Discuss the concept of polycyclic landforms and present an analytical study of

the polycyclic landforms of a selected region.

A landform created by a number of geographical cycles occurring one after another in an
order, leaving their distinct makes on the landscape is called a polycyclic landform. Old age
topography is likely to have superposed upon its
youthful features as a result of rejuvenation which is suggested by topographic
unconformities and may result from the causes which have dynamic, eustatic or static in
nature. Older alluvium terraces like bhanger, synclinal ridges, rejuvenated landforms,
scarped erosional surface, faultline scarps, uplifted peneplanes, palaeomorphic landforms
are some of instances of polycyclic landforms.
A stream may be rejuvenated when land is elevated near its headwater or sea level sinks
near its mouth. The streams ability to erode is renewed and downward cutting starts. This
results in the formation of river terraces and meanders.
The concept of trappean i.e. the step like landscape emerges out from the basaltic plateau
due to solidification of conjugative layers of basaltic material erupting in a fissure mode of
volcanic activity such as Deccan plateau.
Polycyclic terrace formation in south Siberian river valleyIntra-continental river regime and related polycyclic terrace formation has been found in
south and central Siberia. The floods which occurred during cold periods followed phases
where the river regime was relatively stable. Increases in river level during the glacial stages
were a result of the displacement of cyclones which caused an extreme continental climate,
wide spread occurrence of permafrost and formation of ice dams. The simultaneous
accumulation of alluvium on terraces of different heights (polycyclic) occurred during the
extreme high increase of river level.
Hence,we can suppose that the formation of polycyclic landforms are the byproduct of
Davisian geomorphic cycle.

With reference to the theory of plate tectonics, explain the origin and growth
of young fold mountain.
The plate tectonic theory utilising the concept of sea floor spreading and convergent plate
boundary phenomenon very well explained the origin and growth of the young fold
mountain.

Convergent plate boundary can occur between ocean-continental plate and continentcontinent plate. In such interaction the denser plate usually subsides and huge
compressional force is generated.
In case the plates involved are continental and oceanic plate. On convergence, the heavier
plate, usually the oceanic plate subsides under the lighter continental plate. This zone
of subduction is called benioff zone. This subduction of heavy plate under the lighter plate
cause tremendous compressional force. This compressional force compresses the
sedimentary material and pushes them upwards. Thus Fold Mountains are formed. The
denser plate which subsides reach deep in mantle melts due to extreme heat and expands in
volume. This tends to push the fold mountain even higher thus the upward movement is
helped by the melting of the denser plate. Ex : the andes and rockies are formed by
convergence of the pacific plate with the south American and north American plates
respectively.
In case of the continent to continent convergence yet again the denser plate amongst the
two subsides and in the process exerts high compressional force on the other continental
plate. In case of such interaction fold mountain are formed on both plates. The denser plate
which subducts and well as the lighter plate. The subducted plate melts under tremendous
heat and the voluminous expansion in form of magma tend to push the new formed fold
mountain upwards ex: Himalayas fromed due to convergence of indian plate and the
eurassian plate.

Both the views appear similar but not the same. In light of the statement give
detailed comparative analysis of the views of Airy and Pratt on isostasy.
An equilibrium is said to exist between the lithospheric constructs of earth crust, this
balance is called as Isostacy. Sir Airy and Pratt put forward their different approaches
towards explaining this balance.
Airy put forward the "root formation theory", where columns of land of uniform density
differ in their depth.Thus mountains with higher peak would have deeper roots than ocean
basin.
Pratt however differed in his approach of level of compensation, he put forward that height
of column is inversely proportional to its density.And there exists level of compensation
where mass difference of various columns is compensated.
Though we find both concepts deal with root formation and floatation law( flotation of
lighter (Sial) construct on heavier magma.) directly or indirectly.
They differ in their approach where Pratt put forward sinking of construct rather than
floating.Also the level of compensation in Pratts model come out to be a staright line/plane
while Airy gave a zig zag line.Pratt didnt approve of root formation theory.

