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Department of Civil Engineering

CE 6301 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY


UNIT I
PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
1. Write short notes on Marcalli Scale.
The intensity of earthquake can be measured with the help of Mercali scale.
Their
measurements are expressed for degree of vibration.
2. Define Plate Tectonics.
Plate Tectonics is based primarily due to seismic and geomagnetic activities. In
this concept, the upper part of the earth up to a depth of 100 km is actually divided
into seven to ten major blocks called plates.
3. Write notes on Fluvial Glacial drift.
This is also called Stratified Drift. In this accumulation, Melts water plays a
prominent part in their deposition. These deposition exhibit a definite sorting
according to grain size of the particles like stream deposits.
4. Define weathering. Name the different types of weathering.
The term weathering means, the process of physical is breaking up (ie,
Disintegration) and chemical rolling up (ie, Decomposition) of rock occurring
simultaneously.
5. Define Continental Drift.
Accumulation of glacial debris directly from glacial melt waters are collectively
called continental drift.
6. Write short notes on Moraines.
Moraines may be defined as accumulation of glacial debris (fragments of rocks,
sand) that are found either on the base of an existing glacier or at various places along
a glacial valley. These material are mostly unasserted and forms a till types deposit.
7. Define Physical Geology.
It deals with various process of physical agent, such as Wind, Running water,
Glaciers and Sea water.
8. Define Structural Geology.
It deals with arrangement or architecture of rocks. It also includes the factors
like
folds, faults and joints.
9. Define Field Geology.
It deals with study of rocks along with their structural behaviour and
mineralogical composition in the field.

10. What is meant by physical weathering?


Disintegration of physical breaking up of the rocks is called physical
weathering.
The main agents involved of wind, Running water and glaciers .It is most active in
cold, Dry and higher area of earth surface.
11. Explain deflection in erosion in wind.
In this process, lose particles are removed by flowing winds. The blowing wind
lift up the loose, Dry and incoherent rock particles, except hard and compact masses,
which remains in their original position.
12. What are the factors depends on the intensity of running water.
Velocity of the water, Nature of the soil over with the water runs , Load conditions
of the rainy water.
13. Define divergent movement.
The boundaries of two adjoining large plates move away from each other there
by
creating a gap through this gap the hot lava comes out.
14. Define convergent movement.
The boundaries of two large plates move towards each other plate and push the
latter upwards in from of the mountain.
15. What are the factors depends on the intensity of wind erosion.
Nature of region over which the wind flow, Velocity of the wind.
16. Define till.
It is also called unstratified drift and its most common from of glacial deposit.
The
dense deposited till thoroughly compacted is known as tillite.

17. What are the types of moraines.


Lateral moraines, Mediam moraines,end moraines,Grand moraines,Drammlins.
18. Define aquifier.
It is defined as a rock mats, a layer or formation which is saturated with ground
water and yielding the stored water at economical costs when tapped. The quality is
depend on the amount of water bearing capacity rate of yield gravels etc.

UNIT- 2
MINERALOGY
1. Define crystallography.
Crystallography is that branch of science which deals with all the aspects of
crystals that is their formation from the melts their internal structure and their external
shape or morphology.
2. Explain Interfacial angle.
There are always a number of faces on a crystal. The angle at which any two
adjacent faces are placed on the crystal with respect to each other is called an
interfacial angle.
3. What is mean by element symmetry?
Symmetry is a property of fundamental importance for a crystal. It can be
studied
with reference to three different characters, commonly called element of symmetry.
4. Write note on a plane of symmetry.
Any imaginary plane passing through the centre of a crystal in such a way that it
divides the crystal in two exactly similar halves is called a plane of symmetry.
5. Write notes on a plane of symmetry.
It is defined as an imaginary line in a crystal passing through its centre in such a
way that when a crystal is given a complete rotation along this line a certain crystal
face comes to occupy the same position at least twice.
6. Write notes on a center of symmetry.
A crystal is said passes a centre of symmetry if an passing on imaginary line
from
some definite face, edge or corner on one side of the crystal through its center, another
exactly similar face or edge or corner is found on the other side at an equal distance
from
the center.
7. What are the types of forms?
Holohedral form, hemihedral form, hemimorphic form, enantiomorphic form,
fundamental form, open and closed form.
8. Name the physical properties of minerals?
Colour, lusture, Streak, Harness, Cleavage, Parting, Fracture, Tenacity,
Structure,
Specific gravity, form, Miscellaneous.
9. What is mean by luster?
It is defined as the shine of a mineral. It is technically defined as the intensity of

reflection of light from the mineral surface and depends at least on three factors.
10. What is mean by Streak?
It is an important and diagnostic property of many colored minerals. It is defined
as the co lour of the finely powdered mineral as obtained by scratching or rubbing the
mineral over a rough unglazed porcelain plate. The plate is often named as streak in a
geology laboratory.
11. What is mean by luster?
It is defined as the resistance which a mineral offers to an external deformation
action as scratching, abrasion, rubbing or indentation.
12. What is mean by Cleavage?
It is defined as the tendency of a crystallized mineral to break along certain
definite direction yielding more or less smooth, plane surfaces.
13. What is mean by Fracture?
The appearance of broken surface of a mineral in a direction other than that of
cleavage is generally expressed by the term fracture.

UNIT 3
PETROLOGY
1. Define Igneous Rocks?
All rocks that have formed from an original hot, molten material through the
process of cooling and crystallization may be defined as Igneous Rocks.
2. Explain about Hypabyssal Rocks?
These Igneous Rocks are formed at Intermediate depths, generally up to 2 Km,
below the surface of earth and exhibit mixed characteristics of volcanic and plutonic
rocks. Porphyries of various compositions are example of Hypabyssal Rocks.
3. Define Texture of Igneous Rocks?
The term texture has been defined as the mutual relationship of different
mineralogical constituents in a rock. It is determine by size, shape and arrangement of
these constituents within the body of rock.
4. What are the factors Explaining Texture?
a) Degree of Crystallization
Holocrystalline, Holohyaline.
b) Granularity
Coarse grained, Medium grained, Fine grained.
c) Fabric
Panidiomorphi, Allotrimorphic, Hypidiomorphic.
5. Define Equigranular and Inequigranular Texture?
All those textures in which majority of constituent crystals of rock are broadly
equal in size are described as equigranular textures.
All those textures in which majority of constituent minerals show marked
difference in their relative grain size are grouped as inequigranular textures.
6. Define Structure of Igneous Rocks?
Those feature of Igneous Rocks that are developed on a large scale in the body
of
an extraction or instruction giving rise conspicuous shapes or forms are included
under the term structures. They may be so well developed as to be recognized easily
on visual inspection or they become apparent only when this section of such rocks is
examined under microscope. In latter case they are termed microstructure.
7. What are the numbers of factor depending on Igneous Rocks?
a) The structural deposition of the host rock (also called country rock).
b) The viscosity of the magma or lava.
c) The composition of the magma or lava.
d) The environment in which injection of magma or eruption of lava place.

8. Define Volcanic Necks?


In some cases, vents of quiet volcanoes have become sealed with the intrusion,
such instruction are termed volcanic Necks or Volcanic Plugs. These masses may be
circular, semicircular or irregular and show considerable variation in their diameter.
9. Define Sedimentary Rocks?
Sedimentary are also called secondary Rocks. This group includes a wide
variety
of rocks formed by accumulation, compaction and consolidation of sediments; particles
are remaining of organisms in suitable environment under ordinary condition of
temperature and pressure.
10. What are the Structures Sedimentary Rocks?
a) Mechanical Structures
Stratification, Lamination, Cross Bedding, Graded Bedding, Mud Cracks, Rain
Prints, Ripple Marks.
b) Chemical Structure
Concretionary Structure, Oolitic and Pisolitic Structures, Nodular Structure,
Geode Structure.
c) Organic Structures.
11. What is the Classification of Sedimentary Rocks?
a) Clastic Rocks
Gravels
Boulders, Cobbles, Pebbles.
Sands
Coarse Sands, Medium Sands, Fine Sands
Silts
Clays
Rudites, Arenites, Lutites.
b) Non Clastic Rocks
Chemically formed rocks
Siliceous Deposits, Carbonate Deposits, Ferruginous Deposits, Phosphatic
Deposits, Evaporties.
Organic Deposits
c) Miscellaneous Deposits.
12. Explain metamorphic changes.
All the changes in the body of rocks that are due to variations in the factors of
pressure, temperature and chemical environment are know the metamorphic changes
and

the process itself is termed metamorphism.


13. What are the kinds of Metamorphism?
Three major kinds of Metamorphism differentiated on the basis of dominant
factors are thermal metamorphism, dynamic metamorphism and Dynamo thermal
metamorphism
14. Define Metamorphism?
It is defined as a metamorphic process involving formation of new minerals by
the mechanism of chemical replacement of the pre-existing minerals, chiefly under the
influence of chemically active fluids.
15. What is the factor which depends on the effects of Metamorphism?
a) The types of rocks involved in the process
b) The kind of metamorphism that is predominant in the process.
16. Define Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are defined as those rocks in which have formed through the
operation of various types of Metamorphism processes on the pre-existing rocks
involving either textural or structural changes or changes in mineralogical composition
or
reconstitution in the both the directions.
17. Define Slate?
Slate is an extremely fine grained metamorphic rocks characterized by a slaty
cleavage by virtue of which it can be split in to thin sheets parallel smooth surfaces,
The
slaty cleavage is due to parallel arrangement of platy and flaky operating during the
process of metamorphism
18. Define Schist?
Schist is megascopically crystalline metamorphic rocks characterized by typical
schistose structure. The constituent platy and Flaky minerals are mostly arranged in
irregular parallel layers or bands.
19. Define Granites?
Granite may be defined as plutonic light colored igneous rocks. These are
among
the most common igneous rocks. The word Granite is derived from Latin word granum
meaning a grain and abriously refers to the equigranular texture of the rocks.

