KFN05Sr02 Neutron Life Cycle 08jun25 PDF

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ACAD BASIC CURRICULUM
NUCLEAR SCIENCE
CHAPTER 5
NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE
21
THERMAL
NEUTRON
LEAKAGE
52
THERMAL NEUTRONS
ABSORBED BY
NON-FUEL ATOMS
346
RESONANCE
LOSSES
1038
THERMAL
NEUTRON
Lth
1017
THERMAL
NEUTRONS
965
THERMAL
NEUTRON
U-235 FUEL
MODERATOR
1400 FAST
NEUTRONS
BORN
1384 FAST
NEUTRONS
Lf
58
FAST NEUTRON
LEAKAGE
1442 FAST
NEUTRONS
U235
238
Pu239
1400 FAST
NEUTRONS
435
NEUTRONS
FROM
THERMAL
FISSION
START CYCLE
HERE
42
NEUTRONS
FROM
FAST FISSION
STUDENT TEXT
REV 2
2003 General Physics Corporation, Elkridge, Maryland
TM
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by
any means, without permission in writing from General Physics Corporation.
KFN05Sr02_Neutron Life Cycle 08Jun25.doc
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FIGURES AND TABLES ........................................................................................................... ii
OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................. iii
STEADY STATE NEUTRON BALANCE ................................................................................ 1
Six Factor Formula ................................................................................................................... 2
Fast Fission Factor - .............................................................................................................. 2
Fast Non-Leakage Probability - Lf........................................................................................... 2
Resonance Escape Probability - p ............................................................................................ 2
Thermal Non-Leakage Probability - Lth................................................................................... 3
Thermal Utilization Factor - f ................................................................................................... 3
Reproduction Factor - ........................................................................................................... 4
The Six Factors ......................................................................................................................... 4
REACTIVITY ............................................................................................................................. 7
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 10
PRACTICE EXERCISES .......................................................................................................... 11
GLOSSARY .............................................................................................................................. 12
EXAMPLE EXERCISE ANSWERS ........................................................................................ 14
PRACTICE EXERCISE ANSWERS ........................................................................................ 15
2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

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NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 5 NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE & REACTIVITY

ACADBasics@gpworldwide.com
FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 5-1 Neutron Multiplication Factor ................................................................................. 1
Figure 5-2 Characteristic Resonance Absorption Cross Section............................................... 3
Figure 5-3 Neutron Reproduction Factor, .............................................................................. 4
Figure 5-4 Neutron Cycle .......................................................................................................... 4
Table 5-1 Reactor Reactivity Values......................................................................................... 9

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ii

OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to perform the following
objectives at a minimum proficiency level of 80%, unless otherwise stated, on an oral
or written exam.
1.
DEFINE effective multiplication factor and discuss its relationship to the state of the reactor.
2.
DEFINE the following terms with respect to the reactor:
3.
a.
Neutron generation time
b.
Critical
c.
Subcritical
d.
Supercritical
DESCRIBE the neutron life cycle using the following terms:

a.
Fast fission factor
b.
Fast non-leakage probability factor
c.
Resonance escape probability factor
d.
Thermal non-leakage probability factor
e.
Thermal utilization factor
f.
Reproduction factor
4.
DEFINE reactivity.
5.
STATE the relationship between reactivity and effective multiplication factor.
6.
Given specific values of keff, CALCULATE values of reactivity.
7.
Given specific values of reactivity, CALCULATE values of keff.
8.
CONVERT given values of reactivity to other expressions of reactivity.

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iv

STEADY STATE NEUTRON

BALANCE
The neutron, from its birth as a fission neutron to
its absorption in the core, undergoes several
processes. The neutron life cycle is used to
represent these various processes and the effect
each has on sustaining a steady state condition.
The neutron population in any given volume
depends on the processes that add or remove
neutrons from the volume. The time dependent
behavior of the neutron population in any reactor
at power is given by the mathematical
expression:
Rate of
Neutron
Production
Rate of
Neutron
Removal
Equation 5-1
When the reactor is in a steady state condition,
the rate of neutron production is equal to the rate
of neutron removal. Under these conditions, the
rate of change of the neutron population is zero,
and reactor power will remain constant.
Some fast neutrons can be absorbed by fuel

and cause fast fission.
Some fast neutrons can leak out of the

reactor core.
Some fast neutrons can be resonantly

captured while slowing down.