Thus though both these views appear same preliminary they differ when we give a detail
look.

What is Base level? Explain the types of base level. (250 words)
Base level(j.w.powel,1875) is defined as the level of maximum erosion beyond which no
dryland erosion can take place.
Base level of erosion or base level is level which is determined in relation to the fluctuation
of sea level which takes place either due to plate movement or due to the paleoecological
events such as deglaciation.
Types of Base level
1.grand /ultimate/permanent/general base level
2.temporary base level
3.local base level

1. grand base level is an imaginary curve with concave curve in the upstream followed on by
a gradual slope in the downstream which ultimately meets the sea at the mouth,where the
sea level is tangent to the direction of the base level.Any change in the sea level will have
corresponding change in the base level which may be emergence or submergence which
results corresponding change in base level there by resulting various landforms such as sea
island in case of positive change in sea level;and discordant topography in negative change
in sea level.
2.temporary base level is a level which are created in the long course of the river profile
especially in the complex river regimes such as river danube where due the presence of local
lakes and also the the presence of hard and soft rocks in longitudinal profile of a river which
ultimately degrades as the river approaches a equilibrium ie Grade State.

3.local base level these base level are clearly discernible in hanging valleys where in the
tributaries joining the main stream,will have to degrades its own valleys until it reaches the
main receiving stream and later on joins joins the main stream courses in degrading its
valley till the mouth of the sea level to reach the ultimate base level

Discuss the origin, movements and characteristics of air masses and explain
their role in influencing world climates.
equatorial - influence of cT(or eT-equatorial tropical airmass) hot and moist, much ppt
subtropical desert - cT, dry, offshore movt, subsidence above, no rain
(china/gulf/natal type) - mT, hot and moist, tropical cyclonic flow, rains
(medit/calif) - mT under influence of upper westerlies positioned over 40-50 deg due to
ITCZ moving south, winter rain
british type-infl of mP, warmer, moist due to n atlantic drift
P and T airmass interaction along fronts
(laurentian)- frontal interactions P and T airmasses
(taiga, tundra)-influence of cP or aP(arctic polar), dry, cold, cold waves

Discuss the nature and composition of earths atmosphere.

Atmosphere is the mixture of different gases & it envelops the earth all around. It contains
the life giving gases like Oxygen for humans animals & carbon dioxide for plants.
NATURE OF ATMOSPHERE -The atmosphere is a deep blanket of gases and suspended liquids and solids that entirely
envelops the earth. Compared to the radius of the earth however, the atmosphere is a very
thin layer of air. Half the atmosphere lies below a height of 18,000 ft. It is important to note
down here , Air is an integral part of the earth's mass & 99% of the total mass of the
atmosphere is confined to the height of 32 km from the earths surface.
Influenced by solar radiation, seasonal temperature and precipitation changes, rotation of
the earth, and air/water properties.The atmosphere is structured in layers, including the
troposphere, which supports life, and the stratosphere, which contains the protective ozone
layer.
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE -The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour & dust particles.
GASES --

1] Nitrogen - 78% - Dilutes oxygen and prevents rapid burning at the earth's surface. Living
things need it to make proteins. Nitrogen cannot be used directly from the air. The Nitrogen
Cycle is nature's way of supplying the needed nitrogen for living things.
2] Oxygen - 21% - Used by all living things. Essential for respiration. It is necessary for
combustion or burning.
3] Carbon Dioxide - 0.03% - Plants use it to make oxygen. Acts as a blanket and prevents the
escape of heat into outer space.It is transparent to the incoming solar radiaton but opaque
to outgoing terrestrial radiation.
4] Trace gases - gases found only in very small amounts. They include neon, helium,
krypton, and xenon etc.
WATER VAPOUR -It is decreses with altitude in warm & wet tropics, it may account four percent of the air by
volume, while in dry & cold areas of the desert & polar region, it may be less than one
percent of the air.It also absorb parts of the insolation from the sun & preserve the earth
radiated heat. water vapour also contributes to the stability & instability in the air.
DUST PARTICLES -These are generally concentrated in lower layers of the atmosphere. The higher
concentration of dust particles is found in sub -tropical & temperate regions, due to dry
wind in comparision to equatorial & polar regions. Dust & salt particales act as hygroscopic
nuclei around which water vapour condenses to produce cloud.