UNIT 4
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
1. Define Dip?
The inclination of the bedding planes, with the horizontal, is called dip and is
always expressed in degrees.
2. Explain true dip?
It is the maximum inclination of bedding planes with the horizontal, or in other
wards it is the inclination of the direction of which water would flow, if poured on the
upper surface of the bed.
3. Explain apparent dip?
The inclination of the bedding planes, with the horizontal, in any other direction,
other than the direction of the true dip, is know as the apparent dip. The value of
apparent
dip is always less than the true dip.
4. Define strike?
It is the direction, measured on a Horizontal surface, of a line formed by the
intersection of dipping bed with the horizontal plan. It is always expressed in terms of
main direction ie, is North, South, East or West.
5. What is mean by folds?
The earths crust is tilted out of the horizontal and is bent into folds. Such a fold
may ranges from a microscopic crinkle to great arches and troughs even up to 100 kms
across. A set of such arches and troughs is called a fold.
6. What is mean by Anticline and Syncline?
When the beds are unfolded in an arch-like structure, it is called an anticline.
When the beds are down folded in trough like structure, it is called a Syncline. It may
be noted that in an anticline the oldest rock is in the centre, where as in a syncline the
youngest rocks is in the centre.
7. Explain Causes of folding?
The interior of the earth is getting cooler and cooler day by day, which is sure to
cause some shrinkage in the earths crust. This stink age is responsible for the
compressive and shearing stress to be developed within the earths crust. Some time
these
stresses are small in magnitudes but go on exerting pressure for a sufficient length of
time
and result in buckling or folding of the layers of the earths crust.
8. What are types of folds?

a) Symmetrical fold
b) Asymmetrical fold
c) Overturned fold
d) Isoclinal fold
e) Recumbent fold
9. Define Faults?
Faults are fractures, along which the movement of one block with respect to
other,
has taken place. This movement may vary from a few centimeters to many kilometers
depending upon the magnitude of the stresses, and the resistance offered by the rocks.
10. Explain the Causes of Faulting?
The interior of the earth becoming cooler day by day, which is sure to cause
some
shrinkage in the earths crust. This stink age is responsible for the stress to be
developed
within the earths crust. These stresses, when greater in magnitudes exert so much
pressure that the layers of the earths crust are fold due to compressive stresses and after
wards when the stresses are released, fractures are formed. If the stresses still continue,
the blocks move up or down along the fault plane depending upon the direction of
stresses and their intensity. Such a fracture, along which a movement has taken place,
is
called a fault.
11. What are the classifications of faults?
Faults are classified on the basis of their apparent displacement, ie, the direction
of
movement, of one block, with respect to the other along the fault plane.
12. What are the criteria for the recognition of a fault?
1) Discontinuity of strata
2) Repetition and omission of strata
3) Physiographic features
4) General.
13. What is mean by Joints?
When sufficient tensile stress in developed between two successive points, a
crack is developed at right angle to the direction of the stress, such cracks are called
joints.
14. What is mean by Master joints?

The joints always occur in sets and groups. A set of joints means, joint occurring
in the same dip or strike. A group of joints means a few sets of joints having almost the
same trend. If a few sets or groups of joints appear for a considerable length in a rock,
such joints are called major joints or master joints.
15. Define out crop?
A little consideration will show that the out crop of a rock is affected by the
angle of dip also. If a rock has a vertical dip then the outcrop will be less, than that
when the same rock is dipping at some angles.
16. What are the different forms of out crops?
a) Out lier
b) In lier
c) Unconformity
d) Overlap
e) Cross bedding.
17. Define over lap?
An over lap is particular type of an unconformity, in which the overlying strata
extends so as to over lap the underlying strata.
18. Define cross bedding?
Sedimentary beds or layers are generally parallel to one another. But,
sometimes, it has been observed that the beds lie slightly oblique to the major bedding
planes.
19. What are the classifications of joints?
a) Geometrical classification
Stricke joints, Dip joints, Oblique joints
b) Genetic classification
Tension joints, shear joints
20. What are the methods of Geophysical Exploration?
Depending upon the type of energy field used, the following methods may be
used. Seismic method, Electrical method, Gravitational method, Magnetic method,
Radiometric method, Geothermal method.

UNIT-5
APPLICATION OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
1. Define remote sensing.
Every object on earth emits its own internal energy according to its molecular
and
atomic structure, in addition to reflecting sun light during the day time. This radiations
can be registered by sensors in several wavelengths, including those in the infrared and
microwave regions of the spectrum. When such sensors are installed on aircrafts or on
satellites they can record the earths objects from for off distances. Such distant
(Remote)
acquisition of information about the objects on the earths surface is known as remote
sensing.
2. What is meant by aerial photography & Imageries.
The photographs of the earth taken from aircrafts are called the aerial
photographs,
while the pictures taken from the satellites are called the imageries.
3. Define aerial photographs.
Aerial photographs of the region are taken by cameras placed in the aircrafts.
Aerial photos give three dimension of the photographed area. These photos contain a
detailed record of the ground at the time exposure.
4. Define satellite imageries.
The satellite imageries can either be read manually like aerial photographs, or
with
the help of computers.
5. What is meant by geographic information system?
The modern computers can process maps and data with suitable computer
programmer. The process of integrating and analyzing various types of data with the
help
of computer is known as geographic information system.
6. What are applications of remote sensing?
General geological mapping, mineral prospecting, petroleum exploration, ground
water exploration, engineering .uses of site rocks, disaster studies, coastal geological
studies.
7. What are geological considerations involved in the construction of buildings.
Basic requirements of a building foundation, building foundation on soils,
building

foundation carried to the deep hard rocks, building founded on surface bed rocks, types
of
settlement in buildings.
8. What are the characteristics of air photos?
Shape and size, flight and photo data, scale.
9. What are the kinds of air photos?
Vertical air photos, oblique air photos, anusaics, photostrips, stereoprain.
10. Define stereo meter
The instrument is used under a mirror stereoscope for measuring heights and
areas of
objects from air photos.
11. What is mean by measuring dots?
A stereo meter consists of two small Trans parent glass or platic plates attached
to along metallic bar. A clear dot is etched on earth of the paltes called measuring
dots.
12. Define land slide.
A land slide is a slow or sudden down hill movement of slope forming rock and
soil materials under the force of gravity.
13. Places in which land slide occur.
They occur in hill valley slopes, sea coasts, river banks and bends, on the slopes
of volcanic cones and in earth quake prone areas. They also occur under water as on
lake or sea floor.
14. What are the classifications of land slides?
Presence or absence of a definite slip plane, materials involved and their water
content, kind and rate of movement.
15. What are the parts of atypical slides
Crown, scrap, head, slip plane, flanks, transverse ridges, fool, toe, length, width,
height, depth.
16. What are the types of land slides?
(1) Slides:
Translational, Rotational
(2) Falls
(3) Flows
Slow, Soil creep, Rock creep
(4) Complex slides.
17. What are the characteristics of land slide?

1, Steep scraps in their upper parts and irregular ridges and furrows at lower
parts.
2, Land slides vary in extent from several square meters to several kilometers. It
is
thickness may several meters.
3, Land slide velocities ranges from very small movement to more than 100
km/h.
18. What are the causes of land sides?
a) Natural causes.
1, Internal factors.
2, External factors.
b) Man induced causes.
19. What are the Geological considerations involved in Road cutting?
a. Topography
b. Lithological characters
c. Structural features of the rocks
d. Ground water conditions
20. What are the structural features of tunnel sites?
a. Dip and strike
b. Folds
c. Faults
d. Joints.

CE6301 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY


16 MARKS
UNIT 1

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
1. DESCRIBE THE EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
The shell of the increasing density are found towards the centre of the earth is 80g/cc.
Each shell is formed off different materials on the basics of seismic investigation the earth
interior has been broadly divided into three major parts,

Crust

Mantle

Core

It inferred that
A. The crust, mantle, core are separated by two sharp breaks known as major
discontinuities.
B. The crust is having an average thickness of about 33kms.
C. The crust composed of heterogeneous materials.
D. The mantle extends from below the crust to a depth of 2900kms
E. The core extends from the below the mantle upto the centre of the earth is 6371kms
Crust
Upper most shell of the earth is crust. The thickness ranges from organic 60 to 70kms.
Its thickness oceanic areas 5 to 10 km and in continental areas is 35km. it can be divided into
two layers
Upper layer (continental crust)
Lower layer (oceanic crust)
The Mohorovicic continuity marks the lower boundary. The boundary between SIAL
and SIMA is called Conrad discontinuity,
Sial

Upper continental crust


It consists of all types of rocks (Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic rocks)
This layer is rich in silica and aluminium
The rocks are granitic and granodiotic composition
The density of SIAL is 2.4g/cc
The Conrad discontinuity which is located at the depth of 11km

Sima

Lower continental crust


Thickness 23km extends from the Conrad discontinuity upto to Mohorovicic
discontinuity
This layer is rich in silica and magnesium
The types of rocks are basalitic composition
The density is 3g/cc

Mantle
The second part of the earth is the source region of the earth internal energy and of forces
responsible for ocean floor spreading and continental drift and earthquake.

Its thickness is about 2865kms


The mantle is more dense than the overlying crustal rocks

Depend on the velocity the mantle are classified into


two Upper mantle

Lower mantle

The velocity of upper mantle is 11.32 to 11.4 km/s


The velocity of the lower mantle is 13.4 km/s

The lower mantle extends from 1000km to core boundary

The lithosphere which separated from mantle is called asthonosphere

It is situated between 70 to 220 kms depth


Core

It extends upto the very centre of the earth

S-Waves do not pass through the outer core


No information about the inner core
Pressure and temperature are very high

The temperature is around 6000 and it is believed to contain nickel and iron(NIFE)
Atmosphere

It is the envelope of air which surrounds the earth


Since the atmosphere is not of the density throughout and that atmosphere
pressure decrease with height

TOP POSITION OF ATMOSPHERE: (DRY AIR)


Nitroge
n

- 78.03% by
volume

Oxygen -20.99%by volume


Argon
Co2
H2

- 0.94%by volume
- 0.03% by
volume
- 0.01% by
volume

The above composition of the atmosphere is almost uniform upto a height of 80km from the
surface
Structure of Atmosphere:
The atmosphere has been divided into several types based on change in composition.
Change in temperature and degree of ionization.
The atmosphere falls into five layers
A. Troposphere
B. Stratosphere
C. Mesosphere
D. Ionosphere
E. Exosphere

2.EXPLAIN THE TYPES OF WEATHERING?