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Some thermal neutrons can leak out of the

core.
Some thermal neutrons can be absorbed by

non-fuel material.
Some thermal neutrons can be absorbed by

fuel and not cause fission.
All remaining thermal neutrons are absorbed

by fuel and cause thermal fission.
Neutrons In
Neutrons are primarily produced by fission and

are removed by either absorption or leakage from
the reactor. Several processes determine a
neutrons fate. The neutron life cycle is used to
represent these various processes and the effect
each has on sustaining a steady state condition.
They are discussed in greater detail later in this
chapter. For purposes of simplification, the
following assumptions can be made regarding
the neutron life cycle:
All neutrons are born as fast neutrons.
All remaining neutrons become thermalized.
Neutron generation time is defined as the time

from the birth of one generation of neutrons to
the time of the birth of the next generation of
neutrons. By comparing the number of neutrons
produced from fission in one generation to the
number of neutrons produced from fission in the
next generation, an indication of the rate of
change in neutron population is obtained. The
effective neutron multiplication factor (keff) is
defined as the factor by which the number of
neutrons produced from fission in one generation
is multiplied to determine the number of
neutrons produced from fission in the next
generation, as shown in Figure 5-1.
Rate of
Change of
= Neutron
Population
(Generation #1)
Effective
Neutron
Multiplication
Factor In the
Reactor
Neutrons Out
(Generation #2)
Figure 5-1 Neutron Multiplication Factor

The effective neutron multiplication factor can
be mathematically expressed as:
k eff
# of neutrons produced by fission

in one generation
=
in the previous generation
Equation 5-2
The effective multiplication factor is the product
of several factors that address everything that can
happen to a neutron during its lifetime. The
values of keff determine whether the neutron
population in the core is increasing, decreasing,
or remaining the same.
1 of 16

If the number of neutrons produced by fission in

one generation equals the number of neutrons in
the previous generation, keff = 1. This indicates a
steady state condition and defines an exactly
critical reactor.
FAST NON-LEAKAGE
PROBABILITY - Lf
As the fast neutrons produced by fission begin
their process of slowing down, there exists a
possibility that a given neutron will be lost from
the core due to leakage. The fast non-leakage
probability (Lf) represents that fraction of fast
neutrons that do not leak out of the core and is
given by the equation:
SIX FACTOR FORMULA

The six factor formula is used to describe the
processes that occur during the neutron life
cycle. The starting point in the neutron
generation process is taken to be the birth of all
the fast neutrons from thermal fission events and
represents the numerator in the keff formula.
fast neutrons that

start to slow down
Lf =
fast neutrons produced
from ALL fission events
FAST FISSION FACTOR -
Equation 5-4
In light water reactors most fissions are caused

by thermal neutrons, however there are an
appreciable number of fast neutrons that cause
fission in U-235, U-238, and Pu-239. These
fissions, known as fast fissions, produce fast
neutrons in addition to the fast neutrons starting
the cycle that were produced from thermal
fissions. The fast fission factor () accounts for
the neutrons produced by fast fission and is
given by the equation:
The fast non-leakage probability represents a net

loss in neutron population and has a typical value
of 0.96. This means that 96 percent of fast
neutrons remain in the core. The effective core
size and moderator density impacts the value of
the fast non-leakage probability.
RESONANCE ESCAPE
PROBABILITY - p
fast neutrons produced by

ALL fission events
=
All nuclei have some probability of absorbing a

neutron, as indicated by the microscopic cross
section for absorption (a). The microscopic
cross section for absorption is not a constant
value but is dependent on the energy level of the
neutron. In general, the cross section for
absorption increases as the neutron energy level
decreases. However, certain nuclei (U-238 and
Pu-240, in particular) show an extremely high
absorption cross section for neutrons at specific
energy levels.
THERMAL fission events

Equation 5-3
Because the fast fission factor represents a net
gain in neutron population, the fast fission factor
is slightly greater than one, typically between
1.03 and 1.10.
At certain neutron energy levels the cross section

can be as much as 1,000 times the cross section
for a neutron of a slightly higher or lower energy
level (Figure 5-2).