Examine critically the drawbacks of Koppens Classification of climates.

Explain how Thornthwaite attempted to overcome Koppens limitations.
Limitations of Koeppen's classification:
Koeppens given undue significance to mean monthly values of temperature and
precipitation in his scheme of climatic classification and neglected other weather elements
such as precipitation intensity, amount of cloudiness .and number of rainy days, daily
temperature extremes and winds etc.
Did not include the characteristics of different air masses in his classification which affect
the temperature and moisture condition of an area significantly.
Very difficult to memorize due to use of letter symbols to indicate different climate types
and subtypes.
How Thornthwaite improved the Koeppen's one.

He accepted the concept that amount of precipitation and temperature had paramount
control on vegetation but he also pleaded for inclusion of evaporation as important factor of
vegetation and climate.
He also given 32 major climate types which were far greater than Koeppen's one and also
reduced the vaguness introduecd by Koeppen's classification.
thornthwaithe also improved following parameters :
-potential evapotranspiration (koeppen just kept it for B while T used it for all)
-took in moisture availability in dry and wet season rather than annual avg rainfall
- figured in precipitation effectiveness-for eg a place with low ppt but with low evaporation
may have sufficient moisture (cool temperate regions lets say)
-both approached systems analysis of climate systems through a descriptive and regional
approach but T much more precise, scientific and objective.

Present a concise account of bottom relief of the Indian Ocean.

The Indian ocean is the smallest of the three great oceans covering approximately 20% of
water from earth surface. Its northern coast is very indented due to land locked nature. And
the average depth of the ocean is 4000mts.
This ocean floor is not notable for its continental shelves. Narrow continental shelves are
found rimming the entire ocean. This largely because of trenches on the eastern side and the
plateau nature of Africa.
The most notable feature of Indian ocean is deep sea fans due to the deposition of sediments
by Gangas and Indus.
Normally trenches are not found except some majors like Dimentina and Sunda trench.
Like Atlantic ocean the most conspicuous feature of Indian ocean is the continuous ocean
ridge found middle of the ocean, which begins from Red sea and then splits near the center
of Indian Ocean forming an inverted Y shape. This inverted Y shape divides the Indian
ocean in to three parts containing many sub-basins.
The Indian abyssal plain and Ceylon abyssal plain are in the north, south Australian plain in
south, Somali abyssal plain in west and the Whartonbasin in the east.
Mid continuous ridge is formed between Kanyakumari and Antarctica. Charlsburg ridge
divides the Arabian sea in to equal halves.
Most of the islands of the Indian ocean are fragments separated from the continents e.g.
Andaman and Nicober, Srilanka, Madagascar, Zanziber etc. Laccadweep & Minicoy,

Maldweep are some of the examples of coralian islands. Mauritius and Reunion are
examples of volcanic islands.
The remarkable feature of Indian ocean topography is that it is dominated by scattered
blocks and some remarkable linear plateaus called micro-continents.

Discuss the salient features of sirocco and mistral.

