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Submitted By
Name: SIDDHANT SRIVASTAVA
University Roll No. 139109300
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank Prof. R.A. Dubey and Dr. Ashok K. Sharma for giving me this
opportunity to work on this topic.
I would also like to thank Dr. Anand Pandey and Manipal university Jaipur for giving me
the opportunity to take up this work as my college curriculum.
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the Industrial Training Report entitled " ANALYSIS OF WING DESIGN
AND EFFECT OF ANGLE OF ATTACK DURING THE TAKE-OFF OF NORMAL AIR
PASSENGER FLIGHTS" is an authentic record of my own work as requirements of
Industrial Training during the period from _______ to_______ for the award of degree of
B.Tech. (Mechanical Engineering), MANIPAL UNIVERSITY, Jaipur, Rajasthan, under the
guidance of (Name of Project Guide).
(Signature of student)
(SIDDHANT SRIVASTAVA)
(139109300)
Date: ____________________
Certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of our knowledge
and belief.
Head of Department
(Signature and Seal)
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List of content
1) Introduction
2) Aerodynamics:
3) Basic principle, Computational Fluid Dynamics:
4) Finite volume analysis
5) Conservation laws
6) Turbulent flow
7) Reynolds number
8) Airfoil
9) Airfoil terminology
10)
Lift
11)
12)
Analytical setup
13)
Objective
14)
Assumptions
15)
Procedure
16)
Mesh
17)
Observations
18)
Conclusion
List of figures:
Fig.1:forces acting on an airfoil
Fig.2:types of air foils
Fig.3:Airfoil nomenclature
Fig.4:Different definitions of airfoil thickness
Fig.5:An airfoil designed for winglets(PSU 90-125WL)
Fig.6: design of airfoil
Fig.7: Boundary conditions
Fig.8:Mesh applied
Fig.9: mesh sizing
Fig.10: mesh statistics
fig.11, 13, 16, 20, 24, 28: pressure contours
fig12, 15, 19, 23, 27, 31: velocity contour in Y direction
Fig.14, 17, 21, 25, 29: velocity vector diagram
Fig.18: initiation of stalling
Fig.22: development of stalling
Fig.26, 30: stalling effect
Fig.32: ideal dependence of coefficient of lift with angle of attack
Introduction
This project will deal with the basic concepts of aerodynamics, computational fluid dynamics
and design engineering. During the following pages I will be analyzing the effect of attack
angle on the take-off of a regular flight.
Aerodynamics:
Aerodynamics is a branch of fluid dynamics concerned with studying the motion of air,
particularly when it interacts with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. Aerodynamics is a
sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are
common to these fields. The term aerodynamicsis often used synonymously with gas dynamics,
with the difference being that "gas dynamics" applies to the study of the motion of all gases, not
limited to air. Formal aerodynamics study in the modern sense began in the eighteenth century,
although observations of fundamental concepts such as aerodynamic drag have been recorded
much earlier.
aerodynamics has focused on issues related to compressible flow, turbulence, and boundary
layers and has become increasingly computational in nature.
Understanding the motion of air around an object (often called a flow field) enables the
calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. In many aerodynamics problems, the
forces of interest are the fundamental forces of flight: lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Of these, lift
and drag are aerodynamic forces, i.e. forces due to air flow over a solid body. Calculation of
these quantities is often founded upon the assumption that the flow field behaves as a
continuum.
Continuum flow
fields
are
characterized by properties
such as flow
velocity,pressure, density, and temperature, which may be functions of spatial position and
time. These properties may be directly or indirectly measured in aerodynamics experiments or
calculated from equations for the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy in air flows.
Density, flow velocity, and an additional property, viscosity, are used to classify flow fields.
(Ku) = f in ,
element methods based on the discretization of the weak formulation and finite difference
methods based on the classic formulation. We shall now present finite volume methods based
on the following balance equation
b (Ku) n ds = b f.dx, b ,
(2)
where n denotes the unit outwards normal vector of b. Finite volume methods are
discretizations of the balance equation (2). The discretization consists of three approximations:
(1) approximate the function u by uh in a N-dimensional space V;
(2) approximate arbitrary domain b by a finite subset B = {bi , i = 1 : M};
(3) approximate boundary flux (Ku) n on bi by a discrete one (Khuh) n.