It is defined as the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks under the
influence are physical and chemical agencies of atmosphere
Types of Weathering
Physical weathering [temperature, wild]
Chemical weathering [water]
Biological weathering [vegetation and organism]
Physical Weathering:

It is also called mechanical weathering

It is a natural process of in-stu to disintegration of rocks into smaller fragment without


change in composition
It take place by two methods
1. By frost action
2. By thermal action

Exfoliation
Rocks are split into thin sheets and due to differential expansion and contraction
Freezing Of Water
Water as we know expands about 9.05%in volume when it freezes. The water steps down
into fracture under suitable condition begins at the top of the fracture first.
A freezing continues the pressure exerted on the walls which result the fracture
This mode weathering causes where there is repeated of freezing and thawing
Chemical Weathering
It is also known as mineral alternation consist of a number of chemical reaction
These reaction change the original silicate mineral of igneous rock
The primary mineral into new compounds (secondary compounds)
Five processes are mostly responsible for chemical weathering

Solution

Hydration and hydrolysis

Oxidation

Carbonation

Colloid formation

Solution
Rock salt, gypsum, calcite when water added to them they form solution. But all rocks dont
easily soluble in pure water.
Example: limestone only acted by carbonated water
Hydration and Hydrolysis:
Absorption of moisture is hydration, exchange or replacement of water ions is called
hydrolysis. The free ion present in rocks absorbs moisture.

CaSO4+2H2O CaSO4.2H2O
Oxidation
Oxidation takes place in rocks which has high iron content. Example ferrous undergoes
oxidation.
4Fe+3O2 2Fe2O2(ferric oxide)
Fe2O3+ H2O Fe2O3.H2O(ferric hydroxide)
Carbonation
Combined action of carbon-dioxide and moisture. Example granite
SPHEROIDAL WEATHERING
Formation of small rough balls on surface of rocks is spheroidal weathering
Factor Affecting Weathering

Nature of rocks

Climate prevailing in that area


Physical environment
Resistance of weathering

Products Of Weathering

Eluvium

Deluvium
Regolith

Eluvium
End product present above the parent rock
Deluvium
Product formed aside the parent rock due to wind action
Regolith
It is both eluvium and deluvium
Soil Profile

Top layer (consists of loose particles)

Second layer (not compacted much)


Third layer (compact layer)
Last layer (rocky)

2. ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION OF WEATHERING


It is important to know about the depth and extent of weathering
Scree
The fragments that accumulate at the base of the heaps as commonly as scree deposits
Talus Slope
The fragments that remain uneven steven over the surface of the slope. Such slope is covered
by the frost formed scree are often referred to as talus slope

3.EXPLAIN THE GEOLOGICAL WORK OF RIVER


The river orginates from the mountain head region and reaches the sea
Head Region
The mountainous region where from the river accurately originates and it is called head
region
Sources Of Stream Watetr
Run off
Sub surface water
Glacial melt water
Components Of River
1. Channel
2. Velocity
3. Gradient
4. Discharge
5. Competence
6. Type of flow
Channel
The path formed along the course of river
Velocity
The distance flowed per unit time
Gradient
It is also called as vertical flow of water / river
It is the slope of river starting from head region to mount
Discharge
The amount of water flowing in river
Competence
The amount of materials carried or transported through it
It is define as the capacity of river to transport the material and it is represented by the largest
size of particle that can be transported at given velocity
Type Of Flow
Laminar flow: Water moves in undistributed layer fashion
Turbulent flow: water flows in irregular manner due to disturbance
Stream Erosion:
There are four methods
Chemical action

Hydraulic action
Abrasion
Attrition
Chemical Action
It includes the solvent and chemical action of water on country rocks
The chemical decay works along the join and tracks and helps in breaking the bed rocks
Hydraulic Action
The flowing water hammer the uneven faces of joined rocks exposed along its channel and
remove the joint blocks. This process is called hydraulic action.
Abrasion
The flowing water uses rock fragment such as pebbles, gravel and sand
As a tool for grinding the sides and floor of valley
Attrition
It is the breaking of the transported material themselves due to mutual position
collision The attrition causes rock fragments to become rounder and smaller in size
Features of Stream Erosion:
Pot holes: It is circular and deep holes into solid rocks by sand grains.
Waterfalls: The falling of stream water from a height is called waterfalls. It occurs at place
where the stream profile makes a vertical drop.
Gorges:
A narrow deep river valley which is called gorges. It is normally developed in hard
rock terrain.
STREAM MEANDERS:
The symmetrical S-shaped loops found in the course of a river are called MEANDERS.
The meander grows due to deposition of sediment along slip off side and erosion at the
undercut side.
RIVERS AND ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION:

Rivers requires construction of bridge across them for carrying highways and railways.

Water power of rivers can be utilized to generate hydroelectric.


River deposits are the important sources of construction material.
Regulations of river channel are done for navigation and for flood control.

Flood Control:

Construction

of levees
Longitudinal embankments which are built along the river banks.

4.EXPLAIN IN DETAIL THE GEOLOGICAL WORK OF WIND AND ITS


ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS?
The air currents in motion are called wind. The wind is formed due to pressure
difference which is due to change in temperature, wind, volume, duration of wind and velocity
of wind.
WIND EROSION:
The wind erosion is not restricted to arid and semi arid region. Wind thus erode in three ways,
Deflation
Abrasion
Attrition
DEFLATION:
Lifting and removal of loose material (dust, sand) by wind is called deflation. By this process
the land surface is gradually lower.
ABRASION:

During dust storms the wind carries minute grains of sand in suspension.

They dash and collide against the exposed rock masses and cause erosion.
This process in which sand grains are used as tools for eroding rocks is called abrasion.
This type of erosion involves the following,
1. Rubbing
2. Grinding

.
3. Polishing
ATTRITION:

The particle that travels with wind, collide against each other.

This mutual collisions leads to the further break down and the process is called
attrition.

WIND TRANSPORT:
Turbulent wind can easily sweep small dust particles and carry them greater distance in
suspension.However sands are transported in a series of jumps and roll along the ground such
process are called saltation.
WIND DEPOSITS:
The wind deposits are commonly called as EOLIN deposit.
The wind deposits are of two types,
1. Sand dunes
2. Loess
SAND DUNES:
The wind deposit sand in mounds. The sand dunes are of four types,
1. BARCHANS: Its cresant shape dunes which face the wind direction.
2. LONGITUDINAL (SINUSOIDAL DUNES): The dunes are elongated in wind
direction are longitudinal or sinusoidal dunes or seifs.

3. COMPLEX DUNES: They are irregular in shape in areas where the wind direction
varies complex dunes are formed
LOESS:
The suspended loads transported by wind consist of mainly silt and clay minerals.
ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS:
A sand dune causes major problem for civil engineer it may travel in any distance and
diection and may causes bury agricultural land forest and even endanger township.

5.DEFINE EARTHQUAKE? EXPLAIN ABOUT THE SEISMIC WAVE TYPES.

An earthquake is a sudden vibration of earth surface by rapid release of energy


This energy released when two parts of rock mass move suddenly in relation of to
eachoher along a fault.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE:

Buildings are damaged

Roads are fissured, railway lines are twisted and bridges are destroyed
Rivers change their coarse
Landslides may occur in hilly region.

TERMINOLOGY:
FOCUS:

The point of origin of an earthquake within the earth crust is called focus.

It radiates earthquake waves in all direction

EPICENTRE:

The point lying vertically above the earth surface directly above focus is called
epicentre.

In the epicentre the shaking is most intense


The intensity gradually decrease

ISOSEISMAL LINES:
The line connecting points of equal intensity on the ground surface are called isosesimal
lines
EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY:

It is a measure of the degree of distraction caused by an earthquake

It is expressed by a number as given in the earthquake intensity scale

SESIMOGRAPHS:
Seismographs are instruments which detect and record earthquakes.
EARTHQUAKE WAVES (SEISMIC WAVES):
1. P-Waves(primary waves)
2. S-Waves(secondary waves)
3. L-Waves (surface waves)
During earthquake elastic waves are produced are called seismic waves.

P-Waves:

These are longitudinal waves having short wavelength

They travel very faster and reach seismic station first


Their velocity is 1.7 times greater than s-waves
They passes through solid, liquid, gaseous medium.

S-WAVES:

These are shear waves which are traverse in nature.

They travel only in solid medium.

L-WAVES:

When p and s- waves reached earth surface they are called l- waves.

Here velocity is much less.

Classification Of Earthquake:
Classification I: Depending on mode of origin
1. DUE TO SURFACE CAUSES: Generated by land slopes and collapse of root of
underground waves
2. DUE TO VOLACANIC CAUSES: It may also produce earthquake but very feeble.
3. DUE TO TECTONIC PLATES: Most numerous and disastrous and caused by
shocks originated in earth crust due to sudden movement of faults.
Classification-Ii: Depending on depth of focus
1. SHALLOW FOCUS: Depth of focus upto 55kms.
2. INTERMEDIATE FOCUS: Depth between 55-300kms.
3. DEEP FOCUS; Depth from 300-600kms.
The shallow earthquake are more violent at the surface but affect smaller area.
Earthquake Intensity Scale:
ROSSI FOREL SCALE:

It has 9 divisions

INTENSITY-I:

Weakest earthquake

INTENSITY-IV:

Cause damage to property


Strongest earthquake that cause massive destruction to
manmade

INTENSITY-IX:
structure and natural
objects.
RICTHER SCALE:
MAGNITUD
E

EFFECTS

2.5

Not felt but recorded

4.5

Local damage

6.0

Can be destructive in popular region

7.0

Major earthquake inflict series damage

>8.0

Great earthquake cause total destruction

Distribution Of Earthquake:
The zones where earthquake occurs are known as seismic belts.

