VIF COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to JNTU)
Himayat Nagar, Gandipet X-Roads, Moinabad, Hyderabad.

Satellite dish antenna direction control .

A Mini Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the award of degree of

Bachelor Of Technology
In
Electronics & Communication Engineering

Submitted by

MOHD AMJAD KHAN

SAMEENA NOOR
MALIHA FATIMA

[12D51A0410]
[12D51A0429]
[12D51A0433]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We express thanks and gratitude to the Almighty God, our

family and friends without whose sustained support, we could
not have made this career in Electronics & Communication
Engineering.
We wish to place on our record our deep sense of gratitude
to the staff of our institute HYDERABAD SCIENCE SOCIETY
(HSS), especially our Project Manager, Mr. Sanjar Ali Khan
for his co-ordination and support, and our Project guide, Mr.
Mohd. Jaleel for his constant motivation and valuable help
and advices through out till the completion of this Project.
We would like to express our gratitude to the
Administrator and Director of Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University (JNTU) for giving us the
opportunity to work on Mini Projects which has helped us in
displaying our technical abilities in this Project. We also
extend our thanks to our internal project guide Ms. Imtiyaz
Unnisa for her continued guidance, support and suggestions.
We also express thanks to other Faculty members for their
guidance.

Finally we would like to thank our Principal, Mr.

K.Srinivas Rao and the Head Of The Department of ECE,
Ms. Imtiyaz Unnisa for their continuous efforts in helping
and guiding us in making this Project experience wonderful
and knowledgeable for all of us.

Date:

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Ms. JUVERIA NISHAT, Ms. SABIYA PARVEEN and Ms.
SAIMA SADAF Bearing hall ticket numbers 09D51A0462 , 09D51A0482 and
09D51A0483 of VIF COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY has
submitted their mini project report entitled TRAFFIC SPEED VIOLATION for the
partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree for bachelor of technology
in Electronics & Communication Engineering. This is a bonafide work carried out by
them , under our guidance and supervision. The results of investigation enclosed in this
report have been verified and found to be satisfactory. The results embodied in this Mini
Project report have not been submitted to any other university or institute for the award
of any degree or diploma.

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
PRINCIPAL

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

#786 HIMAYAT NAGAR,GANDIPET X

ROADS,MOINABAD,MANDAL,RANGAREDDY,DIST.-500 075 A.P.
Ph:958413 235329/958413 235045 Fax: 958413 235328
website:http://www.vifcollege.org

CONTENTS

NO.
1.
2.

TITLE
Abstract
Block Diagram

3.

Circuit Diagram

4.

Applications

5.

Component Details

6.

Bibliography

ABSTRACT:

In this project we demonstrate how a dish antenna can be positioned

using a remote control. The dish antenna has to move in two different axis
for positioning to receive signals from a satellite. The first movement is
rotation around a vertical axis. The second is the revolution around the
horizontal. axis. Both the motions are achieved by stepper/DC motors which
are fixed on appropriate platforms and rods. The remote control system uses
infra-red technology. A hand held transmitter with necessary controls is
directed

at

an

infra-red

receiver

fixed

on

platform.

The signals from the IR transmitter are coded and the two stepper/DC
motors activated by interface electronic circuits. By activating the motors in
turn, the dish antenna can be oriented in any horizontal or vertical direction.

This project uses regulated 5V, 1A power supply. 7805 three terminal
voltage regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave
rectifier is used to rectify the ac out put of secondary of 230/12V step down
transformer. At any time the user can add or remove or alter placing of gates
according to his requirement.

Block Diagram

Circuit Diagram

Applications

1.1ANTENNA
An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric
power into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio
transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an
oscillating radio frequency electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the
antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio
waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an
electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that
is

applied

to

receiver

to

be

amplified.

Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio.

They are used in systems such as radio broadcasting, broadcast television,
two-way radio, communications receivers, radar, cell phones, and satellite
communications, as well as other devices such as garage door openers,
wireless microphones, bluetooth enabled devices, wireless computer
networks,

baby

monitors,

and

RFID

tags

on

merchandise.

Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic

conductors

("elements"),

electrically

connected

(often

through

transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter. An oscillating current of

electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter will create an
oscillating magnetic field around the antenna elements, while the charge of
the electrons also creates an oscillating electric field along the elements.

These time-varying fields, when created in the proper proportions, radiate

away from the antenna into space as a moving transverse electromagnetic
field wave. Conversely, during reception, the oscillating electric and
magnetic fields of an incoming radio wave exert force on the electrons in the
antenna elements, causing them to move back and forth, creating oscillating
currents

in

the

antenna.