We then end with a method: to find uh V such that:
bi (Khuh)n dS = bi f dx, bi, i = 1:M.
(3)
We call any method in the form (3) finite volume methods (FVMs). Since finite volume
methods discretize the balance equation (2) directly, an obvious virtue of finite volume methods
is the conservation property comparing with finite element methods based on the weak
formulation. This property can be fundamental for the simulation of many physical models,
e.g., in oil recovery simulations and in computational fluid dynamics in general.
On the other hand, the function space and the control volume can be constructed based on
general unstructured triangulations for complex geometry domains. The boundary condition
can be easily built into the function space or the variational form. Thus FVM is more flexible
than standard finite difference methods which mainly defined on the structured grids of simple
domains.
Conservation laws
Aerodynamic problems are typically solved using fluid dynamics conservation laws as applied
to a fluid continuum. Three conservation principles are used:
1. Conservation of mass: In fluid dynamics, the mathematical formulation of this
principle is known as the mass continuity equation, which requires that mass is neither
created nor destroyed within a flow of interest.
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Turbulent flow
Flow descriptions such as Poiseuille's law are valid only for conditions of laminar flow. At
some critical velocity, the flow will become turbulent with the formation of eddies and chaotic
motion which do not contribute to the volume flowrate. This turbulence increases the resistance
dramatically so that large increases in pressure will be required to further increase the volume
flowrate. Experimental studies have characterized the critical velocity for a long straight tube in
the form
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which depends upon the viscosity in poise, the density in gm/cm3 , the radius of the tube r
in cm. The script R is an experimental constant called the Reynold's number. The reported
Reynolds number for blood flow is about 2000. Modeling blood flow in the
human aorta according to this criterion leads to the expectation of some turbulence in the center
of the flow.
Reynolds number
The Reynolds number is an experimental number used in fluid flow to predict the flow
velocity at which turbulence will occur. It is described as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous
forces. For flow through a tube it is defined by the relationship: The parameters are viscosity ,
density and radius r.
Airfoil
An airfoil (in American English) or aerofoil (in British English) is the shape of a wing, blade
(of a propeller, rotor, or turbine), or sail (as seen in cross-section).
An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force. The component
of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to
the direction of motion is called drag. Subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a
rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with a symmetric curvature of
upper and lower surfaces. Foils of similar function designed with water as the working fluid are
called hydrofoils.
The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack and shape. When oriented at a
suitable angle, the airfoil deflects the oncoming air (for fixed-wing aircraft, a downward force),
resulting in a force on the airfoil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force is known
as aerodynamic force and can be resolved into two components: lift and drag. Most foil shapes
require a positive angle of attack to generate lift, but cambered airfoils can generate lift at zero
angle of attack. This "turning" of the air in the vicinity of the airfoil creates curved streamlines,
resulting in lower pressure on one side and higher pressure on the other. This pressure
difference is accompanied by a velocity difference, via Bernoulli's principle, so the resulting
flow field about the airfoil has a higher average velocity on the upper surface than on the lower
surface.
11
Airfoil terminology
Fig.3:Airfoil nomenclature
12
The suction surface (a.k.a. upper surface) is generally associated with higher velocity
and lower static pressure.
The pressure surface (a.k.a. lower surface) has a comparatively higher static pressure
than the suction surface. The pressure gradient between these two surfaces contributes
to the lift force generated for a given airfoil.
The leading edge is the point at the front of the airfoil that has maximum curvature
(minimum radius).
The trailing edge is defined similarly as the point of minimum curvature at the rear of
the airfoil.
The chord line is the straight line connecting leading and trailing edges. The chord
length, or simply chord, , is the length of the chord line. That is the reference
dimension of the airfoil section.
13
The shape of the airfoil is defined using the following geometrical parameters:
The mean camber line or mean line is the locus of points midway between the upper
and lower surfaces. Its shape depends on the thickness distribution along the chord;
The thickness of an airfoil varies along the chord. It may be measured in either of two
ways:
Some important parameters to describe an airfoil's shape are its camber and its thickness. For
example, an airfoil of the NACA 4-digit series such as the NACA 2415 (to be read as 2 - 4 15) describes an airfoil with a camber of 0.02 chord located at 0.40 chord, with 0.15 chord of
maximum thickness.