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SLOW
(THERMAL)
INTERMEDIATE
(EPITHERMAL)
The effective core size and moderator density

impacts the thermal non-leakage probability. The
effect of these parameters is small because the
distance that a neutron travels in the thermal
energy range is much less than that of a fast
neutron.
FAST
RESONANCE
PEAK
-1
10 -2 10
10 -8 10 -7
L
W
E
A
S
(T
O
R
M
H
)
(E
E
A
T
IR
M
P
H
N
E
R
P
A
O
S
K
N
A
C
E
0
.1-87
01-65
01-432
0
.1
-2
54
N
E
T
U
N
R
O
E
L
)
Y
G
10
-6
10
10 -5
10 2
10 3
10 4
10 5
10 6
-4
-3
-2
0.1
1 .0
10
10
10
10 7
eV
10 MeV
NEUTRON ENERGY
T
S
A
F
0
.1
The thermal non-leakage probability represents a

net loss in the neutron population and has a
typical value of 0.98. As with the fast
non-leakage probability, this leakage term is
often neglected due to the relative infinite size of
the reactor. A factor so close to 1.0 does not
change the value of keff very much.
0
.1
76
Figure 5-2 Characteristic Resonance

Absorption Cross Section
THERMAL UTILIZATION FACTOR - f
The resonance escape probability (p) is the

fraction of neutrons that are not absorbed while
slowing to thermal energy.
p=
All materials in the reactor absorb neutrons to

some extent. By carefully selecting the materials
that go into the reactor, control of neutron
absorption is accomplished and non-fuel
absorption is minimized.
fast neutrons that become thermal

fast neutrons that start to slow down
The thermal utilization factor (f) is the ratio of

the number of thermal neutrons absorbed in the
fuel to the number of thermal neutrons absorbed
in the core. The term core includes the fuel,
moderator, fuel cladding, structural members,
control rods, etc.
Equation 5-5
The resonance escape probability represents a
net loss in neutron population and has typical
value of approximately 0.75. There are several
factors that affect the value of the resonance
escape probability, such as the moderator-to-fuel
ratio, fuel temperature, core age, and fuel
enrichment.
f =
Equation 5-7
THERMAL NON-LEAKAGE
PROBABILITY - Lth
The thermal utilization factor represents a net

loss in neutron population and has a typical value
of 0.95.
As thermal neutrons begin the diffusion process,

there is a possibility that some of the neutrons
will be lost to core leakage. The thermal
non-leakage probability (Lth) represents the
probability that a thermal neutron will not leak
out of the core and is given by the following
equation:
Lth =
thermal neutrons absorbed in fuel

thermal neutrons absorbed in core
thermal neutrons absorbed in the core

Equation 5-6

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REPRODUCTION FACTOR -
these fast neutrons are born from thermal fission

of U-235 fuel.
The reproduction factor () represents the

number of fast neutrons produced from fission
compared to the number of thermal neutrons
absorbed in the fuel, as shown in Figure 5-3.
Of these neutrons, some will cause fast fission in

U-235, U-238, and Pu-239, producing additional
fast neutrons. The fast fission factor () is
represented by the equation:
Neutron
Reproduction
Factor
Thermal
Neutrons In

ALL fission events
=
Fast
Neutrons Out
Figure 5-3 Neutron Reproduction Factor,
THERMAL fission events
In equation form, becomes:
Equation 5-9

by thermal fission events
=
thermal neutrons
The number of fast neutrons has increased

from 1,400 to 1,442. Calculate the fast
fission factor.
absorbed in the fuel
Equation 5-8
The reproduction factor represents a net gain in
neutron population and has a typical value of
approximately 1.45. The value varies with fuel
enrichment and core age.
Example 5-1
Thus, the fast fission factor () in this example is
1.03. The 1,442 fast neutrons exist to continue
through the neutron life cycle.
THE SIX FACTORS