CIRCUM PACIFIC BELT: (PACIFIC OCEAN): 80%of the world earthquake


occur in this belt

ALPINE HIMALAYAN BELT: Europe to East Indies


RIFT VALLEY REGION: East and Central Africa

Magnitude:
The total amount of energy release during an earthquake.
Engineering Consideration:
Seismic History:

Study of seismic events in particular region to know the intensity anf magnitude

By seismic zoning ,area are classified on their varying earthquake and also geological
setting of areas

Problems:

To know the seismic history of area

To access the magnitude and probable loss or damage in quality or quantity due to
likely seismic shocks in the period of the structure
To introduce safety factors in new construction and possible to safeguard early
structure

Assesment Of Seismic Risk:


Seismic risk is the probability of occurrence of a critical earthquake during the projected life
period
Critical Earthquake:
An earthquake occurred in area as past T- yans and has recorded the magnitude capable of
producing horizontal and accelerate greater than a minimum value at that particular locality.

UNIT 2

MINEROLOGY
1.GIVE A DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Physical properties can be determined in inspection or by simple test


It can be determined by hand specimen

The chief physical properties are colour, streak, lustre, hardness, habit,
cleavage, fracture, odour, tenacity, specific gravity and crystal forms.

Correct identification are made of with polarizing microscope


COLOUR:
Occur due to certain wavelength of light by atoms making of crystals. On the basic of colour
of a mineral; may belong to anyone of three types,

IDIOCHROMATIC: show a constant colour appear metallic crystal ex. Copper

ALLOCHROMATIC: Show variable colors, appear non-metallic ex. Quartz


PSEUDOCHROMATIC; Shows false colour

Some minerals viewed in different directions shows irregular changes in colour


1. PLAY OF COLOR: Change in rapid succession on rotation ex. Diamond
2. CHANGE OF COLOR: Rate of change of colours on rotation and intensity is
low ex.
Labrodorite
3. IRIDESCENCE: Shows rainbow colours in interior or exterior surface ex. Limonite,
Hematite
4. TARNISH: Change of original colour due to oxidation ex. Bornite
STREAK:

The streak of the mineral is the true colour of the mineral is quite helpful in identifying
mineral
The streak is obtained by rubbing a mineral against an unglazed porcelain plate

Example: Magnetite, black in colour and give blackish brown colour as streak
LUSTRE:
General appearance of a mineral surface in reflected light
1. METALLIC: Metallic appearance ex. Magnetite, hematite
2. SUB-METTALIC: Feebly displayed metallic lustre ex. Chromite
3. ADAMANTINE: Hard brilliant lustre ex. Diamond
4. VITREOUS LUSTRE: Lustre exhibited by broken glass ex. Quartz, gypsum
5. PEARLY LUSTRE: Lustre exhibited by pearls ex. Talc, calcite
6. SILKY LUSTRE: Lustre exhibited by silk fibres ex. Asbestos
7. RESINOUS LUSTRE: Exhibited by resin ex. Sphalerite, nephiline
8. GREASY LUSTRE: Lustre exhibited by grease ex. Talc
9. DULL OR EARTHY: No lustre said to earthy lustre ex. Kaolin
HARDNESS:

Hardness of mineral depends on chemical composition

Determined by rubbing or scratching a mineral of unknown hardness against one of


known hardness
A numerical value is obtained by using the mohs scale of hardness
Here 10 minerals are arranged in order of increasing

CLEAVAGE:
It is defined as a tendency of mineral to break more easily with smooth surface along plane of
weak bonding. The cleavage can be classified as perfect, good, poor, and indistinct.
Example:

PERFECT CLEAVAGE:
Calcite

Mica, Galena,

NO CLEAVAGE:

Quartz

FRACTR
The nature of the surface of a mineral is called as fracture. The common types of fracture are
1. EVEN FRACTURE: Surface almost flat ex. flint, chert
2. UNEVEN FRACTURE: Surface is irregular and rough ex. Fluorite
3. CONCHOIDAL FRACTURE: Curved surface showing concentric line like shell ex.
Quartz

2.EXPLAIN QUARTZ GROUP:

It is an important rock forming mineral next to feldspar

It is a non- metallic efractory mineral


It is a silicate group

Physical Properties Of Quartz:


CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Hexagonal
HABIT: Crystalline or amorphous
FRACTURE: Conchoidal
HARDNESS: 7
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.65-2.66(LOW)
STREAK: No
TRANSPARENCY: Transparent/semi-transparent/opaque
Polymorphism Transformation:
Quartz tridymitecrystotallitemelt
COLOURED VARIETIES:

Pure quartz is always colourless and transparent

Presence of impurities the mineral showing colour they


Amethyst: purple or violet
Smoky quartz: shades of grey
Milky quartz: light brown, pure white, opaque
Rose quartz: rose

Cryptocrystalline Forms Of Quartz:


CHALCEDONY: Amorphous, waxy lustre
AGATE: A banded , variety having different colours
JASPER: Dull red, yellow, massive
FLINT: Dark grey, conchoidal fracture
OPAL: Amorphous
QUARTZ FAMILY MINERALS
PRIMARY: Recrystalization process(si, al, fe)

SECONDARY: Precipitation (chalcedony, opal, chert, flint)


OCCURRENCE:
It occurs in all types of rocks igneous, metamorphicand sedimentary rocks
USES:

Used as semi precious stone


Form of sand in construction
Used as abrasive in industries
Used for making watches
Piezoelectric crystal for frequency state

3.DETAIL THE PROPERTIES OF FELSPAR GROUP

It is most abundant of all minerals


It is used for making more than 50% by weight crust of earth
It is non-metallic and silicate minerals

Chemical Composition:
Potash feldspar KAlSi3 O8
Soda-lime feldspar NaAlSi3O8 (OR) CaAl2Si2O8
Varities Of Potash Felspar:

Orthoclase

Sanidine

Microcline

SODA LIME FELSPAR:

Albite

Oligoclase

Andecine

Amarthitite

Labrodorite

GENERAL PHYSICAL:

CRYSTAL SYSTEM: monoclinic,triclinic

HABIT: Tabular (crystalline)

CLEAVAGE: Perfect( 2- directional)

FRACTURE: Conchoidal or uneven

COLOUR: White, grey, pink, green, red

LUSTRE: Vitreous

HARDNESS: 6-6.5

SPECIFIC GRAVITY; 2.56-2.58(low)

STREAK: No

OCCURRENCE: Igneous rock

USES: Ceramics, glass, tableware, enamels, electric porcelain, false teeth

y are commonly occur in dark colours, igneous and metamorphic rocks

4.EXPLAIN MICA GROUP:

Form sheet like structure


Can be spilt into very thin sheets along one direction

Aluminium and magnesium are rich

Occupy 4% of earth crust

Shows basal cleavage


CLASSIFICATION:

LIGHT MICA:
Muscovite-KAL2(AlSi2O10)(OH)2-Potash mica
Paragonite-NaAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2-Soda mica
Lepidolite-KLiAl(Si4O10)(OH)2 Lithium mica
DARK MICA:
Biotite-K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2.(Fe Mg mica)
Phogopite-KMg3(Al3Si3O10)(OH)2-(Mg mica)
Zinwaldite-Complex Li-Fe mica
GENERAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Hardness: 2-3
Lustre: Vitreous
Habit: Foliated
Cleavage: Perfect (Basal)
Light Mica:
Muscovite:
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Hardness: 2-3
Lustre: Vitreous
Habit: Foliated
Cleavage: Perfect
Specific Gravity: 2.7-3
Streak: Colourless
Composition: Kal2(Alsi2o10)(Oh)2
Occurrence: In Igneous Rock(Granite And Pegmatite) And Accessory Mineral In
Sedimentary Rock
Uses: Electrical Industry
TRANSPARENCY: Transparent

FRACTURE: even
COLOUR: colourless
LEPIDOLITE:
CRYSTAL SYSTEM: monoclinic
Habit: Granular
Cleavage: Good
Fracture: Even
Color: Colorless
Lustre: Pearly
Hardness: 2-3
Specific Gravity: 2.8-3.3
Streak: Colourless
Composition: Naal2(Alsi3o10)(Oh)2
Transparency: Transparent
Occurrence: In Igneous Rock
Uses: Fire Proof Material
DARK MICA:
BIOTITE:
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Habit: Foliated
Cleavage: Perfect
Fracture: Even
Colour: Black, Deep Green
Lustre: Vitreous
Hardness: 2.5-3
Sp.Gravity: 2.7-3
Streak: Colourless
Composition:K(Mg Fe)3(Al Si3o10)(Oh)2
Occurrence: Commonly Found In Igneous Rocks, Sedimentary Rocks
Transparency: Translucent
Uses: Electrical Industries
PHOGOPITE:[LIMITED OCCURNECE]
CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Monoclinic
HABIT: foliated
CLEAVAGE: perfect

5.CLAY MINERAL GROUP

These are phyllosilicates minerals

Essentially hydrous aluminium silicates


These are common weathering products
Very common in sedimentary rock

CLASSIFICATION:
There are four group,
b. Dictite
c. Nacrite
d. Halloysite
2. Smectite
a. Montmorillonite
b. Nontronite
c. Hectorite
3. Illite
4. Chorite
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
KAOLIN GROUP:
KAOLINITE:
It is formed by weathering of aluminate- silicate minerals. The feldspar rick rocks
are commonly weathered to kaolinite.
Crystal system: Triclinic
Habit: Massive
Colour: White sometimes brown
Cleavage: Perfect
Fracture: Even
Streak: White
Lustre: Dull earthy
Hardness: 2
Specific gravity: 2.6(low)
Transparency: Translucent
Composition: Al2Si2O5(OH)4
Occurrence: secondary mineral formed by alternation of alkali feldspar
Uses: ceramic industries, medicine, cosmetics and main components in porcelain
HALLOYSITE:
Crystal system: Monoclinic