Finally, important concepts used to describe the airfoil's behavior when moving through a fluid
are:
The aerodynamic center, which is the chord-wise length about which the pitching
moment is independent of the lift coefficient and the angle of attack.
The center of pressure, which is the chord-wise location about which the pitching
moment is zero.
Lift
Lift is the component of this force that is perpendicular to theoncoming flow direction. It
contrasts with the drag force, which is the component of the surface force parallel to the flow
direction. If the fluid is air, the force is called an aerodynamic force.
Lift is most commonly associated with the wing of a fixed-wing aircraft, although lift is also
generated
by propellers, kites,
helicopter
racing cars, wind
turbines, and other streamlined objects. Lift is also exploited in the animal world, and even in
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the plant world by the seeds of certain trees. While the common meaning of the word "lift"
assumes that lift opposes weight, lift in the technical sense used in this article can be in any
direction with respect to gravity, since it is defined with respect to the direction of flow rather
than to the direction of gravity. When an aircraft is flying straight and level (cruise) most of the
lift opposes gravity. However, when an aircraft is climbing, descending, or banking in a turn the
lift is tilted with respect to the vertical. Lift may also be entirely downwards in some aerobatic
manoeuvres, or on the wing on a racing car. In this last case, the term downforce is often used.
Lift may also be largely horizontal, for instance on a sail on a sailboat.
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The constants a0 to a4 are for a 20% thick airfoil. The expression T/0.2 adjusts the
constants to the required thickness.
At the trailing edge (x=1) there is a finite thickness of 0.0021 chord width for a 20%
airfoil. If a closed trailing edge is required the value of a4 can be adjusted.
The value of yt is a half thickness and needs to be applied both sides of the camber line.
Using the equations above, for a given value of x it is possible to calculate the camber line
position Yc, the gradient of the camber line and the thickness. The position of the upper and
lower surface can then be calculated perpendicular to the camber line.
The most obvious way to to plot the airfoil is to iterate through equally spaced values of x
calclating the upper and lower surface coordinates. While this works, the points are more
widely spaced around the leading edge where the curvature is greatest and flat sections can be
seen on the plots. To group the points at the ends of the airfoil sections a cosine spacing is used
with uniform increments of
(0.4/0.2)*(((0.2969*((x/8)0.5))-(0.126*(x/8))-(0.3537*((x/8)2))+(0.2843*((x/8)3))(0.1015*((x/8)4))))
[lower side]
Software used
MATLAB
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SolidWorks
Ansys Fluent
Analytical setup
NACA 4-Digit equation used
The equations can be converted and be used in the form:
=>(0.8/0.2)*(((0.2969*((x/8)0.5))-(0.126*(x/8))-(0.3537*((x/8)2))+(0.2843*((x/8)3))(0.1015*((x/8)4))))
=>(0.4/0.2)*(((0.2969*((x/8)0.5))-(0.126*(x/8))-(0.3537*((x/8)2))+(0.2843*((x/8)3))(0.1015*((x/8)4))))
[lower side]
Boundary conditions
According to the real conditions for take off, the maximum velocity needed by the flight is
475km/hr(131m/s)
The air behind the plane is 1atm.
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Material
The material of the wing is selected as an alloy of steel and aluminum. Aluminum (blended
with small quantities of other metals) is used on most types of aircraft because it is
lightweight and strong. Aluminum alloys dont corrode as readily as steel. But because they
lose their strength at high temperatures, they cannot be used for skin surfaces that become
very hot on airplanes that fly faster than twice the speed of sound.
Objective
To analyze the effect of the attack angle on the lift produced on the wing of a regular jetliner
(boeing737).
Assumptions
Temperature is 15c
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Procedure
1) Started MATLAB
2) Substituted values
3) Reduced the equation for NACA 4-digit airfoil
4) Opened Solid works
5) Selected front plane and selected the Spline with equations.
6) Substituted the equations from MATLAB in Solid Works.