21
THERMAL
NEUTRON
LEAKAGE
52
THERMAL NEUTRONS
ABSORBED BY
NON-FUEL ATOMS
346
RESONANCE
LOSSES
1038
THERMAL
NEUTRON
Lth
1017
THERMAL
NEUTRONS
fast neutrons that
965
THERMAL
NEUTRON
U-235 FUEL
MODERATOR
1400 FAST
NEUTRONS
BORN
1384 FAST
NEUTRONS
Lf
58
FAST NEUTRON
LEAKAGE
Some of the fast neutrons will be lost due to fast

leakage. The fast non-leakage probability (Lf)
represents the fraction of fast neutrons that do
not leak out of the core and is given by:
1442 FAST
NEUTRONS
U235
238
Pu239
1400 FAST
NEUTRONS
Lf =
435
NEUTRONS
FROM
THERMAL
FISSION
start to slow down

from ALL fission events
START CYCLE
HERE
Equation 5-10
42
The number of fast neutrons decreased

from 1,442 when 58 fast neutrons leak out
of the core. Calculate the fast non-leakage
factor.
NEUTRONS
FROM
FAST FISSION
Figure 5-4 Neutron Cycle
Lf =
Using Figure 5-4, assume that the neutron life

cycle begins with 1,400 fast neutrons. Recall that
Example 5-2

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In this example, 1,384 fast neutrons remain in

the core and begin to slow down. Therefore, the
Lf is determined to be 0.96.
Of the 1,038 neutrons that are thermalized

it is determined that 21 thermal neutrons
leak out of the core, that leaves 1,017 to be
absorbed in the core (fuel and non-fuel
materials).
Calculate
the
thermal
non-leakage probability.
As the remaining neutrons begin to slow down,

they will pass though the resonance region and
are subject to resonance capture. The resonance
escape probability defines the probability that a
given neutron will escape capture and is given
by:
p=
Lth =

fast neutrons that start to slow down
Example 5-4
Therefore, in this example, Lth is equal to 0.98.
Equation 5-11
The next factor to be determined in this neutron

life cycle is the thermal utilization factor (f). It is
written mathematically by:
Of the 1,384 neutrons that begin to

thermalize, it is determined that 346
neutrons are absorbed in the resonance
peak regions.
f =
Calculate the resonance escape probability.
thermal neutrons absorbed in fuel

Equation 5-13
p=
Of the 1,017 thermal neutrons that remain

in the core it is determined that 52 thermal
neutrons are absorbed into non-fuel atoms
in the core, that would leave 965 neutrons
to be absorbed into the fuel.
Example 5-3
Therefore, 1,038 neutrons reach thermal energy
and p = 0.75.
Calculate the thermal utilization factor.
A fraction of the thermal neutrons will be lost to

thermal leakage. The fraction of neutrons that are
not lost is given by the thermal non-leakage
probability (Lth) and is given by:
Lth =
f =
Example 5-5

The thermal utilization factor (f = 0.95) denotes

the ratio of the thermal neutron absorbed in the
fuel to those absorbed in the core.
Equation 5-12
The last factor to be considered is the

reproduction factor (). The reproduction factor
is given by the equation:
=
thermal fission events

thermal neutrons
absorbed in the fuel
Equation 5-14
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There are 965 thermal neutrons available

for absorption into the U-235 fuel. As a
result of these absorptions, fast neutrons are
born from fission. The fission process
produces 1,400 fast neutrons.
Using the six factors as determined from

Figure 5-4, keff becomes:
k eff =
Calculate the reproduction factor.
1,442 1,384 1,038 1,017 965 1,400
1,400 1,442 1,384 1,038 1,017 965
keff = 1.03 0.96 0.75 0.98 0.95 1.45
k eff = 1.0 (The reactor is critical.)
Example 5-6
Example 5-7
In this example, the neutron reproduction factor