Habit: Massive
Colour: white, grey, green, yellow, red, blue
Streak:
Cleavage: imperfect
Lustre: waxy or dull
Fracture: conchoidal
Hardness: 2-2.5
Sp. Gravity: 2-2.5 (low)
Transparency: Translucent
Composition: Al2Si2O5(OH)4
Occurrence: secondary mineral formed by alternation of alkali feldspar
SMECTITE GROUPS:
MONTMORILLONITE:

It is derived from weathering of volcanic ash

In contact with water it expands several times its original volumes


Act as drilling mud and it is main constituents os petronite

Crystal system: Monoclinic


Habit: Lamellar/ Globular
Colour: White, blue or yellow
Streak:
Lustre: Dull Earthy
Fracture: Uneven
Cleavage: Perfect
Hardness: 1-2
Sp. Gravity: 1.7-2(low)
Transparecy: Translucent
Composition: (Na, Ca)0.33(Al Mg)2 Si4O10(OH)2.nH2O
Occurrence: derived from volacanic ash also weathering of muscovite, illite,
kaolinite
Uses: Mainly used for oil industry(drilling mud)
ILLITE:
Uses: in oil industry
CHLORITE:
Crystal system: Foliated Monoclinic
Habit: Foliated
Colour: Grey, Green

Streak: White
Cleavage: Good
Fracture: Even
Lustre: Vitreous
Sp. Gravity: Low
Hardness: 2-3
Transparency:
ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS OF CLAY MINERALS:

Montmorillonite is a dangerous type of clay cut it when found in road or


tunnel since it has expandable nature which causes slope or wall failure
Kaolinite is used in ceramic industry , it is not expandable and wont absorb
water
Clay is used as important material in construction industries both as building
material and as foundation or structure
It has poor drainage because the soil tends to stay wet and soggy when it is
affected by water, while it is wet it can be easily compacted
It has poor aeration because the soil particles are small and closely spaced, it
is very difficult for air to enter or leave the soil
It has very high nutrients reserves, reducing the need for fertilization also
because clay retains water plants growing in it often more drought tolerant
than plants growing in sandy soil

UNIT 3

PETROLOGY
1.EXPLAIN THE TEXTURE OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
CRYSTALLOBLASTIC:
New texture developed during metamorphism.
PORPHYROBLASTIC:
Big crystals imbedded in fine matrix.
GRANOBLASTIC:
Eguigranular with interlocking arrangement.
RELICT TEXTURE:
Old texture which resist the metamorphism.
STRUCTURE:
1. Gneissose structure
2. Schistose structure
3. maculose structure
4. cataclastic structure
5. granulose structure
GNEISSOSE STRUCTURE:
Presence of dark colour and light colour minerals in alternate layers.
SCHISTOSE STRUCTURE:
The parallel arrangement of platy or flaky minerals.
SUB STRUCTURE : SLATY STRUCTURE.
Presence of foliated and parallel cleavage.

MACULOSE:
Presence of dotted or spotted appearance due to coarse grain embedded in fine
matrix of minerals.
CATACLASTIC STRUCTURE:
Presence of very fine grain minerals.
GRANULOSE STRUCTURE:
Minerals with interlocking arrangement rich in equi-dimensional minerals such as
quartz, feldspar, pyroxene, calcite, etc and absent in foliated minerals like mica.
PROPERTIES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
Sp. Gravity: 2.7-4
Porosity: 1-2%

Permeability: 1x10-8
Compressive strength: 100-360MPa
Tensile strength: 3 to 20 MPa
Shear strength: 3.5-10MPa
Modulus of elasticity: 0.2-1.1x105MPa
2.EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING TERMS IN DETAIL:
A.Sandstone
B.Limestone
c.Shale
SANDSTONE
Origin: mechanically formed
Texture: clastic (fine to medium grained)
Structure: mechanical structure
Mineral composition: quartz, feldspar, mica, garnet, magnetite
Types:
1. Based on type of building material
2. Based
composition

on

mineralogical

Alkose-

rich

in

feldspar
Greywacke- rich in fragments of granite
Flagstone- rich in mica
3. Based on type of bindinf material
a. Siliceous sandstone
b. Calcareous sandstone
c. Ferruginous sandstone
d. Argillaceous sandstone
Uses:

Masonry
Pavement material
Flooring
Wall facing material

LIMESTONE:
Origin: bio-chemically and
mechanically Texture: nonclastic

Mineral composition: calcite, dolomite, quartz, feldspar minerals


Types: chalk, shelly limestone, argillaceous limestone, lithographic limestone,
kankar and calc-sinter
Occurrence:
1. Biothermal formation
2. Biostromal limestones
60
3. Pelagic
limestone Uses:

Primary source in Portland cement


In metallurgical industries as flux

SHALE:
Origin: compaction and consolidation of silt andclay minerals
Texture: fin grained
Mineral composition: quartz, clay minerals and oxides of iron
Structure: fissibilty/ lamination
Types:
1. Base on origin
2. Based on mineralogical composition
3. Based on predominant group
Uses:

Manufacture of bricks
Place source for paraffin

3.GIVE A DETAILED ACCOUNT ON ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF


ROCKS

The study of the Engineering Properties of Rocks is termed Rock Mechanics.


The engineering properties includes
Mineralogical composition and texture;
Planes of weakness;
Degree of mineral alteration;
Temperature and Pressure conditions of rock formation;
Pore water content, and
Length of time and rate of changing stress that a rock experiences.
Mineralogical Composition and Texture.
Very
few
rocks
are
homogeneous,
continuous,
isotropic
(non directional) and elastic.
Generally, the smaller the grain size, the stronger the
rock.
Texture influences the rock strength directly through the degree of
interlocking of the component grains.

Rock defects such as microfractures, grain boundaries, mineral cleavages,


twinning planes and planar discontinuities influence the ultimate rock
strength and may act as surfaces of weakness where failure occurs.
When cleavage has high or low angles with the principal stress direction, the
mode of failure is mainly influenced by the cleavage.
Anisotropy is common because of preferred orientations of minerals and
directional stress history.
Rocks are seldom continuous owing to pores and fissures (i.e. Sedimentary
rocks).
.
Temperature and Pressure
All rock types undergo a decrease in strength with increasing temperature,
and an increase in strength with increasing confining pressure.
At high confining pressures, rocks are more difficult to fracture as incipient
fractures are closed.
Pore Solutions
The presence of moisture in rocks adversely affects their engineering
strength.Reduction in strength with increasing H2O content is due to lowering of the
tensile strength, which is a function of the molecular cohesive strength of the
material.
Time-dependent Behavior
Most strong rocks , like granite show little time-dependent strain or creep. Since
there are vast ranges in the properties of rocks, Engineers rely on a number of basic
measurements to describe rocks quantitatively. These are known as Index
Properties.
Index Properties of Rocks:
Porosity- Identifies the relative proportions of solids & voids;
Density- a mineralogical constituents parameter;
Sonic Velocity- evaluates the degree of fissuring;
Permeability- the relative interconnection of pores;
Strength- existing competency of the rock fabric binding components.
During Engineering planning, design and construction of works, there are many rock
mechanics issues such as:

Evaluation of geological hazards;


Selection and preparation of rock materials;
Evaluation of cuttability and drillability of rock;
Analysis of rock deformations;
Analysis of rock stability;
Control of blasting procedures;
Design of support systems;
Hydraulic fracturing, and
Selection of types of structures.

4. COMPARE AND CONTRAST IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY VS


METAMORPHIC ROCKS
The main difference between Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks,
is the way that they are formed, and their various textures.
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed when magma (or molten rocks) cool down, and
become solid. High temperatures inside the crust of the Earth cause rocks to
melt, and this substance is known as magma. Magma is the molten material
that erupts during a volcano. This substance cools down slowly, and causes
mineralization to take place. Gradually, the size of the minerals increase until
they are large enough to be visible to the naked eye. Igneous rocks are
mostly formed beneath the Earths surface.
The texture of Igneous rocks can be referred to as Phaneritic, Aphaneritic,
Glassy (or vitreous), Pyroclastic or Pegmatitic. Examples of Igneous Rocks
include granite, basalt and diorite.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are usually formed by sedimentation of the Earths
material, and this normally occurs inside water bodies. The Earths material
is constantly exposed to erosion and weathering, and the resulting
accumulated loose particles eventually settle, and form Sedimentary rocks.
Therefore, one can say, that these types of rocks are formed slowly from the
sediments, dust and dirt of other rocks. Erosion takes place due to wind and
water. After thousands of years, the eroded pieces of sand and rock settle,
and become compacted to form a rock of their own.
Sedimentary rocks range from small clay-size rocks to huge boulder-size
rocks. The textures of Sedimentary rocks are mainly dependent on the
parameters of the clast, or the fragments of the original rock. These
parameters can be of various types, such as surface texture, round, spherical
or in the form of grain. The most common type of Sedimentary rock is the
Conglomerate, which is caused by the accumulation of small pebbles and
cobbles. Other types include shale, sandstone and limestone, which is formed
from clastic rocks and the deposition of fossils and minerals.

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are the result of the transformation of other rocks. Rocks
that are subjected to intense heat and pressure change their original shape
and form, and become Metamorphic rocks. This change in shape is referred
to as metamorphism. These rocks are commonly formed by the partial
melting of minerals, and re-crystallization. Gneiss is a commonly found
Metamorphic rock, and it is formed by high pressure, and the partial melting
of

the

minerals

contained

in

the

original

rock.