Antennas may also include reflective or directive elements or surfaces

not connected to the transmitter or receiver, such as parasitic elements,
parabolic reflectors or horns, which serve to direct the radio waves into a
beam or other desired radiation pattern. Antennas can be designed to
transmit or receive radio waves in all directions equally (omnidirectional
antennas), or transmit them in a beam in a particular direction, and receive
from that one direction only (directional or high gain antennas).
1.2

PARABOLIC ANTENNA (DISH ANTENNA)

A parabolic antenna is an antenna that uses a parabolic reflector, a

curved surface with the cross-sectional shape of a parabola, to direct the

radio waves. The most common form is shaped like a dish and is popularly
called a dish antenna or parabolic dish. The main advantage of a parabolic
antenna is that it has high directivity. It functions similarly to a searchlight or
flashlight reflector to direct the radio waves in a narrow beam, or receive
radio waves from one particular direction only. Parabolic antennas have
some of the highest gains, that is they can produce the narrowest
bandwidths, of any antenna type. In order to achieve narrow bandwidths, the
parabolic reflector must be much larger than the wavelength of the radio
waves used, so parabolic antennas are used in the high frequency part of the
radio spectrum, at UHF and microwave (SHF) frequencies, at which the

wavelengths are small enough that conveniently-sized reflectors can be used.

Parabolic antennas are used as high-gain antennas for point-to-point
communications, in applications such as microwave relay links that carry
telephone and television signals between nearby cities, wireless WAN/LAN
links for data communications, satellite communications and spacecraft
communication antennas. They are also used in radio telescopes.
The other large use of parabolic antennas is for radar antennas, in
which there is a need to transmit a narrow beam of radio waves to locate
objects like ships, airplanes, and guided missiles. With the advent of home
satellite television receivers, parabolic antennas have become a common
feature of the landscapes of modern countries.

Figure 1.1 - Dish Antenna

1.3 Demonstration of Positioning of Dish Antenna using a

Remote Control.

Component Details

Transformers
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A
varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic
flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the
secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This
effect is called mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the
secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary
circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the
induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary
voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the
secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an

alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater
than Np, or "stepped down" by making Ns less than Np.
In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a
ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.
Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer
hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons

used to interconnect portions of power grids. All operate with the same basic
principles, although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies
have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits,
transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for
household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage
power transmission, which makes long distance transmission economically
practical.

Basic principles
The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can
produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism), and, second that a changing
magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the
coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil
changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux
induces a voltage in the secondary coil

Induction law
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from
Faraday's law of induction, which states that:
where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the
secondary coil and is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the
turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the

flux is the product of the magnetic flux density B and the area A through
which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of
the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according
to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through
both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer,[29] the
instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals
Taking the ratio of the two equations for Vs and Vp gives the basic equation[30]
for stepping up or stepping down the voltage

Ideal power equation

if the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow,
electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary
circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy
is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the
secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must
equal the outgoing power - :
giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable

approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor.
The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio.
[29]
For example, if an impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of the
secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of
(Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the
primary circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp
Effect of frequency
The time-derivative term in Faraday's Law shows that the flux in the core is
the integral with respect to time of the applied voltage.[36] Hypothetically an
ideal transformer would work with direct-current excitation, with the core
flux increasing linearly with time.[37] In practice, the flux would rise to the
point where magnetic saturation of the core occurs, causing a huge increase
in the magnetizing current and overheating the transformer. All practical
transformers must therefore operate with alternating (or pulsed) current.[37]
The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency.
[31]
By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more
compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without
reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same
impedance. However, properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect
also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ
400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight.[38]
Conversely, frequencies used for some railway electrification systems were
much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50
60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the limitations of early
electric traction motors. As such, the transformers used to step down the
high over-head line voltages (e.g. 15 kV) are much heavier for the same
power rating than those designed only for the higher frequencies.
Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency
than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current; at lower frequency,
the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a transformer at other
than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses, and
cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. For example, transformers
may need to be equipped with "volts per hertz" over-excitation relays to
protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency.
One example of state-of-the-art design is those transformers used for electric
multiple unit high speed trains, particularly those required to operate across

the borders of countries using different standards of electrification. The

position of such transformers is restricted to being hung below the passenger
compartment. They have to function at different frequencies (down to 16.7
Hz) and voltages (up to 25 kV) whilst handling the enhanced power
requirements needed for operating the trains at high speed.
Knowledge of natural frequencies of transformer windings is of importance
for the determination of the transient response of the windings to impulse
and switching surge voltages.

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass

in one direction (called the diode's forward direction) while blocking current
in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be
thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional
behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to
direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio
receivers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple onoff action. This is due to their complex non-linear electrical characteristics,
which can be tailored by varying the construction of their P-N junction.
These are exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different
functions. For example, specialized diodes are used to regulate voltage
(Zener diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor
diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes), and to
produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative
resistance, which makes them useful in some types of circuits.
Diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of
crystals' rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun
in 1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes,
developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena.
Today most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as
germanium are sometimes used.[2]