() is equal to 1.45.
The effective multiplication factor (keff) is

essentially a measure of the probability that one
fission event will cause another fission. As
illustrated by the six factor formula, core size
and materials affect this probability. However, it
is not affected by the introduction of non-fission
neutrons.
Note that the number of neutrons produced by

fission in this generation equals the number of
neutrons produced in the previous generation. By
definition, keff is equal to one, and the reactor is
exactly critical. The effective multiplication
factor, keff, is equal to the product of the six
factors and is independent of neutron sources
other than fission.
keff = Lf p Lth f
Where:
keff
effective multiplication
factor
= fast fission factor
Lf
= fast non-leakage probability
= resonance escape probability
Lth
thermal non-leakage
probability
= thermal utilization factor
= reproduction factor
Equation 5-15

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The following notational changes are used to

simplify the discussion of reactivity:
REACTIVITY
k eff = k eff 1
Reactivity is the measure of the departure of a

reactor from criticality. Reactivity is defined as
the fractional change in fission neutron
population per generation and is indicated by the
Greek letter rho (). The fractional change in
neutron population per generation (reactivity)
can be shown by the equation given below.
k eff k
k eff 1
=
=
k eff
k eff
k
Where:
keff
k e ff 1
k eff
factor
= reactivity (k/k)
Equation 5-17
Where:
keff
Besides the k/k unit for reactivity, the fractional

change in neutron population may also be
expressed in terms of % k/k. The % k/k unit
may be obtained as follows:
factor
= reactivity (k/k)
Equation 5-16
100% = (% k / k )
k
Calculate the reactivity level of a core with

a keff of 0.985.
Equation 5-18
Reactivity is also expressed by the term pcm.
k e ff 1
1 pcm = 10 5 k / k
k eff
1% k / k = 1,000 pcm
0.985 1
0.985
Where:
pcm
= 0.0152 k / k
= percent milli rho ().
Equation 5-19
Core reactivity is -0.025 k/k.
Example 5-8
Calculate the value of reactivity in pcm.
( 0.025 k / k ) 100% = 2.50 %k / k

2.50%k / k
1000 pcm
= 2500 pcm
1% k k
Example 5-9

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Given that the reactivity level of a core is

0.0152 k/k.
A control rod withdrawal results in the keff

of a reactor changing from 0.97 to 0.975.
Calculate the core reactivity value in % k/k.
Calculate how much reactivity was added

to the core by the control rod withdrawal.
100% = (%k / k )
k
k e ff 1
( 0.0152 k / k ) 100% = 1.52 % k / k
Example 5-10
PCM is the acronym for ______ _____ _____.
k eff
2 =
0.975 1
= 0.0256k / k
0.975
1 =
0.97 1
= 0.0309 k / k
0.97
= 2 1
= 0.0256k / k (0.0309k / k)
Example 5-11
= 0.0053k / k
Since keff is a dimensionless quantity, reactivity

(k/k) is also dimensionless. It is convenient,
however, to talk about reactivity in units of k/k
or %k/k.
or
= 0.53% k / k
= 530 pcm
Example 5-12
For values of keff very close to 1, k. If the
reactivity of the reactor is known, then keff can be
determined by:
k eff =
1
1
Where:
keff
factor
= reactivity (k/k)
Equation 5-20

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Table 5-1 Reactor Reactivity Values
A shutdown reactor has a core reactivity of

0.0028 k/k.
Calculate the core keff .
k eff =
1
1
k eff =
1
1 ( 0.0028)
Reactor
Status
Critical
keff
Supercritical
>1
Positive
Subcritical
<1
Negative
k eff = 0.9972
If keff is equal to 1, substituting into the
equation we find that reactivity is equal to
zero.
Example 5-13
0.0028 k/k. A control rod movement
inserts a negative 940 pcm.
Calculate the final core reactivity.
=1
1
1
= 1 = 0
k eff
1
=0
If keff is greater than 1, substituting into the
equation we find that reactivity is a positive
value.
Example 5-14
=1
Reactivity is a convenient term to use when

discussing deviations from criticality. For any
power, if the reactor is critical (keff = 1, =0), the
reactivity associated with the reactor is zero. For
a supercritical reactor (keff > 1), reactivity is a
positive value, and for a subcritical reactor
(keff < 1), reactivity is a negative value.
The keff and reactivity equation
rearranged to solve for reactivity:
k eff =
can
1
1
=1
= 0.000999
k eff
1.001
is positive
If keff is less than 1, substituting into the
equation we find that reactivity is a negative
value.
be
=1
1
1
=1
= 0.001
k eff
0.999
1
1
=1
1
k eff
is negative
Equation 5-21
Example 5-15