Metamorphic rocks have textures like slaty, schistose, gneissose,


granoblastic or hornfelsic. Examples of these types of rocks include slate,
gneiss, marble, and quartzite, which occurs when re-crystallization changes
the shape and form of an original rock formation.
Summary:
1.Igneous rocks are formed when magma (or molten rocks) have cooled
down and solidified. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of
other eroded substances, while Metamorphic rocks are formed when rocks
change their original shape and form due to intense heat or pressure.
2.Igneous rocks are commonly found inside the Earths crust or mantle,
while Sedimentary rocks are usually found in water bodies (sea, oceans etc.).
Metamorphic rocks are found on the Earths surface.
3.Igneous rocks can be an important source of minerals, and Sedimentary
rocks, or their bedding structure, is mostly used in civil engineering; for the
construction of housing, roads, tunnels, canals etc. Geologists study the
geological properties of Metamorphic rocks, as their crystalline nature
provides valuable information about the temperatures and pressures within
the Earths crust.
4.Examples of Igneous rocks include granite and basalt, while examples of
Sedimentary rocks include shale, limestone and sandstone. Common
examples of Metamorphic rocks are marble, slate and quartzite.

UNIT 4

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL METHODS


1.EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ABOUT THE ATTITUDE OF BEDS
OUTCROP
In the mountainous and sub-mountainous tracts and also in shallow plains,
exposures of rocks may be easily seen forming sides of valleys or caps of hills or
even uplands and slopes in level fields.
An outcrop is simply defined as an exposure of a solid rock on the surface of the
earth.

Outcrop Dimensions
The width or breadth of the outcrop of a particular bed is given by the
distance between the top and bottom edges of the bed as measured on
the surface of the ground in a direction perpendicular to the strike of that
particular bed
Many variations are induced in the breadth of an outcrop of a rock by
the topography of the area.
The thickness of a particular layer or bed is the perpendicular distance
between the top and bottom surface of the same layer as seen in a
vertical section at right angles to the strike of the layer

The depth to a particular layer or bed at any place from the surface,
if believed to be present on the basis of general geology and dip of
the formation, is given by the perpendicular distance between the
ground surface and the top surface of that particular layer.
When the ground surface is horizontal, depth d to the bedrock of
known dip may be obtained by the relationship
where is the angle of true dip of the bed exposed at a place, say at B and
C is the distance from that exposure to the place C where it is desired
to find out depth to that bedrock.
FOLDS
Definitio
n
FOLDS may be defined as undulations or bends or curvatures developed
in the rocks of the crust as a result of stresses to which these rocks have
been subjected from time to time in the past history of the Earth.

2.EXPLAIN THE CLASSSIFICATION OF FOLDS


Classification Of Folds Anticlines
are defined as those folds in which
the strata are uparched, that is, these become CONVEX UPWARDS;
the geologically older rocks occupy a position in the interior of the fold, oldest
being positioned at the core of the fold and the youngest forming the
outermost flank,
the limbs dip away from each other at the crest in the simplest cases.

Synclines
the strata are downarched, that is, these become CONVEX DOWNWARDS;
the geologically younger rocks occupy a position in the core of the fold and the
older rocks form the outer flanks, provided the normal order of superposition is
not disturbed,
in the simplest cases in synclines, the limbs dip towards a common center.
Position of Axial Plane
Depending upon the nature and direction of the stresses the axial plane in a resulting
fold may acquire any position in space, that is, it may be vertical, inclined or even
horizontal. Following main types are recognized on the basis of position of the axial
plane in the resulting fold:
Symmetrical Folds
These are also called normal or upright folds. In such a fold, the axial plane
is essentially vertical.
The limbs are equal in length and dip equally in opposite directions.
it may be an anticline or syncline and when classified, may be described as
symmetrical anticline/ syncline as the case may be.

Asymmetrical Folds
All those folds, anticlines or synclines, in which the limbs are unequal in
length and these dip unequally on ether side from the hinge line are termed as
asymmetrical folds.
Overturned folds
These are folds with inclined axial planes in which both the limbs are dipping
essentially in the same general direction.

The amount of dip of the two limbs may or may not be the same.

Overfolding indicates very severe degree of folding.


One of the two limbs (the reversed limb) comes to occupy the present
position after having suffered a rotation through more than 90 degrees.
The other limb is known as the normal limb.
N

In certain cases, both the limbs of a fold may get overturned because of very
high lateral compression.

It may be originally either an anticline or a syncline but the extreme compression


from opposite sides results in bringing the limbs so close to each other that the
usual dip conditions may get reversed anticlinal limbs dip towards each other
and the synclinal limbs dip away from each other.

Such a type of fold is commonly referred to as a fan fold

In such folds, the anticlinal tops are said to have opened up into a broad, fan-
shaped outline due to intense compression in the lower region.
Isoclinal Folds
These are group of folds in which all the axial planes are essentially parallel,
meaning. that all the component limbs are dipping at equal amounts.
They may be made up of series of anticlines and synclines

Recumbent Folds
These may be described as extreme types of overturned folds in which the
axial plane acquires an almost horizontal attitude.
In such folds, one limb comes to lie exactly under the other limb so that a drill
hole dug at the surface in the upper limb passes through the lower limb also.

The lower limb is often called the inverted limb or the reversed limb.

Other parts of a recumbent fold are sometimes named as follows:


the arch, which is zone of curvature corresponding to crest and trough in the
upright folds;
the shell, which is the outer zone made up mostly of sedimentary formations;

the core, which is the innermost part of the fold and maybe made mostly of crystalline
igneous or metamorphic rocks;
the root or the root zone, which is the basal part of the fold and may or may not be
easily traceable; once traced it can throw light whether the fold was originally an
anticline or syncline that has suffered further inversion.

Conjugate Folds
In certain cases a pair of folds that are apparently related to each other may
have mutually inclined axial planes.

Such folds are described as conjugate folds.

The individual folds themselves may be anticlinal or synchnal or


their modifications.

Box Fold
It may be described as a special type of fold with exceptionally flattened top
and steeply inclined limbs almost forming three sides of a rectangle.

In both the anticlinorium and synclinorium, presence of large number of


secondary folds, faults and fracture systems is a characteristic feature.
Similar folding but signifying still larger bending and uplifting of strata on subcontinental scales is expressed by the terms GEANTICLINES AND
GEOSYNCLINES respectively.
Great importance is attached to the major depressions, the geosynclines, in
the process of mountain building discussed elsewhere.
The geosynclines are believed to serve as depositional fields or basins of
sedimentation to which sediments derived by the erosion of the adjoining
gentilities get accumulated and compacted.
This material is then compressed and uplifted in the second stage of orogeny,
to gradually take the shape of mountain systems.

3.DETAIL THE CAUSES OF FOLDING WITH NEAT SKETCH


CAUSES OF FOLDING
The Tectonic Folding may be due to any one or more of the following mechanisms:
Folding Due to Tangential Compression
Lateral Compression is believed to be the main cause for throwing the rocks of
the crust into different types of folds depending upon the types of rocks
involved in the process and also the direction and magnitude of the compression
effecting those rocks.

In general, this primary force is believed to act at right angles to the trend of folds.
under the influence of the tangential stresses, folding may develop in either of the
three ways: flexural folding, flowage folding and shear folding.

Flexural Folding.
It is that process of folding in which the competent or stronger rocks are thrown
into folds due to their sliding against each other under the influence of lateral
compression.

This is also distinguished as flexural-slip-folding in which the slip or movement of


the strata involved takes place parallel to the bedding planes of the layers.

It has been established that in flexural folding, the amount of slip (and hence the
ultimate type of fold) depends on a number of factors such as:
thickness of the layers and nature of the contact; thicker the layers, greater
is the slip; further, cohesionless contacts favour easy and greater slips;
distance from the hinge point; greater the distance from the hinge points,
larger is the
displacement, so much so that it may be negligible at the hinge point;
type of the rocks involved; siltstones, sandstones and limestones are
more prone to flexure slip folding compared to soft clays and shales.

Flowage Folding

It is the principal process of folding in incompetent or weaker,


plastic type of rocks such as clays, shales, gypsum and rock
salt etc.
During the compression, the material of the involved layers
behaves almost as a viscous or plastic mass and gets buckled up
and deformed at varying rates suffering unequal distortion.
In such cases the thickness of the resulting fold does not
remain uniform.

Shear Folding.
In many cases, folding is attributed to shearing stresses rather than simple
compression.
It is assumed that in such a process, numerous closely spaced fractures develop
in the rock at the first stage of the process.
This is followed by displacement of the blocks so developed by different
amounts so that ultimately the rocks take up folded or bent configuration.
The folded outline becomes more conspicuous when the minor fractures get
sealed up due to subsequent recrystallisation.
Folding Due to lnsrusions
Intrusion of magma or even rock salt bodies from beneath has been found to
be the cause of uparching of the overlying strata.
In magmatic intrusions, highly viscous magma may be forced up very gradually
and with considerable force so that the overlying sedimentary host rocks are
bodily lifted up to provide space for the rising magma.

In extreme cases, the magma may even rupture the overlying strata to flow out as
lava

Folding Due to Differential Compression


Strata that are being compacted under load in a basin of sedimentation
develop, with passage of time, downward bending especially in the zones
of maximum loading.

If the strata in question is not homogeneous, the bending may not be


uniform in character and results in warping or folding of different types.

Such folds are, however, totally dependent on the load from above and
are attributed to superficial causes.

These are, therefore, non- tectonic folds.


ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
Folds developed in the areas of work are important for a civil engineer in
that these make his work more complicated.
If these structures are not thoroughly investigated and properly interpreted, any
civil engineering project standing on or driven through the folded rocks may
prove not only uneconomical in the ultimate analysis but also, unsafe as well.
Due consideration is, therefore, always to be given to the presence of folds in
deciding about the designing and construction of such structures as driving of
traffic and hydropower tunnels, selection of sites for dams and reservoirs and
in
fixing the alignments of roads, bridges and highways.
4.GIVE A DETAILED ACCOUNT OF FAULTS AND ITS ENGINEERING
CONSIDERATION

FAULT & FAULTING


Those fractures along which there has been relative movement of
the blocks past each are termed as FAULTS.
The entire process of development of fractures and displacement the
blocks against each other is termed as FAULTING
CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
Following factors are more commonly considered important in classification of faults:
The apparent movement of the disrupted blocks along the fault plane;
The direction of slip;
The relation of fault attitude with the attitude of the displaced beds;
The amount of dip of the fault;
Mode of Occurrence.
Three fundamental types of faults are commonly distinguished on the basis of
apparent movement: normal faults, reverse faults and strike slip faults.
Normal Faults
Such a fault in which hanging wall has apparently moved down with respect
to footwall is classified as a Normal Fault.
In this definition it is clearly implied that nothing can be said with certainty
whether it was the hanging wall which moved down or the foot wall which
moved up or both the walls moved down, the hanging wall moving more than the
foot wall and hence the appearance.
when the fault satisfies the definition of hanging wall standing at a lower
position with respect to the footwall it may be classed as a normal fault.
In normal faults, the fault plane may be inclined at any angle between
horizontal and vertical, but most commonly, the fault angles are between 45 and
vertical.
further, due to the inclined nature of the fault plane and downward displacement
of a part of the strata, normal faults cause an extension in the crust wherever
they occur.