Sirocco & Mistral both are the Local Wind, flowing in a part of a world.
Sirocco:
1) It is a warm, dry and dusty local wind which blows in northerly direction from Sahara
desert.
2) It originates over North Africa as a dry wind and picks up moisture as it crosses the
Mediterranean.
3) The sirocco is produced on the east sides of low-pressure centres that travel eastward
over the southern Mediterranean or northern Africa.
4) Along the northern African coast the winds from the Sahara desert, produce hot, dry and
dusty conditions. Visibility becomes very poor and the fine blowing dust might result in
damage to instruments and equipment.
5) It picks moisture from over Mediterranean sea and causes rainfall over Southern Europe
called BLOOD RAIN.
6) Sirocco winds with speeds of up to 100 kilometers per hour are most common during the
autumn and the spring.
Mistral:
1) Strong, cold and dry wind that blow from North-west to South-east direction in Spain and
France.
2) These are more common during winter season because of development of High pressure
over Europe and Low pressure over Mediterranean sea.
3) The average velocity is 55-65 km/hr but sometimes reaches 125 km/hr
4) Sudden drop in air temperature below freezing point.
5) Its strength is increased by the funneling effect of the Rhone valley.

Explain the illustrate the ocean floor topography and give a detailed account
of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
OCEAN FLOOR TOPOGRAPHY -Ocean floor topography refers to the different forms in which the ocean floor bottom can
exist. It includes the different physical features like Continental Shelf, Hills, Mountains,
Submarine Cayons ( deep vallys or trenches ) all covered with water.
A] CONTINENTAL MARGIN -As the continent ends and we approach the ocean, we see some drastic changes in the
Earths geology. This transitional area is known as the " Continental Margin ". This area
includes both the " continental shelf and the continental slope ". As we first proceed into the
water, we are standing on the continental shelf. This gradually sloping and shallow area
generally contains water that is only a couple of hundred feet deep. The width of the
continental shelf varies greatly depending on location. For e.g. Off the coast of Maine, the
shelf extends for about 200 kilometers. In other places, like the Atlantic coast of Florida, the
continental shelf is very narrow, somewhere in the 1 -2 kilometer range, or less.
" Continental Slope " is the zone of steep slope extending from continetnal shelf to deep sea
plains which is varies in nature e.g. 5 dgr to 15 dgr near calicut coast in India, 30 dgr of
spanish coast.
B] SUBMARINE CANYONS -Long, narrow & very deep vallys located on continental shelves & slope called Submarine
Canyons. The Canoyons facing the river mouth are usually long e.g. Congo canyons. these
canyons carry various type of ocean deposits. i.e. sands, slits, clays etc.
For instance: Pulicat canyons, Pondechery canyons, Krishna canyons are present on east
coast of India.
c] ABYSSAL PLAINS -These are large, flat areas on the ocean floor covered with a thick layer of sediment and
decomposing organic ooze. Abyssal plains are larger in the Atlantic ocean than they are in
the Pacific.
D] SEAMOUNTS -Large, undersea volcanoes called ' SEAMOUNTS ' occasionally rise from the depths.
Sometimes the peaks of these giant underwater volcanoes reach to the surface to form
volcanic islands. For instance: The island of Hawaii is really the top of a seamount that is
over 9,600 meters tall.
E] OCEAN TRENCHES -narrow & deep vallys, are found along the edge of ocean basins. These trenches contain the

deepest parts of the ocean. For instance: The deepest spot on Earth is located in the western
Pacific, near Guam in the Mariana Trench ( Challenger Deep ).
MID ATLANTIC RIDGE (MAR ) -This forms an interconnected chain of mountain system within the ocean. It is the longest
mountain chain on the surface of the earth though submerged under the oceanic water. It is
charecterised by a central rift system at the crest, a fractional plateau & flank zone all along
its lenth. The rift system at the crest is the zone of intense volcanic activity. It is extends
from Iceland in the north & to Bouvet Island in South. MAR is the result of westeward
movement of American plate & eastward movement of Eurasian & African plate. Though
major part of the MAR is submerged under water but a host of peaks & sea mounts
projected well bove the ocean surface ; For Instance : The Pico Island of Azores is the
highest peak .