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SUMMARY
The effective neutron multiplication factor (keff)
is defined as the factor by which the number of
neutrons produced from fission in one generation
is multiplied to determine the number of
neutrons produced from fission in the next
generation.
The effective neutron multiplication factor can
be mathematically expressed as:
k eff

in one generation
=
in the previous generation
Critical is the condition where the neutron chain

reaction is self-sustaining and the neutron
population is neither increasing nor decreasing.
Subcritical is the condition in which the neutron
population is decreasing each generation.
Supercritical is the condition in which the
neutron population is increasing each generation.
The number of neutrons present at any point in
the neutron life cycle can be calculated as the
product of the number of neutrons present at the
start of the generation and all the factors
preceding that point in the life cycle.
The enrichment of uranium-235, the temperature
of the fuel, and the temperature of the moderator
affect the resonance escape probability.
The thermal utilization factor is affected by the
enrichment of uranium-235, the amount of
neutron poisons, and the moderator-to-fuel ratio.
The reproduction factor is affected by the
enrichment of uranium-235.
Reactivity is a measure of the departure from
critical. If:
keff is equal to 1, = 0
keff is > 1, = positive
keff is < 1, = negative

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13. A control rod withdrawal results in the keff of

a reactor changing from 0.975 to 0.980.
Calculate how much reactivity was added to
the core by the control rod withdrawal.
PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. Define keff.
2. The reactor is critical if neutrons produced by
fission
in
one
generation
are
________________ (equal to/greater than)
neutrons produced by fission the previous
generation.
3. The fast fission factor () will always be
________ less than/greater than one.
4.
(TRUE or FALSE) The Thermal Utilization

factor can vary from 0.9 to 1.1 in a
commercial nuclear reactor.
5. Define Reactivity.
6. The number of fast neutrons has increased
from 1,500 to 1,560 due to fast fission.
Calculate the fast fission factor.
7. The number of fast neutrons decreased from
1,560 when 47 fast neutrons leak out of the
core. Calculate the fast non-leakage factor.
8. Of the 1,513 neutrons that begin to
thermalize, it is determined that 332 neutrons
are absorbed in the resonance peak regions.
9. Of the 1,181 neutrons that are thermalized it
is determined that 30 thermal neutrons leak
out of the core. Calculate the thermal
10. Of the 1,151 thermal neutrons that remain in
the core it is determined that 51 thermal
neutrons are absorbed into non-fuel atoms in
the core. Calculate the thermal utilization
factor.
11. The absorption of 1,100 thermal neutrons in
U-235 results in the production of 1500 fast
neutrons. Calculate the reproduction factor.
12. Calculate the reactivity level of a core with a
keff of 0.987.

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GLOSSARY
Critical
The condition of the reactor where the number of neutrons produced by

fission in one generation equals the number of neutrons produced by fission
in the previous generation (keff = 1) ( = 0).
The factor by which the number of neutrons produced by fission in one