Reverse Faults
It is such a type of fault in which the hanging wall appears to have moved up
with respect to the footwall.
In reverse faults, the fault plane is generally inclined between horizontal and 45
degrees although reverse faults with steeply inclined fault surface have been
also encountered.

By virtue of their inclination and direction of movement, reverse faulting


involves shortening of the crust of the Earth (compare with normal faults).

Thrust Faults
These are, broadly speaking, such varieties of reverse faults in which the
hanging wall has moved up relative to the footwall and the faults dip at
angles below 45 degrees.

The thrust faults or simply thrusts are of very common occurrence


in folded mountains and seem to have originated as a further step in
the process of adjustment of rocks to the imposed stresses.

Thrusts are sometimes further distinguished into two sub-types: the


over thrusts and the under thrusts.
Nappes
This term is used for extensive blocks of rocks that have been translated to great
distances, often ranging to several hundred kilometers, along a thrust plane.

The large-scale movement maybe attributed to a major over thrusting or


a recumbent folding followed by thrust faulting.
When a series of thrust faults occur in close proximity, thrust blocks are piled up
one above another and all fault surfaces dip in the same direction, the resulting
interesting structure is known as an imbricate Structure.

Strike-Slip Faults
These may be defined as faults in which faulted blocks have been moved
against each other in an essentially horizontal direction.

The fault plane is almost vertical and the net slip may be measured in great
distances.

There are some other terms used for strike slip faults such as lateral faults,
transverse faults, wrench faults and transform faults.
Of these, the transform faults are very common and denote strike slip
faults specially developed in oceanic ridges.

ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
The safety of a civil engineering structure built on or near a faulted rock can
be ascertained only in a general way.
The tectonic history of the area under consideration must be known (or studied if
not known) thoroughly.
Faults of any significance are always associated with earthquakes.
So, such a study would virtually mean obtaining information about frequency
of the earthquakes as also their magnitude and effects that they have left from
time to time on the rocks of the region.

The exact position of the area of construction with respect to the seismic
zoning of the country must be thoroughly established.
Even if the evidence collected from the study of the tectonic history of the area
leads to the conclusion that no movement may be expected in the rocks of the
area during the projected life span of the structure raised on them, some factor of
safety must be introduced into the design of the structure, especially in the big
projects in faulted areas, so that if the unexpected happens, there is minimum
loss to the project.
In all big countries, maps of seismic classification are available.
In most cases recommendations of the statutory authorities are available about
introducing suitable factor of safety in major civil engineering projects of any
public importance that are proposed to be constructed in areas of known
seismic zones.

5.EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING:


a. Electrical method
b. Seismic method
A. Electrical Methods
Principle.
All electrical method are based on the fundamental fact that different materials
of earth s crust possess widely different electrical properties.
Resistivity, electrochemical activity and dielectrical constant are some of
these properties that are generally studied through these methods
potential-drop methods: the natural potential may be due to electrochemical
reactions between the solutions and the surrounding - subsurface rocks.
These reactions are not always of the same order throughout the dimensions of
the rock masses thereby creating a potential difference and conditions for flow of
current from one end to the other end.

Elongated ore bodies of magnetite and pyrite etc. are easily delineated by
this method.
Natural electrical potential is measured with the help of nonpolarising electrodes
along definite directions and results are plotted in terms of potential gradient
along horizontal distances which are then interpreted.
Potential Drop Methods.
These include a variety of methods in which electrical current is artificially
introduced from an external source at certain points and then its flow through
subsurface materials recorded at different distances.

In the Equipotential Method two primary electrodes are inserted into the
ground, 6-7 meters apart from each other, across which current is introduced.
The position of these primary electrodes remains fixed in the
subsequent investigations.
Potential between these primary electrodes is determined with the help of two
search electrodes and points of equal potential found out along the entire
region under investigations, which are jointed to get equipotential lines.

Under normal conditions, that is, when the material below is of uniform nature,
electrically c the ec lines would be regular in character.

But in cases when the material w is not of uniform character (that is, it contains
patches of high or low conductivity), equipotential lines would show clear

distortions or irregularities which would include probable location of rock


masses of different characteritics.
The Resistivity Method is similar to equipotential method but in this case it is the
resistivity of the material of the subsurface which is determined and from which
important interpretations are made

Here also, a known current is introduced through two electrodes- current


electrodes, which are inserted at some distances apart from each other.,
Investigation.
The depth of penetration of electrical current in these investigations is broadly
equal to although there are many conditions attached to this generalization.
The resistivity method envisages interpretation of the qualitative as well as
quantitative characters of the subsurface materials which are governed by two
basic principles
(i)
If material below is of uniform nature, the resistivity values would be
of regular character.
(ii)
If the material is non-uniform, that is, it consists of layers or masses of
different character, then these would be indicated by irregularities or
anomalies in the resistivity values.
(iii)
The depths at which these anomalies occur can be calculated and also the
nature of the subsurface material broadly understood.
Applications:
(a) In Prospecting: The electrical methods have been successfully employed in
delineation of ore bodies occurring at shallower depths. For such surveys at great depths,
these are not of much help.
In table 1, some typical value-ranges of resistivity are given. As may be seen, rocks
exhibit a great variation ranging from as high resistivity as > io ohms-meters in igneous
rocks to as low as less than I ohm-rn for clayey mans.
In Civil Engineering: Resistivity methods have been widely used in engineering
investigation for determination of
Depth to the bed rock as for instance, in important projects like dams, buildings and
bridge foundations, where it would be desirable that the structure should rest on sound
hard rocks rather than on overburden or soil
Location of geological structures like folds, buried valleys, crushed and fractured
zones due to shearing and faulting.
Location of Aquifers and other water bearing zones which could be easily interpreted
on the basis of known resistivity values of moisture rich rocks and dry rocks.
SEISMIC
METHODS Principle.
Shocks or explosions within the earth s crust are always accompanied by
generation of elastic waves, which travel in all directions from the point or
place of shock, the focus.

Velocity of these shock waves is related to the nature of the medium through
which they travel. In nature these waves are produced during earthquakes. The

seismic waves reveal a great deal of information about the internal constitution of
the earth.
Although different types of waves are generated when a shock occurs, these
are the P waves (longitudinal waves), which are the fastest and strongest. Their
velocity, Vp, is related broadly to the medium (rocks) through the following
equation:

where E is Modulus of elasticity, e is density and v is the Poisson s Ratio of


the medium.

The controlling factor is, obviously, the modulus of elasticity which itself is
dependent upon nature of rock, its chemical and mineralogical composition,
degree of freedom from structural discontinuities and degree of saturation
with water and other fluids.

From experimental investigations, characteristic velocity values for P waves have


been broadly established for different rock types.

As such, if the velocity of seismic waves travelling through a section of


the ground is known, nature of the ground can be fairly assessed.

This is the underlying principle of all the seismic methods.


Method.
The fundamental procedure in all seismic investigations for subsurface
explorations is the same: a shock is created at a chosen point or
location either by exploding a charge, of dynamite;

the waves so produced are recorded at different distances from the shot
point with the help of geophones or special detectors.

The instant of shot, that is the shot time and the first arrival are recorded
very carefully from which time distance plots are prepared in a
selected manner.
A proper interpretation of these time-distance plots may reveal presence
of unusually high or low velocity media at certain depths.
Reflection methods have been found especially useful for subsurface
studies under! bodies of water (e.g. lakes, rivers, and estuaries) because
in such surveys signals from surface and shear waves are obliterated by
water and arrival times of only longitudinal waves are recorded clearly
and easily.

UNIT 5

APPLICATION OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS


1.DETAIL THE CONCEPT OF REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is an art and science of obtaining information about an object or


feature without physically coming in contact with that object or feature. Humans apply
remote sensing in their day-to-day business, through vision, hearing and sense of smell.
The data collected can be of many forms: variations in acoustic wave distributions (e.g.,
sonar), variations in force distributions (e.g., gravity meter), variations in electromagnetic
energy distributions (e.g., eye) etc. These remotely collected data through various sensors
may be analyzed to obtain information about the objects or features under investigation.
In this course we will deal with remote sensing through electromagnetic energy sensors
only. Thus, remote sensing is the process of inferring surface parameters from
measurements of the electromagnetic radiation (EMR) from the Earths surface. This
EMR can either be reflected or emitted from the Earths surface. In other words, remote
sensing is detecting and measuring electromagnetic (EM) energy emanating or reflected
from distant objects made of various materials, so that we can identify and categorize
these objects by class or type, substance and spatial distribution. Schematic
representation of remote sensing technique Remote Sensing: Introduction and Basic
Concepts Basic concepts of remote Remote sensing provides a means of observing large
areas at finer spatial and temporal frequencies. It finds extensive applications in civil
engineering including watershed studies, hydrological states and fluxes simulation,
hydrological modeling, disaster management services such as flood and drought warning
and monitoring, damage assessment in case of natural calamities, environmental
monitoring, urban planning etc.
Remote Sensing Platforms Remote sensing platforms can be classified as follows,
based on the elevation from the Earths surface at which these platforms are placed.
Ground level remote sensing
Ground level remote sensors are very close to the ground o They are basically
used to develop and calibrate sensors for different features on the Earths surface. Aerial
remote sensing
Low altitude aerial remote sensing o High altitude aerial remote sensing Space
borne remote sensing
Space shuttles o Polar orbiting satellites o Geo-stationary satellites From each of
these platforms, remote sensing can be done either in passive or active mode. Remote
Sensing: Introduction and Basic Concepts Basic concepts of remote sensing

2.EXPLAIN GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSRY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF


DAMS DEFINITION
A DAM may be defined as a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across
a river valley with a view of impounding water flowing through that river. (1)
generation of hydropower energy;
SELECTION OF SITES
Topographically
It would be a narrow gorge or a small valley with enough catchments area
available behind so that when a dam is placed there it would easily store a
calculated volume of water in the reservoir created upstream.
This should be possible without involving significant uprooting of population,
loss of cultivable land due to submergence or loss of existing construction.

