BASICMATERIALS

Nature and Properties of X-Rays

X-Rays discovered 1895 by Roentgen (German)
Unknown nature at the time
Very penetrating - radiography
1912 Exact nature of X-rays established
Current understanding is: X-rays are electromagnetic radiation
Short wavelength (0.5-2.5 )
High frequency (~ 1018 Hz)

Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

NASA EM Spectrum Link

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwfJPcrSXw&list=PL09E558656CA5DF76
Maltese Cross - Cathode Ray Tube
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2TsZUMDs-W4
History of X-rays Link (Dr. Scott Klioze)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ogPj06OzZvo
X-ray Shoe Fit (1920s)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wbMN6jueU1A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVlEXd9w7vk
Worlds Weirdest X-rays
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/howabout
that/7898640/Worlds-weirdest-X-rays.html
Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

Marie Curie War Duty

http://www.aip.org/history/curie/war1.htm
Monash History of X-rays
William Coolidge X-ray Physics Documentary (1940)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I3s5HFQ2YME
Wave Propagation PowerPoint

Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

Consideramonochromaticbeam(single)ofXrays,travelinginthexdirection:

Forexample,haveElectricFieldEinydirectionand
MagneticFieldHatrightanglestothis,inthezdirection.
IfEisconfinedtoxyplaneaswavetravelswaveisPLANEPOLARIZED.
ForacompletelyUNPOLARIZEDwave,EandhenceHassumealldirectionsinthe
yzplane.
WeareconcernedonlywithE(thisiswhatgivesrisetothediffractioneffectsweare
toconsider).

Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

ConsiderthePLANEPOLARIZEDwave;
atanypointinspace,e.g.x=0,Eisnotconstantwithtime,butvariesfromamax.in
+ydirection,throughzero,toamax.intheydirectionandbackagain.
Similarly,att=0,Evariesinsimilarwaywithdistancealongxaxis.

x=0
(Fixedx)

t=0
(Fixedt)

A=waveamplitude
=wavelength
=frequency
Assumevariationstobesinusoidal,att=0(waveheldstationary,momentarily),
wecanwrite:
E=Asin2(x/)
wecandefinek=1/,
E=Asin(2kx)
Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

Withwavetrainmovingatthespeedoflightc,atanypointEvarieswithtimewithperiod1/
where=c/,c=3108msec1
TOTALVARIATION
E=Asin2(kxt)
NOTE:minussignindicateswavemovingtowardstheright,positivemeanstotheleft.
Alsotobenoted:
AllmembersofE.M.SpectrumhaveaDualnature
Undersomeconditionstheyactlikewaves;e.g.Diffraction
Underotherconditionstheybehavelikeparticles;e.g.theirenergyisradiated
NOTcontinuously,butratherasbundlesofwavescalledQUANTA(photons)
Theenergyofaquantumisproportionaltotheoftheradiation,inaccordancewith
Einsteinrelation:
E0=hc/
E0:quantumenergy
h:Plancksconstant,6.631034Jsec
Inourequationforthetotalvariation,wecantakeaccountofaPHASESHIFT,as
follows:
Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

E=Asin[2(kxt)+]

Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

DiffractionisessentiallyduetotheexistenceofcertainPHASERELATIONSHIPS
betweentwoormorewaves,
Constructive
Destructive
interference.
Understandingofphaserelationsisimportant

Beam1ismadeupoftwoequalparts,2+3
Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

2and3eachhavehalftheamplitudeof1
OnwavefrontAA2and3arecompletedINPHASE,E(x)isidentical
Considerimaginaryexperiment;
Ray3continuesinstraightline,
Ray2isdivertedintocurvedpathbeforerejoiningray3.
OnwavefrontBB
Eofwave2ismaximum

Eofwave3iszero
wavesarenolongerINPHASEandarepartiallyOUTOFPHASE
partialdestructiveinterference
Sumof2and3(superpositionofthewaves)isshown.
Ifamplitudeofbeams2and3areeach1unit,
thenamplitudeofbeam1Ais2units1Bis1.4units.
Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

ie,wavesare
COMPLETELYOUT
OFPHASE
andannuleachother.
Completeortotal
destructiveinterference

Clearly,(1)Differencesinlengthofpathtraveledleadtodifferencesinphase
(2)Introductionofphasedifferencesproducesachangeinamplitude
Thesetworaysarecompletelyinphase,whenevertheirpathlengthsdifferbyZEROor
anintegralnumberofwavelengths.
ClearlyitwillbecomeimportantindiffractiontheorytobeabletoADDWAVESof
differentPHASEandAMPLITUDEtofindtheRESULTANT.
Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

10

Example,
Additionoftwosinewavesofsamefrequencyandwavelength,butdifferentphase
anddifferentamplitude.
ConsidervariationsinEwithtoftworaysonagivenwavefront,
E1=A1sin(2t1)
E2=A2sin(2t2)1and2arethephase(phaseangles)
Wecandoitgraphically,resultant=dashedcurve=E3,
asinewaveofdifferentamplitudeandphase

Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

11

Wecanalsoaddthewavesbyrepresentingthemasvectors,eachcomponentwaveis
representedbyaVECTORoflengthequaltothewaveamplitude,andwhichisinclined
tothexaxisatanangleequaltothephaseangle,

Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

12

useparallelogramlaw
Thisisadequatebutstill,graphicaltechniquescangetclumsy,
wepreferanalyticaltechniques
ThiscanbeachievedbyusingCOMPLEXNUMBERStopresentthevectors.
[COMPLEXNUMBER=sumofreal+imaginarynumber
a+bii2=1
SuchnumberscanbeplottedintheCOMPLEXPLANE,ortheARGANDDIAGRAM,
withrealnumbersplottedasabscissaeandimaginaryasordinates.
Ypointinthisplane,orvectordrawnfromorigintothispoint,representsthecomplex
number
a+bi.
Weneedananalyticalexpressionforavectorrepresentingawave
Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

13

drawitonARGANDDIAGRAM

A=lengthofvector=amplitudeofwave
=phase
Analyticalexpressionisthecomplexnumber
Acos+iAsin
ie,thesumofthehorizontaland
verticalcomponentsofthevector

(OMandON)
Note:
Multiplicationbyirotatesitcounterclockwiseby900
(e.g.horizontalvector2isconvertedintoverticalvector2i)
Multiplicationbyi2,rotatesavectorthrough1800,
i.e.reversesitssense(e.g.2into2)
Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

14

Weknowthateix=cosx+isinx(fromthepowerseriesexpansion)
wecanwrite
Aei=Acos+Aisin
wecanexpressourvectoranalyticallybyeithersideofthisequation(Aeiisknown
asacomplexexponentialfunction)
Intensityisproportionalto(amplitude)2,soweneedanexpressionforA2,thesquareof
theabsolutevalueofthevector.
Foracomplexexponentialformwegetthisbymultiplyingthecomplexexpressionfor
thewavebyitsCOMPLEXCONJUGATE(replaceibyi,bothdowhicharesolutionsof
i2=1)
ComplexconjugateofAeiisAei
Aei 2=AeiAei=A2Thisiswhatweneed
Thisisthesameas,
A(cos+isin)A(cosisin)
=A2(cos2+sin2)
=A2
Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

15

EvidentlyAeiisausefulwaytorepresentthevector.

Prof. Michael Dudley, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, SUNY at Stony Brook
ESM 512, Structure of Materials Lecture Notes

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