A modern semiconductor diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor like

silicon that has impurities added to it to create a region on one side that
contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called n-type semiconductor,
and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes),
called p-type semiconductor. The diode's terminals are attached to each of
these regions. The boundary within the crystal between these two regions,
called a PN junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. The crystal
conducts conventional current in a direction from the p-type side (called the
anode) to the n-type side (called the cathode), but not in the opposite
direction.
Another type of semiconductor diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from
the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p-n
junction.
[edit] Currentvoltage characteristic
A semiconductor diodes behavior in a circuit is given by its currentvoltage
characteristic, or IV graph (see graph below). The shape of the curve is
determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called
depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p-n junction between
differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first created, conduction
band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped
region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for
electrons) with which the electrons recombine. When a mobile electron
recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an
immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N-side and negatively
charged acceptor (dopant) on the P-side. The region around the p-n junction
becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.
However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width)
cannot grow without limit. For each electron-hole pair that recombines, a
positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a
negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As
recombination proceeds more ions are created, an increasing electric field
develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop
recombination. At this point, there is a built-in potential across the
depletion zone.
If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the
built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator,
preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron/hole pairs
are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light. see
photodiode). This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity
of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can

once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n
junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the
junction). For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.7 V
(0.3 V for Germanium and 0.2 V for Schottky). Thus, if an external current
is passed through the diode, about 0.7 V will be developed across the diode
such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region
and the diode is said to be turned on as it has a forward bias

At very large reverse bias , beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a
process called reverse breakdown occurs which causes a large increase in
current (i.e. a large number of electrons and holes are created at, and move
away from the pn junction) that usually damages the device permanently.
The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in the avalanche region.
In the zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A zener diode
contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the
valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type
material, such that the reverse voltage is clamped to a known value (called
the zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do
have a limit to the maximum current and power in the clamped reverse
voltage region. Also, following the end of forward conduction in any diode,
there is reverse current for a short time. The device does not attain its full
blocking capability until the reverse current ceases.
The second region, at reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has only a
very small reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias region for a normal
P-N rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the A
range). However, this is temperature dependent, and at sufficiently high

temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA

or more).
The third region is forward but small bias, where only a small forward
current is conducted.
As the potential difference is increased above an arbitrarily defined cut-in
voltage or on-voltage or diode forward voltage drop (Vd), the diode
current becomes appreciable (the level of current considered appreciable
and the value of cut-in voltage depends on the application), and the diode
presents a very low resistance. The currentvoltage curve is exponential. In a
normal silicon diode at rated currents, the arbitrary cut-in voltage is
defined as 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode types
Schottky diodes can be rated as low as 0.2 V, Germanium diodes 0.25-0.3 V,
and red or blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can have values of 1.4 V and
4.0 V respectively.
At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of
1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for power diodes.
Applications
[edit] Radio demodulation
The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated
(AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery is treated in depth in
the radio article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive
and negative peaks of voltage, whose amplitude or envelope is
proportional to the original audio signal. The diode (originally a crystal
diode) rectifies the AM radio frequency signal, leaving an audio signal
which is the original audio signal, minus atmospheric noise. The audio is
extracted using a simple filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer,
which generates sound waves.
Power conversion Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are
used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC).
Automotive alternators are a common example, where the diode, which
rectifies the AC into DC, provides better performance than the commutator
of earlier dynamo. Similarly, diodes are also used in CockcroftWalton
voltage multipliers to convert AC into higher DC voltages.
Over-voltage protection.
Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from
sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (nonconducting) under normal circumstances. When the voltage rises above the

normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting). For example,

diodes are used in (stepper motor and H-bridge) motor controller and relay
circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that
would otherwise occur. (Any diode used in such an application is called a
flyback diode). Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the
connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive
transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at
higher power (see Diode types above).
Logic gates.
Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND and OR
logic gates. This is referred to as diode logic.
Ionizing radiation detectors
In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to
more energetic radiation. In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of
ionizing radiation cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors. This
effect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation. A
single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volts of
energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the
semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the
whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate measurement of
the particles energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge
conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrometer or etc.
These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge
collection and low leakage current. They are often cooled by liquid nitrogen.
For longer range (about a centimetre) particles they need a very large
depletion depth and large area. For short range particles, they need any
contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at least one surface to be very thin.
The back-bias voltages are near breakdown (around a thousand volts per
centimetre).
Germanium and silicon are common materials. Some of these detectors
sense position as well as energy. They have a finite life, especially when
detecting heavy particles, because of radiation damage. Silicon and
germanium are quite different in their ability to convert gamma rays to
electron showers.
Semiconductor detectors for high energy particles are used in large numbers.
Because of energy loss fluctuations, accurate measurement of the energy
deposited is of less use.

Temperature measurements
A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, since the forward
voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature, as in a Silicon
bandgap temperature sensor. From the Shockley ideal diode equation given
above, it appears the voltage has a positive temperature coefficient (at a
constant current) but depends on doping concentration and operating
temperature (Sze 2007). The temperature coefficient can be negative as in
typical thermistors or positive for temperature sense diodes down to about
20 kelvins. Typically, silicon diodes have approximately 2 mV/C
temperature coefficient at room temperature.

An inductive sensor is an electronic proximity sensor, which detects metallic

objects without touching them. The sensor consists of an induction loop.
Electric current generates a magnetic field, which collapses generating a
current that falls asymptotically toward zero from its initial trans when the
input electricity ceases. The inductance of the loop changes according to the
material inside it and since metals are much more effective inductors than
other materials the presence of metal increases the current flowing through
the loop. This change can be detected by sensing circuitry, which can signal
to some other device whenever metal is detected. .
Common applications of inductive sensors include metal detectors, traffic
lights, car washes, and a host of automated industrial processes. Because the
sensor does not require physical contact it is particularly useful for
applications where access presents challenges or where dirt is prevalent

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts

electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a
semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline
piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals.[1] A
vacuum tube diode (now little used except in some high-power technologies)
is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode.