Technically
The site should be as sound as possible: strong, impermeable and stable.
Strong rocks at the site make the job of the designer much easy: he can evolve
best deigns.
Impermeable sites ensure better storage inventories.
Stability with reference to seismic shocks and slope failures around the dam,
especially upstream, are a great relief to the public in general and the engineer in
particular.
The slips, slides, and slope failures around and under the dam and susceptibility
to shocks during an earthquake could prove highly hazardous.
Constructionally
The site should not be far off from deposits of materials which would be required
for its construction.

All types of major dams require millions of cubic meters of natural materials
earth, sand, gravel and rock for their construction.
Economically
The benefits arising out of a dam placed at a particular site should be realistic and
justified in terms of land irrigated or power generated or floods averted or water
stored.
Dams are invariably costly structures and cannot be placed anywhere and
everywhere without proper analysis of cost-benefit aspects.
Environmentally
The site where a dam is proposed to be placed and a reservoir created, should not
involve ecological disorder, especially in the life cycles of animals and vegetation
and man.
The fish culture in the stream is the first sector to suffer a major shock due to
construction of a dam. Its destruction may cause indirect effects on the
population.
These effects require as thorough analysis as for other objects. The dam and the
associated reservoir should become an acceptable element of the ecological set up
of the area.
Geological Characters for Investigation
Geology of the Area
Preliminary geological surveys of the entire catchments area followed by detailed
geological mapping of the reservoir area have to be conducted. These should reveal
main topographic features,
natural drainage patterns,
general characters and structures of rock formations such as their stratification,
folding and faulting and igneous intrusions, and
the trend and rate of weathering and erosion in the area.
Geology of the site
Lithology.
The single most important feature that must be known thoroughly at the
site and all around and below the valley up to a reasonable depth is the
Lithology, i.e. types of the rocks that make the area.
Surface and subsurface studies using the conventional and latest
techniques of geological and geophysical investigations are carried out.
Such studies would reveal the type, the composition and textures of the
rocks exposed along the valley floor, in the walls and up to the required
depth at the base.
Rocks are inherently anisotropic materials, showing variation in properties
in different directions.
Complex litho logy definitely poses challenging design problems.
Structures

This involves detailed mapping of planes of weakness like bedding planes,


schistosity, foliation, cleavage, joints, shear zones, faults and fault zones, folding
and the associated features.
While mapping these features, special attention is given to recording their
attitude, spacing and nature.
Shear zones have to be searched, mapped and treated with great caution.
In some cases, these may be developed to such an extent that the rock may
necessitate extensive and intensive rock treatment (e.g. excavation, backfilling
and grouting etc.).

3.GIVE A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE INFLUENCE OF MORE


IMPORTANT STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF ROCKS ON DAM
FOUNDATIONS
Dip and Strike
The strength of sound, un fractured stratified rock is always greater when the
stresses are acting normal to the bedding planes than if applied in other
directions.
This being so, horizontal beds should offer best support for the weight of the
dam.
But as is shown in a latter section, the resultant force is always inclined
downstream.

the most UNFAVOURABLE strike direction is the one in which the beds strike
parallel to the axis of the dam and the dip is downstream
It must be avoided as far as possible.
Therefore, other conditions being same, beds with upstream dips are quite
favorable sites for dam foundations.
Faults

These structures can be source of danger to the dam in a number of ways. Thus,
v The faulted rocks are generally shattered along the rupture surfaces;
v Different types of rocks may be present on either side of a fault plane. Hence,
sites with fault planes require great caution in calculating the design strength in
various sections of the dam.
v Dams founded on beds traversed by fault zones and on major fault planes are
more liable to shocks during an earthquake compared to dams on non-faulted
rocks.
.
4.WHAT ARE THE GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN TUNNELLING
Rocks may be broadly divided into two categories in relation to tunnelling:
v consolidated and
v unconsolidated or soft ground.
Only a brief accounts is given below.
(A) Consolidated Rocks
Tunnel design, method of its excavation and stability are greatly influenced by following
geological conditions: lithology, geological structures and ground water conditions.
Lithology
It has already been mentioned that information regarding mineralogical composition,
textures and structures of the rocks through which the proposed tunnel is to pass is of
great importance in deciding
the method of tunneling
the strength and extent of lining and, thus
the cost of the project.
Hard and Crystalline Rocks
These are excavated by using conventional rock blasting methods and also
by tunnel boring method
In the blasting method, full face or a convenient section of the face is
selected for blasting up to a pre-selected depth
These are loaded with predetermined quantities of carefully selected
explosives of known strength.
The loaded or charged holes are ignited or triggered and the pre-estimated
rocks get loosened as a result of the blast.
The blasting round is followed by a mucking period during which the
broken rock is hauled out of the excavation so created.
The excavations in hard and crystalline rocks are very often self supporting
so that these could be left unlined and next round of blasting in the new
face created is undertaken, ensuring better advance rate.
Rocks falling in this group include granites, diorites, syenites, gabbros,
basalts and all the related igneous rocks, sandstones, limestones,
dolomites, quartzites, arkose, greywackes and the like from sedimentary
group and marbles, gneisses, quartzites, phyllites and slates from the
metamorphic groups.

When any one of these rocks is stressed, such as during folding or


fractured as during faulting, tunnelling in these rocks proves greatly
hazardous.
Rock bursts which occur due to falling of big rock blocks from roofs or
sides due to release of stresses or falling of rock block along fractures
already existing in these rocks often cause many accidents.
Soft Rocks This group includes shales, friable and poorly compacted
sandstones, chalk and porous varieties of limestones and dolomities, slates
and phyllites with high degree of cleavage and also decomposed varieties
of igneous rocks.
Their excavation cost, volume for volume, might be lower than those in
hard rocks.
Hence, temporary and permanent lining becomes necessary that would
involve extra cost and additional time.
Rocks like clays, shales, argillaceous and ferruginous sandstones, gypsum
bands and cavernous limestones have to be viewed specially with great
caution during tunnelling
Fissured Rocks form a category in themselves and include any type of
hard and soft rock that has been deformed extensively due to secondary
fracturing as a result of folding, faulting and metamorphic changes of
shearing type.
Ground Water Conditions
Determination of ground water conditions in the region of tunnel project is not to
be under-estimated at any cost.
In fact ground water level vis--vis tunnel axis is a major factor governing
computations of overhead loads on tunnels and also in the choice of method of
tunnelling.

Groundwater conditions effect the tunnel rocks in two ways


Firstly, through its physico-chemical action, it erodes and corrodes (dissolves) the
susceptible constituents from among the rocks and thereby alters their original
properties constantly with the passage of time.
It might have already done much of this type of job when the tunnel is excavated
through such water-rich rocks.
Secondly, it effects the rock strength parameters by its static and dynamic water
heads.
Such an action may become highly pronounced when an artesian acquifer is
actually intercepted by tunnel excavation.

5.WHAT ARE THE POINTS TO BE NOTED WHILE CONSTRUCTING ROAD CUT


Cutting Inclined to Dip and Strike:
In such cases also, the parallel to strike.

Beds strata will dip across the cutting and the slope of cutting dip into the hill
Safe. will be unequal on both sides.
Hence such a condition would give rise to similar difficulties as encountered in
cuts parallel to strike.
When there is no alternative to cuts either parallel to or inclined to strike (other
than at right angles), special measure might become necessary to ensure stability
of slopes.
Such measures would include Enlarging of the section of the cutting, particularly
on the hillside face, to stable Provision of strong, adequately high retaining walls;
Very efficient drainage system to effectively remove water from the affected
slopes.
Joints
These influence the stability of the cuts in the same way as the bedding planes
When present in great abundance, joints reduce even the hardest rock to a mass of
loosely held up blocks on the side of a cut which could tumble down on slight
vibrations.
Further, even if the joints are few, but are continuous and inclined towards the
free side of the cut, these and inclined towards the free side of the cut, these offer
potential surfaces for slips during the presence of moisture.
In major road construction programmes, therefore, jointed rocks have to be
provided artificial support by breastwalls and retaining walls for ensuring
stability.
Faults
Faulting generally leads to the crushing of the rock along the fault planes and
shear zones.
Such a condition is, of course, very unfavourable for a cut when it happens to
form upper or lower slope or even base of the cut.

It should not be left untreated in any caseWeathering


In some cases, when the strata along or under a cut is composed of layers of rocks
of different hardness, the softer layers get weathered at a faster rate than the
overlying or underlying harder rocks.
This generally results in undermining which might cause slips or falls of the
whole face.
Sometimes, when the top layers are weathered too heavily, the slope might
experience a persistent rock fall or experience debris-fall type of situation from
above.

Ground Water Conditions


It is always- necessary to investigate thoroughly the position of water table of the
area.
It is quite likely that a water bearing zone (aquifer) might be intersecting the base
or slopes of an alignment.
Specific care and design would be required for these natural water conduits.
These are always to be taken as weak and hazardous zones in the road.
It is also known that water exerts important influence on the beating capacity of
the rocks and soil.
Hence when the ground is rich with moisture it would not bear the design loads,
unless these properties of ground have also been determined in moist conditions.
sometimes there is a condition of free flow of ground-water through the soil.
This is quite dangerous for the stability of the road surface laid above such soil

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