7) Saved the file in .IGES format
8) Opened ANSYS Fluent, imported the geometry, applied mesh, boundary conditions,
solved the result.
9) Changed the attack angle and repeated the process.
Mesh
Fig.8:Mesh applied
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Observations
1) 0 degree
20
21
2) 5
Fig.13:
degree
pressure
contour
22
Fig.14:
velocity
vectors
23
3) 10 degree
24
Fig.16:
pressure
contours
25
Fig.17:
velocity
vectors
26
Fig.18:
initiation
of
stalling
27
4) 15 degree
28
Fig.20:
pressure
contours
29
Fig.21:
velocity
vectors
30
Fig.22:
development
of
stalling
31
5) 20 degree
32
Fig.24:
pressure
contour
33
Fig.25:
velocity
vector
diagram
34
Fig.26:
stalling
effect
35
6) 25 degree
36
Fig.28:
pressure
contour
37
Fig.29:
velocity
vector
diagram
38
Fig,30:
stalling
effect
39
Sr.
Attack
no. angle
Initial
Pressure
Maximum
Lift
Lift force
velocity
difference
Velocity(In
coefficient
(N)
(Pa)
Y Direction) (C )
L
131m/s
13.2103Pa
58.4m/s
0.045307
5105
131m/s
11.44103Pa
137.2m/s
0.26017
2.9106
10
131m/s
65.2103Pa
254.6m/s
0.73099
8106
15
131m/s
52.2103Pa
238.4m/s
1.5688
1.7107
20
131m/s
39.6103Pa
165.7m/s
2.0455
2.26107
25
131m/s
44.3103Pa
211.8m/s
1.445
1.5107
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Table_1:
dependence
lift
coeff.
And
force
with
angle
Conclusion
By the results we can see that the angle of attack between 15-20 degrees results in the
highest amount of lift force.
After 20 degrees the force starts decreasing due to multiple reasons including increased
impact pressure, increased drag force and initiation of stall.
No matter how smooth the surface of an airfoil seems, any real surface is rough on the
scale of air molecules. Air molecules flying into the surface bounce off the rough
surface in random directions not related to their incoming directions. The result is that
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when the air is viewed as if it were a continuous material, it is seen to be unable to slide
along the surface, and the air's tangential velocity at the surface goes to practically zero,
something known as the no-slip condition. Because the air at the surface has near-zero
velocity, and air away from the surface is moving, there is a thin boundary layer in
which the air close to the surface is subjected to a shearing motion. The
air's viscosity resists the shearing, giving rise to a shear stress at the airfoil's surface
called skin-friction drag. Over most of the surface of most airfoils, the boundary layer is
and the viscosity-related pressure drag is usually called the profile drag.
The maximum lift an airfoil can produce at a given airspeed is limited by boundarylayer separation. As the angle of attack is increased, a point is reached where the
boundary layer can no longer remain attached to the upper surface. When the boundary
layer separates, it leaves a region of recirculating flow above the upper surface, as
illustrated in the flow-visualization photo at right. This is known as the stall, or stalling.
At angles of attack above the stall, lift is significantly reduced, though it is not zero. The
maximum lift that can be achieved before stall, in terms of the lift coefficient, is
generally less than 2.0 for single-element airfoils and can be more than 3.0 for airfoils
with high-lift slotted flaps deployed.
References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamics
http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=12117
http://www.mathematik.uni-dortmund.de/~kuzmin/cfdintro/lecture1.pdf
http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/computational-fluid-dynamics-CFD
http://www.mathematik.uni-dortmund.de/~kuzmin/cfdintro/lecture5.pdf
https://www.comsol.co.in/multiphysics/navier-stokes-equations
http://web.iitd.ac.in/~prabal/FVM_lecturenotes-5.pdf
http://www.math.uci.edu/~chenlong/226/FVM.pdf
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pturb.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfoil
http://mail.tku.edu.tw/095980/airfoil%20design.pdf
http://airfoiltools.com/airfoil/naca4digit
http://howthingsfly.si.edu/structures-materials/materials
http://www.ajdesigner.com/phpwinglift/wing_lift_equation_coefficient.php
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/WindTunnel/Activities/lift_formula.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lift_(force)
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/liftco.html
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