Light-emitting diode
A light-emitting diode (LEDis a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used
as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting.
Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted
low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible,
ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are

able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color
of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the
energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than
1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its
radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light
sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved
robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and
reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive

and require more precise current and heat management than compact
fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for
aviation lighting, automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals
and indicators) as well as in traffic signals. The compact size, the possibility
of narrow bandwidth, switching speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has
allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their
high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications
technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many
commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other
domestic appliances.

Technology
Physics
Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material
doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current
flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in
the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the
junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a
hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a
photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color, depends on the band
gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or
germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative
transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect
band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap
with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.

LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium
arsenide. Advances in materials science have enabled making devices with
ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light in a variety of colors.
LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to
the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less
common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN,
also use sapphire substrate.
Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices.
This means that much light will be reflected back into the material at the
material/air surface interface. Thus, light extraction in LEDs is an important
aspect of LED production, subject to much research development.
Refractive Index
Bare uncoated semiconductors such as silicon exhibit a very high refractive
index relative to open air, which prevents passage of photons at sharp angles
relative to the air-contacting surface of the semiconductor. This property
affects both the light-emission efficiency of LEDs as well as the lightabsorption efficiency of photovoltaic cells. The refractive index of silicon is
4.24, while air is 1.00002926[27]
Generally a flat-surfaced uncoated LED semiconductor chip will only emit
light perpendicular to the semiconductor's surface, and a few degrees to the
side, in a cone shape referred to as the light cone. The maximum angle of
incidence is referred to as the critical angle. When this angle is exceeded
photons no longer penetrate the semiconductor, but are instead reflected both

internally inside the semiconductor crystal, and externally off the surface of
the crystal as if it were a mirror.

Internal reflections can escape through other crystalline faces, if the

incidence angle is low enough and the crystal is sufficiently transparent to
not re-absorb the photon emission. But for a simple square LED with 90degree angled surfaces on all sides, the faces all act as equal angle mirrors.
In this case the light can not escape and is lost as waste heat in the crystal.
A convoluted chip surface similar to the shape of a fresnel lens can increase
light output by allowing light to be emitted perpendicular to the chip surface
while far to the sides of the photon emission point, but the extremely small
size of the semiconductor chip makes such precisely angled optical surfaces
difficult to manufacture.
The ideal shape of a semiconductor with maximum light output would be a
microsphere with the photon emission occurring at the exact center, with
electrodes penetrating to the center to contact at the emission point. All light
rays emanating from the center would be perpendicular to the entire surface
of the sphere, resulting in no internal reflections. A hemispherical
semiconductor would also work, with the flat back-surface serving as a
mirror to back-scattered photons.

Efficiency and operational parameters

Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 3060
milliwatts [mW] of electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds
introduced power LEDs capable of continuous use at one watt [W]. These
LEDs used much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle the large power
inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were mounted onto metal slugs to allow
for heat removal from the LED die.
One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting is its high efficiency, as
measured by its light output per unit power input. White LEDs quickly

matched and overtook the efficiency of standard incandescent lighting

systems. In 2002, Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available with a luminous
efficacy of 1822 lumens per watt [lm/W]. For comparison, a conventional
60100 W incandescent lightbulb emits around 15 lm/W, and standard
fluorescent lights emit up to 100 lm/W. A recurring problem is that
efficiency falls sharply with rising current. This effect is known as droop and
effectively limits the light output of a given LED, raising heating more than
light output for higher current
In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by the
company Cree Inc. to provide 24 mW at 20 milliamperes [mA]. This
produced a commercially packaged white light giving 65 lm/W at 20 mA,
becoming the brightest.

Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic
signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current
applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing
through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can
be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides
amplification of a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually,
but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic

devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its
release in the early 1950s the transistor revolutionised the field of
electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators,
and computers, amongst other things.

Usage
The bipolar junction transistor, or BJT, was the most commonly used
transistor in the 1960s and 70s. Even after MOSFETs became widely
available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for many analog circuits
such as simple amplifiers because of their greater linearity and ease of
manufacture. Desirable properties of MOSFETs, such as their utility in lowpower devices, usually in the CMOS configuration, allowed them to capture
nearly all market share for digital circuits; more recently MOSFETs have
captured most analog and power applications as well, including modern
clocked analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters,
motor drivers, etc.
Simplified operation
he essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small
signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger

signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor

can control its output in proportion to the input signal; that is, it can act as an
amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in
a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is
determined by other circuit elements.

The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a
circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and
emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to
the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the
collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are
labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current
between source and drain.
The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit.
Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the
current in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave
like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and
emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on
the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.
Transistor as a switch
BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration.
Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power
applications including switched-mode power supplies and low power
applications such as logic gates.

