SITE SELECTION

Although wind power is a never ending green resource, assessment of environmental risks
and impacts- which comprise the backbone of environmental policy- in the context of specific projects or
sites often are necessary to explicate and weigh the environmental trade-offs that are involved. [11] In the
case of wind farms, a number of turbines (ranging from about 250 kW to 750 kW) are connected together to
generate large amounts of power. Apart from the constraints resulting from the number of turbines, any site
selection should think over the technical, economic, social, environmental and political aspects. [7]

4.1 Technical Considerations

Many technical factors affect the decision making on site selection including wind speed,
land topography and geology, grid structure and distance and turbine size. These technical factors must be
understood in order to give pair-wise scores to sub-factors. [7]

4.1.1 Wind Speed

The viability of wind power in a given site depends on having sufficient wind speed available at the height at
which the turbine is to be installed. Any choice of wind turbine design must be based on the average wind velocity at the
selected wind turbine construction site. [7]

4.1.2 Land topography and geology

Wind farms typically need large lands. [10] Topography and prevailing wind conditions
determine turbine placement and spacing within a wind farm. In flat areas where there is nothing to interfere
with wind flow, at least 2600-6000 m 2/MW may be required. Wind turbines are usually sited on farms that
have slope smaller than 10-20%. [7]

4.1.3 Grid structure and distance

The connection of wind turbines to an electricity grid can potentially affect reliability of
supply and power quality, due to the unpredictable fluctuations in wind power output. [7]

4.1.4 Turbine size

Required height for the installation of turbine above ground is one of the important factors
that affect the annual energy generation. [10] Turbine size is related with the energy output, because the
bigger the turbine size is, the more wind it is exposed to. [7]

4.2 Economic Considerations

The economic sub factors that affect the site selection include capital cost, land cost and
operational and management costs. It is important to make economical evaluations by considering time
value of money due to long periods of service life of wind farm projects. [7]

4.2.1Capital cost
Construction, electrical connection, grid connection, planning, wind turbines, approvals,
utilities and management are the main components of capital cost for wind farm projects. [7]

4.2.2 Land cost

For the site selection, main economic factor is the cost of the land where the wind farm is
constructed; because, the cost of land primarily depends on the region, soil condition and the distance from
the residential area. [7]

4.2.3 Operational and management cost

There will be control functions such as supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
which will provide control of each wind turbine in O&M facilities. Business rates, maintenance expenses,
rents, staff payments are main components of O&M costs. [7]

4.2.4 Electricity market

Existing of an electricity market for the energy generated is an important factor affecting the economic
benefits of the project. There should be energy demand in regions close to wind farms. [7]

4.3 Environmental Considerations

The environmental sub factors that affect the site selection of a wind farm include visual
impact, electromagnetic interference, wild life and endangered species and noise impact. [7]

4.3.1 Visual impact

Wind turbines are located in windy places, and most of the time, those places are highly
visible. To many people, those big towers with 2 or 3 blades create visual pollution. To minimize the impacts
of visual pollution, many investors implement the actions. [7]

4.3.2 Wild life & endangered species

Wind farms affect birds mainly through collision with turbines and associated power lines,
disturbance leading to displacement including barriers to movement, and loss of habitat resulting from
wind turbines. To minimise the risk of bird collision, site selection should be done precisely. [7]

4.3.3 Electromagnetic interference

Electromagnetic interference is an electromagnetic disturbance that interrupts, obstructs, or
degrades the effective performance of electronics or electrical equipment. Wind turbines may reflect, scatter
or diffract the electromagnetic waves which in turn interfere with the original signal arriving at the receiver.
[7]

4.3.4 Noise impact

Noise can generally be classified according to its two main sources: aerodynamic and
mechanical. Aerodynamic noise is produced when the turbine blades interact with eddies caused by
atmospheric turbulence. Mechanical noise is generated by the rotor machinery such as the gearbox and
generator. Noise could be reduced by better designed turbine blade geometry and by selection of proper
operating conditions. [7]

4.4 Social Considerations

Social factors that affect the selection of a site include public acceptance, distance from
residential area and alternative land use options of candidate wind farm site. [10] Public may oppose
projects because of possible environmental or social effects. Distance from residential area gain importance
not to interfere with social life during wind farm construction or operation.

