Introduction

Studying biology makes us aware of the realms

of the living world.
Nanobe smallest organism
Blue Whale largest organism
Wolffia globosa smallest flower
Rafflesia arnoldii largest flower
Knowledge of Physics, Mathematics &
Chemistry helps us understand Biology
Biology as a Science of Life
It is a thorough understanding of what makes
such creature an organism
Biology is a science of living things
Biology has become a frontier of sciences
Importance of Biology
Discover the relationships among humans,
animals, and plants
Learn to value life
Learn about sustainable development
Learn about the need to conserve
Enables us to realize economic importance
Enhances our interest & appreciation
What are the characteristics of life?
Living organisms are a carbon- and water-based cellular
form with complex organization and heritable genetic
information.
They undergo metabolism, possess a capacity to grow,
respond to stimuli, reproduce, and, through natural
selection, adapt to their environment in successive
generations.
Properties of life
Living organisms are:
a carbon- and water-based cellular form
Cell Theory
Cells are basic structural and
physiological units of all living
organisms
Cells are both distinct entities and
building block of more complex
organisms
Properties of life
Living organisms:
undergo metabolism
Require Energy
Cells use nutrients to supply energy and
build new structures
Metabolism: the sum total of chemical
reactions that occur in an organism
Properties of life

Living organisms:
respond to stimuli
Respond
helps ensure the survival of an
organism
allows an organism to carry on daily
activities
Properties of life
Living organisms:
possess a capacity to grow reproduce
Reproduce and Develop:
asexual reproduction (clonal): produce
exact replica of themselves
sexual reproduction (many strategies):
exchange of genetic material between
organisms
Properties of life
Living organisms have:
heritable genetic information through natural
selection, adapt to their environment
Heredity
genome all DNA molecules in a cell
adaptation an organisms
modification in structure, function, or
behavior suitable to the environment
Properties of life
Living organisms have:
complex organization
Life Science
biology is the scientific study of life
Characteristics of Living Things
1. Cellular Organization
2. Locomotion
3. Irritability
4. Metabolism
5. Growth
6. Reproduction
7. Adjustment, Integration, Adaptation,
Coordination
Life is Complex
There are levels of life:
Small molecules-Large molecules-cell-tissues
organ-organ system-organism
There is diversity of life:
Bacteria-Archae-Protists-Plants-Fungi-Animal
There is taxonomic order to life:
Domain-Kingdom-Phylum-Class-Order-FamilyGenus-Species
There is ecological order to life:

Biosphere-Region-Landscape-EcosystemCommunity-Population-Individuals
Life is interconnected and interdependent:
Producers-Consumers-Decomposers
The scientific process
To understand such a complex subject,
scientists developed the scientific method:
allows scientists to modify and correct
their beliefs as new observations and
information becomes available
if well supported > theory!
Core Ideas of Biology
A theory is a unifying explanation that has been
well supported time and time again.
There are four major unifying themes in the
study of life.
The Cell Theory:
All organisms are composed of cells
All cells come from other cells
Robert Hooke named cells
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
wee animalcules
The Gene Theory:
All organisms have a genome
An organisms genes determine what it will be
like (secret code!)
James Watson and Francis
Crick discovered DNA
structure
The Theory of Heredity:
The genes of any organism are inherited as
discrete units
Those genes are packaged up in chromosomes
Gregor Mendel Mendelian
segregation
The Theory of Evolution:
Organisms that can respond to the challenges
of living will leave more offspring
Descent with modification!
Charles Darwin living
organisms are related to one
another
The 7-step process to scientific investigations
What is the Scientific Method?
The Scientific Method is a process used to find answers
to questions about the world around us.
Is there only one Scientific Method?