Effective
Multiplication Factor generation must be multiplied to determine the number of neutrons
produced by fission in the next generation.
(keff)
Fast Fission Factor
()
The ratio of fast neutrons produced from all fission events divided by fast
neutrons produced by thermal fission events.
Fast Non-Leakage
Probability (Lf)
The ratio of the number of fast neutrons that start to slow down divided by
the number of fast neutrons produced from all fissions.
Neutron Generation
Time
The time from the birth of one generation of neutrons to the time of the
birth of the next generation of neutrons.
Reactivity ()
The fractional change in fission neutron population per generation, or the

measure of the departure of a reactor from criticality. Reactivity is zero
when the reactor is exactly critical. If positive reactivity is added, reactor
power will increase. If negative reactivity is added, reactor power will
decrease.
Reproduction Factor
()
The ratio of fast neutrons produced by thermal fission events divided by the
number of thermal neutrons absorbed in the fuel.
Resonance Escape
Probability (p)
The ratio of fast neutrons that become thermal divided by the number of
fast neutrons that start to slow down.
Six Factor Formula
Used to describe the processes that occur during the neutron life cycle.
Subcritical
The condition in which the number of neutrons produced by fission in one

generation is less than the number of neutrons produced by fission in the
previous generation (keff < 1) (negative ).
Supercritical
The condition in which the number of neutrons produced by fission in one

generation is greater than the number of neutrons produced by fission in the
previous generation (keff > 1) (positive ).
Thermal
Non-Leakage Factor
(Lth)
The ratio of the number of thermal neutrons absorbed in the core divided by
the number of fast neutrons that become thermal.

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GLOSSARY
Thermal Utilization
Factor (f)
The ratio of the number of thermal neutrons absorbed in fuel divided by the
number of thermal neutrons absorbed in the core.

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KFN05Sr02_Neutron Life Cycle 08Jun25.doc r
EXAMPLE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
Of the 1038 neutrons that are thermalized it

out of the core, that leaves 1017 to be
absorbed in the core (fuel and non-fuel
materials).
Calculate
the
thermal
The number of fast neutrons has increased

from 1,400 to 1,442. Calculate the fast
fission factor.
=
Lth =
1,442
= 1.03
1,400
1,017
= 0.98
1,038
Example 5-4
Example 5-1
Of the 1,017 thermal neutrons that remain
neutrons are absorbed into non-fuel atoms
in the core, that would leave 965 neutrons
to be absorbed into the fuel.
The number of fast neutrons decreased

from 1442 when 58 fast neutrons leak out
of the core. Calculate the fast non-leakage
factor.
Calculate the thermal utilization factor.
1,384
Lf =
= 0.96
1,442
f=
965
= 0.95
1,017
Example 5-2
Example 5-5
Of the 1384 neutrons that begin to
neutrons are absorbed in the resonance
peak regions.
There are 965 thermal neutrons available

for absorption into the U-235 fuel. As a
result of these absorptions, fast neutrons are
born from fission. The fission process
produces 1,400 fast neutrons.

p=
1,038
= 0.75
1,384
Calculate the reproduction factor.

=
Example 5-3
1,400
= 1.45
965
Example 5-6
PCM is the acronym for ______ _____ _____.
(percent milli rho (P))

Example 5-11

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWERS

-0.0028 k/k. A control rod movement
inserts a negative -940 pcm.
Calculate the final core reactivity.
1. Define keff.
If the number of neutrons produced by

fission in one generation equals the
number of neutrons in the previous
generation, keff = 1. This indicates a
steady state condition and defines an
exactly critical reactor.
-0.0028 k/k + (-0.00940 k/k) =

-0.01220 k/k
Example 5-14
2. The reactor is critical if neutrons produced

by fission in one generation are
________________ (equal to/greater than)
neutrons produced by fission the previous
generation.
If keff is equal to 1, substituting into the

equation we find that reactivity is equal to
zero.
=1
1
1
= 1 = 0
k eff
1
3. The fast fission factor () will always be

________ less than/greater than one.
=0
4.
If keff greater than 1, substituting into the

equation we find that reactivity is a positive
value.
=1
(TRUE or FALSE) The Thermal

Utilization factor can vary from 0.9 to 1.1 in
a commercial nuclear reactor.
5. Define Reactivity.
The measure of the departure of a

reactor from criticality or the
fractional change in neutron population
from one generation to another.
1
1
=1
= 0.000999
k eff
1.001
is positive
6. The number of fast neutrons has increased

from 1,500 to 1,560 due to fast fission.
Calculate the fast fission factor.
If keff less than 1, substituting into the

equation we find that reactivity is a negative
value.
1
1
=1
=1
= 0.001
k eff
0.999
1,560
= 1.04
1,500
7. The number of fast neutrons decreased from