4.4.1 Regulatory boundaries

There may be some national or international level regulation related with the construction and
operation of wind farms. These regulations must be explored before evaluating the socio-political position of
a wind farm project. Most of them probably change from region to region. [7]

4.4.2 Public acceptance

Public is the most vital component of a region and their opposition to issues can lead to
abolish proposed projects. Support of public for wind energy generation is expected to be high in general but
proposed wind farms have often been met with strong local opposition. [7]

4.4.3 Land use

Land use affects the decision of wind farm siting from two points of view. Firstly, there are
some cases where no wind farms can be built although sufficient wind speed was detected. These cases are
mainly related with land use or condition. [7] Land related constraints include forest area, Wetlands, Land of
high productivity, Archaeological sites, Aviation zones, Military zones etc. [2]

4.4.4 Distance from the residential area

Noise and vibration stemming from the wind turbines may cause residents to suffer from
sleep disturbance, headaches, visual blurring. Those types of complaints can be avoided if the wind turbines
are sited a considerable distance from the residential area.

A few guidelines for selecting sites

Selecting an appropriate site is key to the success of any renewable-energy project, financially and technically.
This applies to every type of project, from the smallest residential systems to the largest utility-scale projects. It
also applies to every renewable-energy technology, from wind to solar to biomass, and others. Selecting the
proper site and designing a turbine array to fit it are vital to ensuring that wind farms perform as expected.
Site selection also plays a crucial role in the financial returns of the project, ease of construction, ongoing
operations and maintenance, and overall safety. As youd expect, an inappropriate site or ill-designed turbine
array jeopardizes the project.

The most important consideration when siting a project is whether or not the site is physically appropriate for the technology.

Here are key questions all developers, consultants, property owners, financiers, and site hosts should consider.
How good is the wind resource on the site?
For onshore wind projects, identify the wind class, and whether it lines up with the cut-in speed and optimal wind
speed for the proposed wind turbine. It is also important to evaluate whether nearby obstacles will cause
turbulence to disrupt airflow access to the site and reduce turbine life. An industry rule of thumb: the distance
between a turbine and the nearest obstacle should be at least twice the turbine height, unless the turbine is
more than twice the height of the obstacle in which case the distance can be less. Although it may seem
obvious, it is important to note that locations such as the bottom of a hill or inside a valley are not good sites for
a wind turbine. The best locations in terms of wind resource are typically high on mountains, in large open fields,
or on the edge of bodies of water.
It is also important to consider the level of wind shear on the proposed site. Offshore turbines in particular can
experience a high amount of wind shear, so it is important to design an appropriate array that withstands
extreme wind shear.
How much does electricity cost, and is there enough demand for the power?
Electricity rates are important to consider whether you are looking at a utility-scale or distributed-generation
project. You might ask, What do electricity rates have to do with site selection? The answer: Quite a bit. For
example, it is much harder to make a wind project pencil out financially in the Southeast U.S. than it is in
California and the Northeast. Electricity rates are a major factor currently driving development in the Caribbean,
as well. For the United States, the Energy Information Administrations website posts estimates for electricity
prices.
Who has site control?
It is extremely important to identify early on who has site control. If consultants and their clients do not have site
control, it must be determined whether it is possible to buy or lease the site, or work out an arrangement with the
site owner.
For example, CohnReznick Think Energy has worked with retail customers under long-term leases, and on the
other side of the fence with real estate-investment trusts. In these cases, it is important to determine how the
power from the wind farm is metered, who is obligated to purchase the power, and what happens to the asset at
the end of the lease or if the host customer goes out of business.
If the project will be distributed generation, are asset owners under a direct-access contract that
precludes onsite generation?
This is a key question often overlooked. If you are considering a distributed-generation project, make sure the
site host does not have a direct-access contract with a third-party electricity supplier that disallows onsite
generation. When a direct-access contract is in place that precludes onsite generation, it is sometimes possible
to renegotiate the contract terms, in exchange for a slightly modified electric rate.
Are there other potential barriers based on utility rules?
Many utilities have requirements for a maximum system size that can interconnect to the grid or the maximum
system size that may net meter to the grid, or both. Furthermore, how these limits are defined varies by state.
For example, some states limit net metering to 1 MW per address, while in others, net metering is limited by
meter number. California allows virtual net metering whereby certain types of entities, such as public schools,
may transfer net metered credits from one site to another. It is important to read your utility and states rules to
understand how net metering and the interconnection can affect your project.
Are there permitting, zoning, or other related barriers?
It is important to identify all local, regional, and national permits required for a proposed site. It may be helpful to
identify what other projects have been built nearby, if any, and identify what permits they were required to obtain.