In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit

shown, as the base voltage rises the base and collector current rise
exponentially, and the collector voltage drops because of the collector load
resistor. The relevant equations:
VRC = ICE RC, the voltage across the load (the lamp with resistance RC)
VRC + VCE = VCC, the supply voltage shown as 6V
If VCE could fall to 0 (perfect closed switch) then Ic could go no higher than
VCC / RC, even with higher base voltage and current. The transistor is then
said to be saturated. Hence, values of input voltage can be chosen such that
the output is either completely off,[13] or completely on. The transistor is
acting as a switch, and this type of operation is common in digital circuits
where only "on" and "off" values are relevant.
Transistor as an amplifier
Amplifier circuit, standard common-emitter configuration.
The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage
in (Vin) changes the small current through the base of the transistor and the
transistor's current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit
mean that small swings in Vin produce large changes in Vout.
Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some
providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both.

From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include

amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing.
The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred
milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better
transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved.
Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common
and relatively inexpensive.
Types
Transistors are categorized by
Semiconductor material: germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, silicon
carbide, etc.

Structure: BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET), IGBT, "other types"

Polarity: NPN, PNP (BJTs); N-channel, P-channel (FETs)
Maximum power rating: low, medium, high
Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, radio frequency
(RF), microwave (The maximum effective frequency of a transistor is
denoted by the term fT, an abbreviation for "frequency of transition".
The frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor
yields unity gain).
Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta,
matched pair
Physical packaging: through hole metal, through hole plastic, surface
mount, ball grid array, power modules
Amplification factor hfe (transistor beta)
Thus, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surface mount, BJT,
NPN, low power, high frequency switch.
Bipolar junction transistor
Main article: Bipolar junction transistor
Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both
majority and minority carriers. The bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the first
type of transistor to be mass-produced, is a combination of two junction
diodes, and is formed of either a thin layer of p-type semiconductor
sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors (an n-p-n transistor), or a
thin layer of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type
semiconductors (a p-n-p transistor). This construction produces two p-n
junctions: a baseemitter junction and a basecollector junction, separated
by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base region (two junction
diodes wired together without sharing an intervening semiconducting region
will not make a transistor).
The BJT has three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of
semiconductor - an emitter, a base, and a collector. It is useful in amplifiers
because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable by a
relatively small base current." In an NPN transistor operating in the active
region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased (electrons and holes
recombine at the junction), and electrons are injected into the base region.
Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the
reverse-biased (electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the
junction) base-collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps
one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the

dominant mechanism in the base current. By controlling the number of

electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the
collector can be controlled. Collector current is approximately (commonemitter current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than 100
for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for
high-power applications.
Unlike the FET, the BJT is a lowinput-impedance device. Also, as the
baseemitter voltage (Vbe) is increased the baseemitter current and hence
the collectoremitter current (Ice) increase exponentially according to the
Shockley diode model and the Ebers-Moll model. Because of this
exponential relationship, the BJT has a higher transconductance than the
FET.
Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct by exposure to light, since
absorption of photons in the base region generates a photocurrent that acts as
a base current; the collector current is approximately times the
photocurrent. Devices designed for this purpose have a transparent window
in the package and are called phototransistors.
Field-effect transistor
Main articles: MOSFET and JFET
The field-effect transistor (FET), sometimes called a unipolar transistor,
uses either electrons (in N-channel FET) or holes (in P-channel FET) for
conduction. The four terminals of the FET are named source, gate, drain,
and body (substrate). On most FETs, the body is connected to the source
inside the package, and this will be assumed for the following description.
In FETs, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that
connects the source region to the drain region. The conductivity is varied by
the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate
and source terminals; hence the current flowing between the drain and
source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As
the gatesource voltage (Vgs) is increased, the drainsource current (Ids)
increases exponentially for Vgs below threshold, and then at a roughly
quadratic rate (
) (where VT is the threshold voltage at
[16]
which drain current begins) in the "space-charge-limited" region above
threshold. A quadratic behavior is not observed in modern devices, for
example, at the 65 nm technology node.
For low noise at narrow bandwidth the higher input resistance of the FET is
advantageous.
FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate
FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as a metaloxide

semiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting its original construction from

layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike
IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a PN diode with the channel which lies
between the source and drain. Functionally, this makes the N-channel JFET
the solid state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly, forms a
diode between its grid and cathode. Also, both devices operate in the
depletion mode, they both have a high input impedance, and they both
conduct current under the control of an input voltage.
Metalsemiconductor FETs (MESFETs) are JFETs in which the reverse
biased PN junction is replaced by a metalsemiconductor Schottky-junction.
These, and the HEMTs (high electron mobility transistors, or HFETs), in
which a two-dimensional electron gas with very high carrier mobility is used
for charge transport, are especially suitable for use at very high frequencies
(microwave frequencies; several GHz).
Unlike bipolar transistors, FETs do not inherently amplify a photocurrent.
Nevertheless, there are ways to use them, especially JFETs, as light-sensitive
devices, by exploiting the photocurrents in channelgate or channelbody
junctions.
FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types,
depending on whether the channel is turned on or off with zero gate-tosource voltage. For enhancement mode, the channel is off at zero bias, and a
gate potential can "enhance" the conduction. For depletion mode, the
channel is on at zero bias, and a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can
"deplete" the channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a more positive
gate voltage corresponds to a higher current for N-channel devices and a
lower current for P-channel devices. Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode as
the diode junctions would forward bias and conduct if they were
enhancement mode devices; most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types.
Relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet

to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating
principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a
circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between

control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled

by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits,
repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to
another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an
electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits
with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform
switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes
multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload
or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by
digital instruments still called "protective relays".
Basic design and operation
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft
iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic
flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are
two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and
mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in
place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in
the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the
relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have
more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the
picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures
continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and
the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is
soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic

field that attracts the armature, and the consequent movement of the
movable contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a
connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the

relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to
the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately
half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this
force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial
motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a lowvoltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current
application it reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across
the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at
deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to
semiconductor circuit components. Some automotive relays include a diode
inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting
of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the surge. If
the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small
copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a
small out-of-phase current which increases the minimum pull on the
armature during the AC cycle.[1]
A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device,
activated by the control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a
solenoid. An optocoupler (a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a
photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and controlled circuits.
Applications
relays are used to and for:
Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some
types of modems or audio amplifiers,
Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the
starter solenoid of an automobile,
Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by
opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),
Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the
twoare at different potentials, for example when controlling a mainspowered device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is often applied
to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed
in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may
also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to
conserve energy,

Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised

by connecting normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function
by connecting normally open contacts in parallel. The change-over or
Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar
functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally
closed contacts. The Ladder programming language is often used for
designing relay logic networks.
Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays
were used as logical elements in digital computers. See ARRA
(computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3.
Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant
than semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used
in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive
waste-handling machinery.
Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or
delay closing a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second)
delay would use a copper disk between the armature and moving
blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field
for a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to
a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with
fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be varied
by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a
mechanical clockwork timer is installed.

SERVO MOTOR
A servo motor can be either DC or AC, and is usually comprised of the drive
section and the resolver/encoder. A servomotor is much smoother in motion
than a comparable stepper, and will have a much higher resolution for

position control. The servo family is further divided into AC and DC types.
An AC servo had the advantage of being able to handle much higher current
surges than a DC, as the DC has brushes, which are the limiting factor in this
case. Therefore, for our practical considerations, you can get a lot stronger
AC servo motor than you could in DC or stepper configuration. Steppers, on
the other hand, have economy as an advantage, and can be incorporated into
a design to produce very smooth motion also. The trend for manufacturers of
serious CNC machinery is to use AC servos. Entry level machines may
have DC servos, or even steppers.

A resolver/encoder is a glass disc with very fine lines on it and an optical

encoder that counts those lines as it rotates with the motor. This information
is couple to the controller which tracks the counts, the rate that they go by,
and through a host of feedback loops, logic, and controlling the amplifiers,
produces the desired motion.

Stepper systems are often open loop which means that the controller only
tells the motors how many steps to move and how fast to move, but does not
have any way of knowing where they actually are. This can lead to errors,
should a situation arise where the motors are unable to comply with the
commanded move. This can be very obvious, where the motion stops and it

sounds like you stripped a gear, or subtle, where the motor only misses a
few steps. The result is the same - the controller thinks you are at X25.5,
Y15.5 and in reality you might be at X25.3, Y15.4. This can lead to a
cumulative error, which may in turn lead to crashes, not to mention out of
spec parts.
How the controller and amplifiers control the motors is a lengthy
subject with a lot of technical jargon.
You may already know this, but the type of controller and the amplifiers for
your DC steppers may not be compatible with servo drives. You should also
be aware of a host of other challenges with the tuning of the servos. With
steppers, all you really worry about is max speed and accel rate. With
servos, you will have to consider several different gains, as well as type of
feedback loop. Either velocity feedback or position feedback. Perhaps both.
When upgrading to servos, you will want to consider inertial matching, and
backlash. With the digital, do you have the split pinion to eliminate
backlash? If not, consider upgrading that as well, otherwise I suspect you
will have a dickens of a time keeping the servos from ringing or buzzing.
I hope that who-ever you are getting the servos from can help you with the
tuning. Tuning is something of an art form in itself. Stepper motors can lock
into a fixed position, while servomotors cannot. It's that simple. A servo will
compare the output (position converted to voltage) to the input (the desired

position converted to voltage) and make them the same by changing the
output. This is a balancing act. An opposing torque produced from this
balancing act will correct any external event that changes the position of the
motor. This correction takes time to settle. It will either be a slow position
correction or a series of overshoots that will oscillate back and forth until a
midpoint is found relatively quickly. Stepper motors have a
much higher holding torque and will remain in a fixed position until
overpowered. DC servomotors, however, have a higher torque *during
rotation* than steppers and a much higher RPM. To match a stepper motor's
holding torque, you would need an expensive high torque servomotor.
Deciding weather to use a servomotor or stepper motor is based on the
needed holding torque (steppers) versus torque while in motion (servo). And
don't forget that servomotors have a higher RPM. When a servo is sitting
still, that does not mean that it is not running. It may be running at 0 speed.
What this means is that you are constantly putting voltage and current in a
back and forth motion to maintain a stable position. A stepper though, also
uses electricity to sit still as one or more coils that brought the motor to this
position must be kept on consistently to sit "still." Now, the specifics about
accuracy and performance are all dependant upon your setup. You will use a
PID not unlike heat controllers. This is the "how do I get there from here"
thinking. It will be slow, but accurate and fast but risks overshoot. Then