1,560 when 47 fast neutrons leak out of the
core. Calculate the fast non-leakage factor.
is negative
Example 5-15
Lf =
1,513
= 0.97
1,560
8. Of the 1,513 neutrons that begin to

neutrons are absorbed in the resonance peak
regions. Calculate the resonance escape
probability.
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p=
= 2 1
1,181
= 0.78
1,513
= 0.0204k / k (0.0256k / k )
9. Of the 1,181 neutrons that are thermalized it

out of the core. Calculate the thermal
Lth =
= 0.0052k / k
or
= 0.52% k / k
1,151
= 0.975
1,181
= 520 pcm
10. Of the 1,151 thermal neutrons that remain

neutrons are absorbed into non-fuel atoms in
the core. Calculate the thermal utilization
factor.
f=
1,100
= 0.956
1,151
11. The absorption of 1,100 thermal neutrons in

U-235 results in the production of 1,500 fast
neutrons. Calculate the reproduction factor.
=
1,500
= 1.36
1,100
12. Calculate the reactivity level of a core with a

keff of 0.987.
=
=
k e ff 1
k eff
0.987 1
0.987
= 0.0132 k / k
13. A control rod withdrawal results in the keff
of a reactor changing from 0.975 to 0.980.
Calculate how much reactivity was added to
the core by the control rod withdrawal.
k e ff 1
k eff
2 =
0.98 1
= 0.0204k / k
0.98
1 =
0.975 1
= 0.0256k / k
0.975

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ACAD BASIC CURRICULUM

KFN05Sr02_Neutron Life Cycle 08Jun25.doc

KFN05Sr02_Neutron Life Cycle 08Jun25.doc

2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 5 NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE & REACTIVITY

KFN05Sr02_Neutron Life Cycle 08Jun25.doc

FIGURES AND TABLES

2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 5 NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE & REACTIVITY

KFN05Sr02_Neutron Life Cycle 08Jun25.doc

DEFINE the following terms with respect to the reactor:

Neutron generation time

DESCRIBE the neutron life cycle using the following terms:

Fast fission factor

Fast non-leakage probability factor

Resonance escape probability factor

Thermal non-leakage probability factor

Thermal utilization factor

STATE the relationship between reactivity and effective multiplication factor.

Given specific values of keff, CALCULATE values of reactivity.

Given specific values of reactivity, CALCULATE values of keff.

CONVERT given values of reactivity to other expressions of reactivity.

2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 5 NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE & REACTIVITY

KFN05Sr02_Neutron Life Cycle 08Jun25.doc

This page intentionally blank

2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 5 NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE & REACTIVITY

KFN05Sr02_Neutron Life Cycle 08Jun25.doc

STEADY STATE NEUTRON

Some fast neutrons can be absorbed by fuel

Some fast neutrons can leak out of the

Some fast neutrons can be resonantly

2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

Some thermal neutrons can leak out of the

Some thermal neutrons can be absorbed by

Some thermal neutrons can be absorbed by

All remaining thermal neutrons are absorbed

Neutrons are primarily produced by fission and

All remaining neutrons become thermalized.

Neutron generation time is defined as the time

Figure 5-1 Neutron Multiplication Factor

# of neutrons produced by fission

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 5 NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE & REACTIVITY

KFN05Sr02_Neutron Life Cycle 08Jun25.doc

If the number of neutrons produced by fission in

SIX FACTOR FORMULA

fast neutrons that

FAST FISSION FACTOR -

In light water reactors most fissions are caused

The fast non-leakage probability represents a net

fast neutrons produced by

All nuclei have some probability of absorbing a

THERMAL fission events

At certain neutron energy levels the cross section

2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 5 NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE & REACTIVITY

KFN05Sr02_Neutron Life Cycle 08Jun25.doc

The effective core size and moderator density

The thermal non-leakage probability represents a

Figure 5-2 Characteristic Resonance

THERMAL UTILIZATION FACTOR - f