No! There are several versions of this scientific

process ranging in the number of steps.
However, all versions begin with a question to
be answered based on observations of the
world around us and provide an organized
method for conducting and analyzing an
experiment.
Which version will we use?
We will be using a 7-step version in class with the
following steps:
1. Formulate a question.
2. Research the question.
3. Form a hypothesis.
4. Conduct an experiment to test your
hypothesis.
5. Analyze data.
6. Draw Conclusions.
7. Communicate results.
CELL THEORY AND MICROSCOPE
Some Random Cell Facts
The average human being is composed of
around 100 Trillion individual cells..
It would take as many as 50 cells to cover the
area of a dot on the letter i
Discovery of Cells
1665- English Scientist, Robert Hooke,
discovered cells while looking at a thin slice of
cork.
He described the cells as tiny boxes or a
honeycomb
He thought that cells only existed in plants and
fungi
Anton van Leuwenhoek
1673- Used a handmade microscope to observe
pond scum & discovered single-celled
organisms
He called them animalcules
He also observed blood cells from fish, birds,
frogs, dogs, and humans
Therefore, it was known that cells are found in
animals as well as plants
150-200 Year Gap???
Between the Hooke/Leuwenhoek discoveries
and the mid 19th century, very little cell
advancements were made.

 This is probably due to the widely accepted,

traditional belief in Spontaneous Generation.
Examples:
-Mice from dirty clothes/corn husks
-Maggots from rotting meat
19th Century Advancement
Much doubt existed around Spontaneous
Generation
Conclusively disproved by Louis Pasteur
Development of Cell Theory
1838- German Botanist, Matthias Schleiden,
concluded that all plant parts are made of cells
1839- German physiologist, Theodor Schwann,
who was a close friend of Schleiden, stated that
all animal tissues are composed of cells.
1858- Rudolf Virchow, German physician, after
extensive study of cellular pathology, concluded
that cells must arise from preexisting cells.
The Cell Theory Complete
The 3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory
were now complete:
1. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living
things. (Hooke)(1665)
2. All organisms are composed of one or more
cells. (Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-39)
3. All cells are produced by the division of
preexisting cells. (Virchow)(1858)
Modern Cell Theory
Modern Cell Theory contains 4 statements, in
addition to the original Cell Theory:
1. The cell contains hereditary information(DNA)
which is passed on from cell to cell during cell
division.
2. All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition and metabolic activities.
3. All basic chemical & physiological functions are
carried out inside the cells.(movement,
digestion,etc)
4. Cell activity depends on the activities of subcellular structures within the cell(organelles,
nucleus, plasma membrane)
How Has The Cell Theory Been Used?
The basic discovered truths about cells, listed in
the Cell Theory, are the basis for things such as:
Disease/Health/Medical Research and
Cures(AIDS, Cancer, Vaccines, Cloning,
Stem Cell Research, etc.)
EARLY MICROSCOPES

Zacharias Janssen - made 1st compound

microscope
a Dutch maker of reading glasses (late 1500s)
Leeuwenhoek
-made a simple microscope (mid 1600s)
- magnified 270X
-Early microscope lenses made images larger
but the image was not clear
Leeuwenhoek's microscope
A) a screw for adjusting the height of the object being
examined
B) a metal plate serving as the body
C) a skewer to impale the object and rotate it
D) the lens itself, which was spherical
MODERN MICROSCOPES
-A microscope is simple or compound
depending on how many lenses it contains
-A lens makes an enlarged image & directs light
towards you eye
A simple microscope has one lens
Similar to a magnifying glass
Magnification is the change in apparent size
produced by a microscope
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
-A compound microscope has multiple lenses
(eyepiece & objective lenses)
STEREOMICROSCOPE
-creates a 3D image
TOTAL MAGNIFICATION
-Powers of the eyepiece (10X) multiplied by
objective lenses determine total magnification.
ELECTRON MICROSCOPES
-More powerful; some can magnify up to
1,000,000X
-Use a magnetic field in a vacuum to bend
beams of electrons
-Images must be photographed or produced
electronically
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
Electron microscope image of a fly foot
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
-produces 2D image of thinly sliced specimen
-detailed cell parts (only inside a cell) can be
observed
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)
-able to show arrangement of atoms