Describe the origin and development of thunderstorms with examples.

Thuderstrom are severe local stroms , which are of short duration, occuring over small area
but are violent.
Origin of Thunderstrom -Thunderstorms originate when, an air mass becomes so unstable that it overturns
(convects) violently. Pockets of rising near-surface air in an unstable air mass expand and
cool, and as some of the water vapor present condenses into a cloud it releases heat, which
then makes the air parcel even warmer, forcing it to rise still higher in the atmosphere.
If the lower level air is sufficiently warm and humid, and the higher altitude air is
sufficiently cool, this process continues until a tall convective cloud -- the thunderstorm -- is
formed.
For eg : Thunderstorms are most common in the afternoon over land, when daytime heating
of the land by the sun causes the lower part of the troposphere to become unstable from
higher temperatures and more water vapor in the air.
Development of Thunderstrom -Most thunderstorms developed by a cycle that has three stages:
1] Cumulus Stage -The sun heats the Earth's surface during the day. The heat on the surface and warms the air
around it. Since warm air is lighter than cool air, it starts to rise. If the air is moist, then the
warm air condenses into a " cumulus cloud ". The cloud will continue to grow as long as
warm air below it continues to rise.

2] Mature Stage -When the cumulus cloud becomes very large, the water in it becomes large and heavy.
Raindrops start to fall through the cloud when the rising air can no longer hold them up.
Meanwhile, cool dry air starts to enter the cloud. Because cool air is heavier than warm air,
it starts to descend in the cloud. The downdraft pulls the heavy water downward, making
rain.
This cloud has become a " cumulonimbus cloud " because it has an updraft, a downdraft,
and rain. Thunder and lightning start to occur, as well as heavy rain.
3] Dissipating Stage -After about 30 minutes, the thunderstorm begins to dissipate. This occurs when the
downdrafts in the cloud begins to dominate over the updraft. Since warm moist air can no
longer rise, cloud droplets can no longer form. The storm dies out with light rain as the
cloud disappears from bottom to top.
Figure - showing above mentioned developmental stages.
Another type of Thunderstrom called " Supercell thunderstrom " which are much larger,
more powerful, and last for several hours.

Discuss the nature and origin of Indian monsoon and recent techniques of its
prediction.
Monsoon is a highly welcoming climatic phenomenon in india , where it is related to the
Socio - Economic life of people from centuries.
Monsoon in India can be categorized into two branches based on their spatial spread over
the sub-continent:
1] Arabian sea branch ( South-West monsoon ).
2] Bay of Bengal branch ( North-East monsoon).
NATURE OF INDIAN MONSOON -A] The word Monsoon it self indicate that, these are the wind system which have directional
change from summer season to winter season & seen as a continuation of south east trades
deflected towards the indian subcontinent after crossing equator. The low presure zone
developed over sub-continent during summer season attracts the south east trades across
the equator.
B] Bursting of monsoon -- The onset of the sudden change in weather conditions in India
due to abrupt rise in the mean daily rainfall. Similarly the burst of NE monsoon marks an
abrupt increase in the mean daily rainfall over the affected regions.
c] " Vagaries " is the word used by communication media to show the " variability & erratic
nature of monsoon ". In some years it rains to much causing flood in various part of india,

