedded sand and shale.
Sector IV Low heterogeneity; essentially shale.
Sector V Moderate heterogeneity; essentially
sand, interbedded with shale.
Sector VI .Moderate to high heterogeneity; essen. ..
tially shaie, interbecfcied with sand.
Sector I

At present, this breakdown has no quantitative

significance in terms of recovery from a reservoir.
HO-wever, it f-uilikk

2000

4000

SCALE

Fig. &Variation
of stratigraphic
area. Contours denote
846

complexity
in the study
the BGS count.

V~iti~bi~

ifif+igiit

ifit(j the

&ft3~-

all nature of reservoir anatomy in the Cardium. For

instance, one of the striking implications of Fig. 9 is
that the sectors are aligned in a more or less NW-SE
trend. This trend parallels the ancient shoreline, and
perhaps is the result of redistribution of the sediment
by longshore currents, tidal movement, or estuarine
channeling along the axis of the depositional basin.
A corollary to this would be for areal permeability
anisotropy to follow the same trends in the reservoir.
JOURNAL

OF PETROLEUM

TECHNOLOGY

%,

Indeed, this was later confirmed by the isopermeability maps prepared for each BGS.
Another observation is made in the light of the
solution-GOR distribution in the area, shown in the
upper right-hand corner of Fig. 9. It appears that
the variation of GOR is generally coincident with
the distribution of stratigraphic complexity in the
reservoir, with a higher GOR in high-SI sectors (Figs.
6 and 9). It is also interesting to note that the major
Pnn

Uulx

change

c-l 1-..,lU1lUWS

I....

UJG

~.tirv>a~,die

G{

:~e

!&&,.

permeability region in the center of Fig. 6.

Conclusion
The identification
log (or on other
control provided
section and core

of the BGS sets on the gamma ray

types of logs) with the aid of the
by Iithologic descriptions of the
permeability profiles in key wells

2000

removes Item II A(1) and, partially, Items H A(3)

and ]1 A(4) in Table 2 from further consideration.
The BGS isopachous maps, together with the S1 contours, provide quantitative coverage of Items 11 A(3)
and H A(2), respectively, and 11 A(4), collectively.
The definition of areal permeability variation, Item
11 B in Table 2, can be handled by simple contour
maps as before. Core permeability data after suitable
statistical reduction can be contoured for each BGS,
-..,.-:
thnt
-11 in.rer
hfillnrlnri~c
hav.a
he-n
nr#claau,n.,,,~
u,-.
GUI IUJWL
-..
--.
.0
-----..
y.
viously determined. A sufficient number of permeabilities must exist in a sufficient number of wells so
that contours can be drawn with reasonable confidence. However, experience has shown that where
core permeability is scarce, other reservoir properties
correlating with permeability can be substituted to
develop a permeability variation analog for each BGS.

4000

o
-

4000

SCALE

SCALE

Fig. 6--Variation

of cross+ sectional

mean sand

index,

~, in the study area.

2000

4000

SCALE

Fig. 7Variation
of cross-sectional
standard deviation
of sand index, SIO, in the study area.

JULY,

1972

Fig. 8-Variation
of cross-sectional
sand index, Sl~, in the study

2000

kurtosis
area.

of

4000

SCALE

Fig. 9Regions
of relative anatomical
complexity
in the
reservoir and the associated
production
anomaly.
847

Areal permeability variation maps can be used to

estimate a permeability value for any portion of the
reservoir. For instance, each reservoir block of a
...givctl size m each element of syrnmet~ in a e!!
development pattern can be assigned, by interpolation, a different permeability on the basis of the contours. Quantifying areal textural variation hi this
manner may provide an uncomplicated means to
evaluate areal coverage in recovery calculations.
Furthermore, the contours in such maps depict the
alignment of the permeability trends in a reservoir;
hence, they could be used in fluid injection programs
to align the injection wells with such trends for better
areal sweep,
As stated at the beginning, megascopic and microscopic heterogeneities are evaluated on a routine basis
by already standardized methods, which are beyond
the scope of this discussion. Conversely, the evaluation of directional permeability (Item II B(3) of Table
2), which results mostly from preferred fabric orientation in sedimentary rocks with elongate grains (and
which should not be confused with areal permeability
variation) can be made on oriented cores and need
not be discussed here.
Experience in various fields including such West
Texas carbonate reservoirs as the San Andres, Grayburg, and Upper Clearfork indicates that the approach to heterogeneity definition outlined here is
mnrlificatiorss
trs most reS~pp!i~ab!e with, ~r-mrn~riate
yy. ~ ----. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..- ._
ervoir rocks except those formed in place by organic
growth. Of course, the choice of iogs may differ from
one case to another. Application is not restricted to
fluid-injection recovery, but is valid in all phases of
reservoir exploitation, including field development.
The method, although highly conventional, is not
upstaged by currently available pressure transient
analvsis
methods nor has it been outmoded bv. the
.
advent of numerical reservoir simulation in recent
years. Until itiOie is known oil the ~itY31di~ tT~flSit3tlt
characteristics of certain anatomic configurations,
transient analysis will be limited to a complementary
role in reservoir description. Simiiariy, a thoroug%
understanding of the anatomical framework in a
reservoir is an important first step in constructing a
realistic mathematical model of reservoir behavior.
Anatomic investigations in a reservoir should,
ideally, be carried out before operational decisions
are made. Aside from eliminating hindsight, a thorough familiarity with reservoir anatomy acquired in
the planning stages of an operation not only will
provide the means to combat the detrimental aspects
of reservoir heterogeneity, but also supply the information bv. which some anatomical attributes of the
reservoir can be made to work to our advantage.
Am
w1eu51mer1is
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to the management of Amoco Production Co. for releasing the