For example, if a nearby project was halted due to the presence of an endangered animal or plant, the proposed
site may face a similar challenge. Regional building codes and permits also vary. In the Northeast, for instance,
wind-turbine sites must meet stringent snow-load requirements, while in California projects are required to meet
extreme seismic requirements. When possible, for large wind projects, it may also be of value to determine
whether it is possible to obtain an easement to ensure future structures nearby that would block the wind
resource or cause turbulence, are not constructed.
Is the site physically able to accommodate the facility?
The most important consideration when siting a project is whether or not the site is physically appropriate for the
technology. This can include, but is not limited to, considerations such as the amount of physical space required
for the array and equipment (see the section on nearby obstructions, above), structural stability of the soil, slope
and its direction on the site, and proximity to a nearby interconnection point. It is also important to note the
current onsite vegetation and whether this will need pruning for construction and maintenance as part of the
project O&M in the future.
Are there potential staging or access issues?
It is important to identify when and how construction will occur because these issues can have a significant
impact on the cost of a project. Our firm recently worked on a project in the Caribbean where the best site in
terms of wind resource for a wind turbine would be a cliff on the far eastern edge of the island. It was, however,
quickly determined that no road exists to access the site, and while a helicopter lift of equipment would be
possible, the only commercial helicopters available in the region were passenger helicopters ill-suited for heavy
cargo. Furthermore, the location would make future operations and maintenance of the turbines difficult. For this
particular project, the decision was made to locate the wind turbines closer to the developed portion of the island
where the wind regime is not quite as good.
Does the site have security concerns?
It is worthwhile to check local news or police records for vandalism in the area. Additional site security may be an
option, such as cameras, lighting, and fencing. However, it may be a financial burden to the project to install
these additional security measures.
After considering the general site selection questions, there are technology-specific questions that also must be
considered. As an example, heres a brief checklist of the questions CohnReznick Think Energy typically
considers (in addition to the previously listed items) when evaluating potential wind-energy sites.

Is it necessary to build a road to the site?

What are the required hours for construction and O&M?

Are there access limitations to the site, such as it being locked during certain hours?

Are there site operations that construction might hinder?

Is there space for a staging area, which will most likely consist of a crane, construction trailers,

dumpsters, various trucks, cement mixers, concrete pumps, and other equipment?
Is there onsite access to electricity and water, or are a generator and water supply needed?
How will workers access the site for future operations and maintenance?

While this lists is neither comprehensive nor exhaustive, it provides an overview of a few main items to consider
at the start of site selection. Developers, consultants, property owners, financiers, and site hosts new to the wind
industry will inevitably find site selection a learning experience. This introduction serves as a useful starting point
for the process. WPE

References

http://energygeckkd.blogspot.com/2013/02/wind-energy-principlesconversion-site.html

/http://www.windpowerengineering.com/construction/projects/guidelines-selecting-sites