for instance , yearly flood in northeast region ( mainly aasam ) due to heavy rain in
Brahmputra catchment region. In some area it rains very littile causing the drought like
situation e.g. North western part of country , continental peninsular part like telangana ,
Marathwada etc.
D] Break in Monsoon -- It denotes the dry spell in SW monsson for few days, which is due to
weakning of rain bearing stroms & over western coast it is due to blowing of wind parallel to
coast.
ORIGIN OF INDIAN MONSOON -The origin can be traced backed into the following facts 1] Differential heating & cooling of huge landmas of Asia & Indian ocean which , helps to
attracts the moisture bearing wind system.
2] Existance of " upper air circum polar whirl " over north & south poles in troposphere
resulted in blowing of winds in curved paths in a cyclonic system.
3] Position of " Himalayas " which act as a barrier & " Tibetian plateau " the intense Heat
source.
4] Circulation of " upper air jet stream " in Troposphere ; which help to form upper air low
pressure & cyclonic air circulation over Tibetian plateau.
TECHNIQUES OF MONSOON PREDICTIONS -A] Statistical Aproach -- In the statistical approach, the variables are certain meteorological
(regional and global) parameters that have been found to be statistically well-correlated to
the India Summer Monsoon Rainfall ( ISMR ).
B] Dynamical Modelling -- It uses vast amounts of computing power to simulate the
atmosphere at any given day, or hour, and extrapolating from that instants weather. It is
considered as the gold standard of meteorology - and almost routinely employed to predict
weather a week or fortnight ahead.
Some other techniques of predictions are ; Seasonal prediction , IMD - Pune Model , IMD Delhi model ( 2003 ).
Give a detailed account of MID ATLANTIC RIDGE (MAR ) -This forms an interconnected chain of mountain system within the ocean. It is the longest
mountain chain on the surface of the earth though submerged under the oceanic water. It is
charecterised by a central rift system at the crest, a fractional plateau & flank zone all along
its lenth. The rift system at the crest is the zone of intense volcanic activity. It is extends
from Iceland in the north & to Bouvet Island in South. MAR is the result of westeward
movement of American plate & eastward movement of Eurasian & African plate. Though
major part of the MAR is submerged under water but a host of peaks & sea mounts

projected well bove the ocean surface ; For Instance : The Pico Island of Azores is the
highest peak .

Offshore Acoustic Study helped the development of the concept of

sea floor spreading. Explain.( 250 words)
:Sound in the sea, which oceanographers refer to as underwater acoustics," offers the most
effective means of exploring a wide variety of natural phenomena over large regions of the
global ocean. The unique properties of temperate and tropical seas result in a permanent
layer in the ocean in which sound energy can propagate over great distances with very little
signal loss. By placing underwater listening devices (hydrophones) within this layer, sound
can be monitored from distances ranging from hundreds to thousands of kilometers.
There have been several experiments conducted to explore the ocean basins and one of the
major breakthrough is Sea Floor Spreading.As we know mid oceanic ridges(MOR) are an
important feature of the oeans and they are associated with fissure volcanism which is not
very violent but calm but even that produces some sound and that sound can be observed
and recorded by using hydrophones as used by IAEA to detect nuclear explosion in water for
CTBT.
As the technology developed this offshore acoustics study has been very important in
finding out the exact location, shape, intensity of the volcanism at MOR and details about
Sea Floor Spreading along with magnetic anomalies concept developed by H.Hess, Vine and
Matthews, which subsequently proved the concept of plate tectonics theory.

Compare the Subsidence and Glacial control theories on the

formation of coral reefs. (400 Marks)
ubsidence Theory
1_Presented by Darwin in 1837 to solve the presence of coral reefs at depths where Coral
Polyps can not survive.
2_He opined that Coral Polyps grew on stable platforms and islands which underwent
subsequent subsidence.
3_Coral Polyps grew and fringing reefs were formed on these stable but slowly subsiding
platforms, subsidence given rise to barrier reef from earlier fringing reef and lagoons
formed.
4_Further subsidence given rise to Atolls once the islands are subsided below sea level.
5_Lagoons did not increase in spite of gradual subsidence due to continuous sedimentation.