there is stability at question. Some servos are famous for "buzzing" or

"chattering" at stand still - this is not necessary. This comes from the setup.
If you don't care about maintaining position while stopped however, then
this might not be an issue for you. The behavior while stopped is primarily
an issue when you must keep the motor active at 0 speed. One reason for this
is that you have multiple motors that are working with the same piece of
material, or that move machine components that could "crash" if not
controlled. Much of these control factors comes from the units that you buy.
The best controllers will be highly configurable. This way, you can set it up
however you want, putting emphasis on the most critical performance areas.
One last item is that yes, servos are much more complex and expensive.
However, by maintaining precise control over your motion, you can move
much faster. If you are precise, then you can allow your machine
components to get closer that would have previously been safe. Plus, then
you can send a component at high speed knowing that you can still stop it on
a dime, unlike the old days where you would slow down before your
destination to stop things precisely.

THEORITICAL ANALYSIS

Motor action
TO rotate the servos generate the following signals on the white pin of
you servo.

Servo Motor

TO rotate cw

To rotate CCW

IR SENSOR THEORY
The cheapest way to remotely control a device within a visible range is via
Infra-Red light. Almost all audio and video equipment can be controlled this

way nowadays. Due to this wide spread use the required components are
quite cheap, thus making it ideal for us hobbyists to use IR control for our
own projects.
This part of my knowledge base will explain the theory of operation of IR
remote control, and some of the protocols that are in use in consumer
electronics.
Infra-Red Light
Infra-Red actually is normal light with a particular color. We humans can't
see this color because its wave length of 950nm is below the visible
spectrum. That's one of the reasons why IR is chosen for remote control
purposes, we want to use it but we're not interested in seeing it. Another
reason is because IR LEDs are quite easy to make, and therefore can be very
cheap.
Although we humans can't see the Infra-Red light emitted from a remote
control doesn't

mean we can't

make it visible.

Figure 1 Infrared Sensor

A video camera or digital photo camera can "see" the Infra-Red light as you
can see in this picture. If you own a web cam you're in luck, point your
remote to it, press any button and you'll see the LED flicker.
Unfortunately for us there are many more sources of Infra-Red light. The
sun is the brightest source of all, but there are many others, like: light bulbs,
candles, central heating system, and even our body radiates Infra-Red light.
In fact everything that radiates heat, also radiates Infra-Red light.
Therefore we have to take some precautions to guarantee that our IR
message gets across to the receiver without errors.
Modulation
Modulation is the answer to make our signal stand out above the noise. With
modulation we make the IR light source blink in a particular frequency. The
IR receiver will be tuned to that frequency, so it can ignore everything else.
You can think of this blinking as attracting the receiver's attention. We
humans also notice the blinking of yellow lights at construction sites
instantly, even in bright daylight.

Fig 2 Modulated signal of IR LED

In the picture above you can see a modulated signal driving the IR LED of
the transmitter on the left side. The detected signal is coming out of the
receiver at the other side.
In serial communication we usually speak of 'marks' and 'spaces'. The 'space'
is the default signal, which is the off state in the transmitter case. No light is
emitted during the 'space' state. During the 'mark' state of the signal the IR
light is pulsed on and off at a particular frequency. Frequencies between
30kHz and 60kHz are commonly used in consumer electronics.
At the receiver side a 'space' is represented by a high level of the receiver's
output. A 'mark' is then automatically represented by a low level.
Please note that the 'marks' and 'spaces' are not the 1-s and 0-s we want to
transmit. The real relationship between the 'marks' and 'spaces' and the 1-s
and 0-s depends on the protocol that's being used. More information about
that can be found on the pages that describe the protocols.
The Transmitter
The transmitter usually is a battery powered handset. It should consume as
little power as possible, and the IR signal should also be as strong as
possible to achieve an acceptable control distance. Preferably it should be
shock proof as well.
Many chips are designed to be used as IR transmitters. The older chips were
dedicated to only one of the many protocols that were invented. Nowadays
very low power micro controllers are used in IR transmitters for the simple
reason that they are more flexible in their use. When no button is pressed
they are in a very low power sleep mode, in which hardly any current is