Chapter Seven
Cellular Organization
Cell
Tissue group of cells functioning together.
Organ group of tissues functioning together.
Organ System group of organs functioning
together.
Organism group of organ systems functioning
together.
The History of the Cell
The Cell
The basic unit of an organism
Discovery made possible by the
invention of the microscope
Two Basic Cell Types
1) Prokaryote
Lacks internal compartments.
No true nucleus.
Most are single-celled (unicellular)
organisms.
Examples: bacteria
Two Basic Cell Types
2) Eukaryote
Has several internal structures
(organelles).
True nucleus.
Either unicellular or multicellular.
unicellular example: yeast
multicellular examples:
plants and animals
The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell
1) Boundaries
A) Plasma Membrane
-- Serves as a boundary between the cell and
its external environment.
-- Allows materials to pass in and
out of
the cell.
1) Boundaries
B) Cell Wall
-- Surrounds the plasma membrane of
the cells of plants, bacteria, and fungi.
-- Plant cell walls contain cellulose while
fungi cell walls contain chitin.

B) Nucleolus

Regulates cell function.

Surrounded by a doublelayered membrane (nuclear

Found in the nucleus and

responsible for ribosome
production. Ribosomes are the
sites of protein production.

3) Assembly
Cytoplasm
The jelly-like material that
surrounds the organelles.
4) Transport
A) Endoplasmic reticulum
Folded membrane that acts as
the cells delivery system.
Smooth E.R. contains enzymes
for lipid synthesis.
Rough E.R. is studded with
ribosomes for protein synthesis.
B) Golgi apparatus (or Golgi body)
A series of flattened sacs where
newly made lipids and proteins
from the E.R. are repackaged
and shipped to the plasma
membrane.
5) Storage
A) Vacuoles

B) Lysosomes

2) Controls
A) Nucleus

enveloped) with large pores

that allow materials to pass in
and out of the nucleus.
Contains chromatin long
tangles of DNA.

A sac of fluid surrounded by a

membrane used to store food,
fluid, or waste products.

Contain a digestive enzyme.

Can fuse with vacuoles to digest
food, or can digest worn cell
parts.
Also known as suicide sacs
because they can also destroy
the whole cell.

6) Energy Transformers
Mitochondria

Produce the energy for the cell.

Also known as the
powerhouse of the cell.
Has a highly folded inner
membrane (cristae).

B) Chloroplasts
-- Found in plant cells and some
protists.
-- Transforms light energy into chemical
energy which is stored in food molecules.
-- Contain chlorophyll a green
pigment that traps light energy and gives plants
their green color.
7) Support
Cytoskeleton
A network of thin, fibrous
materials that act as a scaffold
and support the organelles.
Microtubules hollow
filaments of protein.
Microfilaments solid filaments
of protein.
8) Locomotion
1) Cilia
Short, numerous, hair-like
projections from the plasma
membrane.
Move with a coordinated
beating action.
B) Flagella

Longer, less numerous

projections from the plasma
membrane.
Move with a whiplike action.

9) Cell Division
Centrioles
made of protein.
play a role in the splitting of the cell into two
cells.
found in animal and fungi cells

Cell Division
The cell is the structural and functional unit of
life. New cells arise from the preexisting ones.
The process by which new cells are formed from
the pre-existing cells is called cell division.
In unicellular organisms, the cell division
directly produces two individuals and thus,
represents a type of reproduction
(multiplication).
In multicellular organisms, there are two types
of cells; the somatic cells or the body cells
(which form the body of the organism) and the
reproductive cells (such as gamete-producing
cells and-spore producing cells).
The somatic cells divide by mitosis (equational
division) and the reproductive cells divide by
meiosis (reduction division). Mitosis helps in

1.

2.

3.

growth and development of an organism.