data furnished for the preparation of my 1963 doctoral dissertation on which this paper is based. Sincere thanks are extended to E. H. Mayer of THUMS
Long Beach CQ: for reading the manuscript.
References
~. ~~[~hin.nn
,........ C-. .A. .. .1.. .. ~ndoe
---=.

, C.-. F. MSd Polasek, T. L.:

Identification, Classification and Prediction of Reservoir Nonuniformities
Affecting Production Operations,
J. Pd. Tech. (March, 1961) 223-230.
2. Kruger, W. D.: Determining Areal Permeability Dist&~$;
by Calculations, J. Pet. Tech. (July, 1961)

Field Observa3. Elkins, L. F. and Skov, A. M.: Some

tions of Heterogeneity of Reservoir Rocks and Its Effect
on Oil Displacement Efficiency;
paper SPE 282 presented at SPE Production Research Symposium, Tulsa,
Okla., April 12-13, 1962.
4. Coats, K. H., Dempsey, J. R. and Henderson, J. H.:
A Practical Method for Determining Reservoir Description from Field Performance Data, Sot. Pet. Eng. J.
(March, 1970) 66-74.
5. Morineau, Y., Simandoux, P. and Dupuy, M.: Study
of Heterogeneities in Permeabilities of Porous Media,
paper 16, 2nd Assoc. Rech. Tech. et Prod. Colloquim
Trans., Rueil, France, May 31- June 4, 1965.
6. Zeito, G. A.: Interbedding of Shale Breaks and Reser~;g Heterogeneities, J. Per. Tech. (Oct., 1965) 12237. Bennion, D. W. and Griffiths, J. C.: A Stochastic Model
for Predicting Variations in Reservoir Rock Properties,
Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (March, 1966) 9-16.
DUPSY,
M, P.: Some New Mathematical Approaches
Het,wnm.r,.ml<
Flow Studies, paper
;~~
., ...-. .,=.,-.--- POI-OUS Medium
SPE 1840 presented at SPE 42nd Annual Fall Meeting,
Houston, Oct. 1-4, 1967.
9. Nelson, R. W.: In-Place Determination of Permeability
Distribution for Heterogeneous Media Through Analysis
;~-~;ergy Dissipation, Sot. Prt. Eng. J. (March, 1968)

8.

10. Alpay, O. A.: A Study of Physical and Textural

Heterogeneity in Sedimentary Rocks, PhD dissertation,
Purdue U.. Lafayette, Ind. (June, 1963).
11. Alpay, O. A.: Application of Aerial Photographic Irrterpretation to the Study of Reservoir Natural Fracture
C.,.,
a.... *>.~=~~,
. . ..a. Sp~ 2557 Pre~en!ed at SPE. 44th _AnDY3LG111Yi,
nual Fall Meeting, Denver, Colo., Sept. 28- Oct. 1,
1969.
12. Craig, F. F.$ Jr.: Effect of Reservoir Description on
1970)
Performance
Predictions, J. Pet. Tech. (Oct.,
1239-1245.
13. Michaelis, E. R.: Cardium Sedimentation
Sot.
fef.
bina River Area, J. Alberta
1957) 5, 73-77.
14. Testerman,
Technique,

J. D.:
J. Pet.

848

A Statistical Reservoir Zonation

(Aug., 1962) 889-893.

Tech.

APPENDIX

Computation of Mean, Standard

Deviation, and Kurtosis
z fj(sIj)
~l=j

A -1.-a..,l
twswu

Original
manuscript
received in Society of Petroleum
Engineers
office Aug. 2, 1971. Revised mansucript
received
March 27, 1972.
Paper (SPE 3608) was presented
at SPE 46th Annual
Fall Meeting,
held in New Orleans,
Oct. 3-6, 1971. ~ Copyright
1972 American
Institute
of Mining,
Metallurgical,
and Petroleum
Enginaera,
Inc.

in the Pem(April,

Geo[.

..

(A-l)

(A-2)

(A-3)

I; fj(~~j =)2
SI. =
i

x
sIk

jj(SIj =)4

S1.4

-T

JOURNAL

OF PETROLEUM

TECHNOLOGY