consumed. The processor wakes up to transmit the appropriate IR command

only when a key is pressed.
Quartz crystals are seldom used in such handsets. They are very fragile and
tend to break easily when the handset is dropped. Ceramic resonators are
much more suitable here, because they can withstand larger physical shocks.
The fact that they are a little less accurate is not important.
The current through the LED (or LEDs) can vary from 100mA to well over
1A! In order to get an acceptable control distance the LED currents have to
be as high as possible. A trade-off should be made between LED parameters,
battery lifetime and maximum control distance. LED currents can be that
high because the pulses driving the LEDs are very short. Average power
dissipation of the LED should not exceed the maximum value though. You
should also see to it that the maximum peek current for the LED is not
exceeded. All these parameters can be found in the LED's data sheet.
A simple transistor circuit can be used to drive the LED. A transistor with a
suitable HFE and switching speed should be selected for this purpose.
The resistor values can simply be calculated using Ohm's law. Remember
that the nominal voltage drop over an IR LED is approximately 1.1V.
The normal driver, described above, has one disadvantage. As the battery
voltage drops, the current through the LED will decrease as well. This will
result in a shorter control distance that can be covered.
An emitter follower circuit can avoid this. The 2 diodes in series will limit
the pulses on the base of the transistor to 1.2V. The base-emitter voltage of
the transistor subtracts 0.6V from that, resulting in a constant amplitude of
0.6V at the emitter. This constant amplitude across a constant resistor results
in current pulses of a constant magnitude. Calculating the current through
the LED is simply applying Ohm's law again.

The Receiver
Many different receiver circuits exist on the market. The most important
selection criteria are the modulation frequency used and the availability in
you region.

Fig 3 Typical block diagram of an IR receiver

Don't be alarmed if you don't understand this part of the description, for
everything is built into one single electronic component.
The received IR signal is picked up by the IR detection diode on the left side
of the diagram. This signal is amplified and limited by the first 2 stages. The
limiter acts as an AGC circuit to get a constant pulse level, regardless of the
distance to the handset.
As you can see only the AC signal is sent to the Band Pass Filter. The Band
Pass Filter is tuned to the modulation frequency of the handset unit.
Common frequencies range from 30kHz to 60kHz in consumer electronics.
The next stages are a detector, integrator and comparator. The purpose of
these three blocks is to detect the presence of the modulation frequency. If
this modulation frequency is present the output of the comparator will be
pulled low.
All these blocks are integrated into a single electronic component. There are
many different manufacturers of these components on the market. And most
devices are available in several versions each of which are tuned to a
particular modulation frequency.

Please note that the amplifier is set to a very high gain. Therefore the system
tends to start oscillating very easily. Placing a large capacitor of at least
22F close to the receiver's power connections is mandatory to decouple the
power lines. Some data sheets recommend a resistor of 330 Ohms in series
with the power supply to further decouple the power supply from the rest of
the circuit.
There are several manufacturers of IR receivers on the market. Siemens,
Vishay and Telefunken are the main suppliers here in Europe. Siemens has
its SFH506-xx series, where xx denotes the modulation frequency of 30, 33,
36, 38, 40 or 56kHz. Telefunken had its TFMS5xx0 and TK18xx series,
where xx again indicates the modulation frequency the device is tuned to. It
appears that these parts have now become obsolete. They are replaced by the
Vishay TSOP12xx, TSOP48xx and TSOP62xx product series.
Sharp, Xiamen Hualian and Japanese Electric are 3 Asian IR receiver
producing companies. Sharp has devices with very cryptic ID names, like:
GP1UD26xK, GP1UD27xK and GP1UD28xK, where x is related to the
modulation frequency. Hauling has its HRMxx00 series, like the HRM3700
and HRM3800. Japanese Electric has a series of devices that don't include
the modulation frequency in the part's ID. The PIC-12042LM is tuned to
36.7kHz, and the PIC12043LM is tuned to 37.9kHz.

BATTERIES
Electricity, as you probably already know, is the flow of electrons
through a conductive path like a wire. This path is called a circuit. Batteries
have three parts, an anode (-), a cathode (+), and the electrolyte.

The cathode and anode (the positive and negative sides at either end of a
traditional battery) are hooked up to an electrical circuit.
The chemical reactions in the battery causes a buildup of electrons at
the anode. This results in an electrical difference between the anode and the
cathode. You can think of this difference as an unstable build-up of the
electrons. The electrons wants to rearrange themselves to get rid of this
difference. But they do this in a certain way. Electrons repel each other and
try to go to a place with fewer electrons.
In a battery, the only place to go is to the cathode. But, the electrolyte
keeps the electrons from going straight from the anode to the cathode within
the battery. When the circuit is closed (a wire connects the cathode and the
anode) the electrons will be able to get to the cathode. In the picture above,
the electrons go through the wire, lighting the light bulb along the way. This
is one way of describing how electrical potential causes electrons to flow
through the circuit.
However, these electrochemical processes change the chemicals in
anode and cathode to make them stop supplying electrons. So there is a
limited amount of power available in a battery.
When you recharge a battery, you change the direction of the flow of
electrons using another power source, such as solar panels. The
electrochemical processes happen in reverse, and the anode and cathode are
restored to their original state and can again provide full power.

FIG 6.11: BATTERY

Bibliography

Fundamentals Of Micro processors and

Micro computers
-B.Ram
Micro processor Architecture, Programming
& Applications
-Ramesh S.Gaonkar
Electronic Components
-D.V.Prasad
Wireless Communications
- Theodore S. Rappaport
Mobile Tele Communications
- William C.Y. Lee
References on the Web:
www.national.com
www.nxp.com
www.8052.com
www.microsoftsearch.com
www.geocities.com