Meiosis produces gametes in sexual
reproduction and spores in asexual
reproduction.
All eukaryotic organisms, plants as well as
animals, show great regularity as well as
similarity in the cell divisions. Generally, a cell
increases in size before dividing. This is mainly
due to the synthesis of proteins, RNA and DNA.
This is followed by division of the cell nucleus
(karyokinesis) and finally the division of the cell
cytoplasm (cytokinesis). All these events
collectively form a cell cycle.
The Cell Cycle
The cell cycle, also called generation time, is
the sequence of events in the life of a cell. The
cell cycle starts immediately after one cell
division and ends with the completion of the
next division.
The cell cycle of eukaryotic cells is classified into
(1) interphase (2) karyokinesis and (3)
cytokinesis (Howard and Pelc, 1953).
(1) Interphase
It is the preparatory phase during which the cell
is metabolically very active and prepares itself
for the division.
Three important processes occur in interphase,
(a) replication of chromosomal DNA,
synthesis of RNA and the basic nuclear
proteins (histones)
(b) synthesis of energy rich compounds
which provide energy for mitosis and
(c) in animal cells, division of the
centriole.
On the basis of DNA synthesis, interphase is
subdivided into following three stages:
G1 (Gap1) : It starts immediately after the
previous division. Therefore G1 is called gap
phase or first growth phase. Synthesis of
proteins and RNA takes place. The cell grows in
volume.
S phase (Synthesis phase) : It is the period
during which DNA synthesis occurs, i.e.
replication of chromosomal DNA takes place.
This results in doubling of the chromosomal
threads.
G2 (Gap 2) : It is the last part of interphase and
occurs just before the new cell division. Hence
G2 is called pre-division gap phase or second

1.

2.
3.

4.

growth phase. It begins after completion of

DNA synthesis in the S phase and ends when
new division (karyokinesis) commences. During
G2, synthesis of proteins and RNA takes place
and the nuclear volume increases.
(2) Karyokinesis
It is the division of the parent nucleus into
daughter nuclei.
(3) Cytokinesis
This is the division of the cytoplasm. It occurs
after karyokinesis and divides the parent cell
into daughter cells.
Karyokinesis and cytokinesis together form the
M phase (i.e. cell division).
The total duration of a cell cycle varies greatly in
different organisms and under different
conditions, e.g. it may be as short as 20-30
minutes in the bacterium Escherichia coli or
may take 12-24 hours as in most higher plants
and animals.
The time required for completion of each phase
in the cell cycle varies greatly. In general, actual
cell division (M-phase) occupies only a short
span of the total cycle while the major span is
occupied by the interphase. Normally, time
duration of S and G2 phases is more or less
equal. The duration of G1 is longer in cells
which do not divide frequently, and is very
short in cells which divide repeatedly in close
succession.
G0 stage : It is a stage during which cell cycle is
arrested for an indefinite period.
Significance of cell cycle
In multicellular organism, the 'cycling type' of
cells (dividing cells) help in reproduction,
growth and replacement of dead cells, healing
of wounds, etc.
The interphase allows time for synthesis and
growth of the dividing cell.
Properly controlled and regulated cell cycle
results in normal and proportionate growth of
organisms.
Loss of control over the cell cycle can lead to
cancerous growth
Mitosis:
-division of somatic (body) cells
Meiosis
-division of gametes (sex cells)

 "Mitosis is an equational division, dividing the

mother cell into two daughter cells which are
identical to each other and also to the original
mother cell in every respect. In mitosis, the
chromosomes of the mother cell are
duplicated and distributed equally to the two
daughter cells."
Stages of Mitosis
1. Interphase
2. Prophase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase
1. Interphase
-This is the phase of mitosis where the cell
performs its normal activities for life.
-DNA is in the chromatin state
-Interphase
-Interesting things happen!
1. Cell preparing to divide
2. Genetic material doubles
2. Prophase
-Chromosome pair up!
1. Chromosomes thicken and shorten
-become visible
-2 chromatids joined by a centromere
2. Centrioles move to the opposite sides of
the nucleus
3. Nucleolus disappears
4. Nuclear membrane disintegrate
3. Metaphase
-Chromosomes meet in the middle!
1. Chromosomes arrange at equator of cell
2. Become attached to spindle fibres by
centromeres
3. Homologous chromosomes do not
associate
4. Anaphase
-Chromosomes get pulled apart
-Spindle fibres contract pulling chromatids to
the opposite poles of the cell
5. Telophase
-Now there are two!
1. Chromosomes uncoil
2. Spindle fibres disintegrate
3. Centrioles replicate
4. Nucleur membrane forms
5. Cell divides
How can we remember the stages of mitosis?

IPMAT
SUMMARY of MITOSIS
(1) It can take place in haploid as well as diploid
cells.
(2) Both the daughter cells formed through
mitosis receive similar characters and number
of chromosomes as that of the mother cell.
(3) The original structure of the chromosomes
remains unchanged in both the daughter nuclei.
(4) Hence, it is an equational division and the
resulting daughter cells are identical
qualitatively and quantitatively.
Significance of Mitosis
(1) It is an equational division which maintains
equal distribution of the chromosomes after
each cell cycle.
(2) The resulting daughter cells inherit identical
chromosomal material (hereditary material)
both in quantity (i.e., number) and quality (i.e.,
genetic make up or characters).
(3) Mitosis maintains a constant number of
chromosomes in all body cells of an organism.
(4) It helps to maintain the equilibrium in the
amount of DNA and RNA contents of a cell, as
well as the nuclear and cytoplasmic balance in
the cell.
(5) Dead cells are replaced by newly formed
cells through mitosis. It thus helps in the repair
of the body.
(6) It helps asexual reproduction, growth and
development of organisms.
Meiosis
-In the sexually reproducing organisms, two
important phenomena regulate the number of
chromosomes in the life cycle. These are
meiosis and fertilization. Meiosis is the
reduction division in which the diploid (2n)
number of chromosomes is reduced to haploid
(n) during gamete formation (or spore
formation). Whereas, in fertilization, the two
haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote.
In this way, the diploid condition is restored
again in the life cycle.
-"Meiosis is a special type of division
characteristic of reproductive cells in which the
diploid number of chromosomes is reduced to
haploid in the daughter cells. In meiosis,
chromosomes divide once while the nucleus
(and in some cases the cytoplasm also) divides

twice. Four haploid daughter cells result from

one diploid mother cell. These differ from each
other as well as from the mother cell."
-4 daughter cells produced
-Each daughter cell has half the
chromosomes of the parent
-2 sets of cell division involved
-SUMMARY of MEIOSIS
(i) Meiosis occurs in reproductive cells only.
(ii) It occurs in diploid cells.
(iii) The karyokinesis of meiosis consists of two
complete nuclear divisions called first meiotic
division (Meiosis-I or M-I) and second meiosis
division (Meiosis-II or M-II). (iv) M-I is reduction
division involving separation of homologous
chromosomes.
(v) M-II is equational division like mitosis which
involves duplication of chromosomes.
(vi) The four daughter nuclei are haploid due to
the reduction division (M-I). Moreover, they
differ from each other in the characters of
chromosomes due to crossing over during
Prophase-I of M-I.
(vii) Cytokinesis may be successive or
simultaneous dividing the diploid mother cell
into four haploid daughter cells.

MITOSIS

MEIOSIS

1. Occurs in somatic
cells.

1. Occurs in reproductive
cells.

2. Consists of only
one nuclear division.

2. Consists of two nuclear

divisions M-I and M-II.

3. Cytokinesis takes
place only once.

3. May take place only once

(simultaneous type) or twice
(successive type).

4. Involves division
of chromosomes.

4. Involves separation of
homologous chromosomes in
M-I and division of
chromosomes in M-II.

5. Dividing cells can

be haploid or
diploid.

5. Dividing cells are diploid.

6. Does not involve

either pairing of
homologous
chromosomes or
crossing over.

6. Pairing of homologous
chromosomes and crossing
over occur during Prophase-I.

7. Two daughter
cells are formed.

7. Four daughter cells

are formed.

8. Number of
chromosomes
present in the
mother cell is
maintained in both
the daughter cells.
Therefore it is an
equational division.

8. Diploid number of
chromosomes is
reduced to haploid in
each daughter cell.
Therefore it is a
reduction division.

9. Original
characters of the
chromosomes are
maintained in the
daughter cells.

9. Chromosomal
characters are altered
due to "crossing over"
causing
recombination of
genes.

10. Daughter cells

are similar to each
other and also to the
original mother cell.

10. Daughter cells

differ from each other
as well as from the
original mother cell.

11. Helps in growth

and body repairs.

11. Helps in the

sexual reproduction
and regulation of
chromosome number
in the life cycle of
sexually reproducing
organism.