6_Several Evidence in Support of the theory like shallowness of lagoons, absence of

cliffs,emergence is associated with no reefs in Pacific Ocean, steep slopes of islands having
atolls, increasing thickness of reefs with increasing depth reveals the fact that coral reefs are
formed along the subsiding base of marine platforms.
Glacial Control Theory:
1_Daly propounded this theory in 1915 after he was convinced that coral reefs were formed
after Pleistocene Ice Age.
2_In Pleistocene Ice Age seal level fell my 198 to 200 feet and existing coral died due to
lowering of temperature, few survived.
3_Wave cut platforms were created during ice age along the continental coasts and islands
due to abrasion by sea waves.
4_At the end of Ice Age sea level again rose back to earlier level ans wave cut platforms were
submerged under sea.Surviving Coral Polyps began to grow on these platforms on the
seaward side.
5_Fringing reefs were developed on narrow platforms and barrier reefs on broad platforms,
Atolls were formed on isolated wave eroded island peaks.
6_Criticised as the theory implied that depth of lagoons in barrier reefs and atolls would be
same but that is not the case, absence of cliffs along the coasts which could have been
formed due to wave cutting,there should not be any island between coral reefs and coastal
areas but they are found.
Subsidence theory was further modified by famous Geomorphologist WM Davis in 1914-15
and got new strength and most viable theory for Coral Reefs Formation till now.
AND
1) Darwin believed that initially the submarine platform is stable on which the upward
growth of the coral occurs. But once the Fringing reef develops, platform starts to subsidise
resulting into the growth of barrier reefs and finally atoll. Daly didn't believe in the role of
subsiding platform in the formation of coral reefs. Instead he assumed that coral platform is
stable for their entire life-cycle. The structure and time of the formation of coral reef rather
depends on the ocean temperature.
2) According to Darwin, sea level remains constant during coral reef formation. Daly
accepted changes in sea level because of alternate glaciation and melting cycle.
3) In Darwin's theory ocean temperature has no role, but Daly attached major importance to
the ocean temperature in forming coral reefs. According to him, during ice age, ocean temp
went much below killing all existing corals.

4) According to Darwin's hypothesis, Fringing reef, Barrier reef and Atoll are the
evolutionary stages of growth of coral reefs. So no two of them can exists simultaneously.
But Daly didn't believe in such subsequent growth phases and accepted their combined
existence which is more closer to reality.
5) According to Daly coral reefs have formed after Pleistocene Ice age and he didn't believe
the atolls and barrier bars of today existed before the glacial period. But no such timeline
restriction is accepted in Darwin's theory.
6) Both of them accepted the shallow depth of the coral reef adjacent lagoon and it's flat
bottom, but they have attributed different reasons for it. According to Darwin, erosion
during the crustal subsidence supplied the sediments for deposition. But according to Daly,
at the end of ice age when the existing coral died, marine waves eroded the coral reef and
atolls and that is the source of sediments.
PS: Make your answer a blend of above two answers.

Illustrate the origin and nature of Sargasso Sea and Lagoon

Sargasso Sea(Sargassum-Sea Weeds) is an anticyclonic circulation of ocean currents
comprising the North Equatorial Current(NEC), Gulf Stream and Canary Current in the
North Atlantic Ocean.Similar phenomenon is not found in South Atlantic Sea because of
unfavourable conditions.
Origin:
1_Sizable portion of North Atlantic Water got trapped in anticyclonic circulation of NEC,
Gulf Stream and Canary Current so no connection with other waters so becomes calm and
motionless.
2_Located in transition zone of NE Trade Winds and Westerlies, subsidence of air,
anticyclonic conditions given rise to calm conditions, very less mixing of this confined water
with other North Atlantic Water.
3_Less extensive North Atlantic Ocean between 20 to 40 N
4_Calmness due to high velocity of NEC and Gulf Stream.
Nature:
1_Highest salinity 37 %o due to high temperature and evaporattion, also increaes due to no
mixing of water.
2_Mean annual temperature is 28 degree C.
3_Sea is covered with rootless sea weeds which obstructs navigations.

missing of 13 species of animals, between worms, nudibranchs, crustaceans, and sea

spiders which were earlier present in sea due to changing Ocean Currents.
b] The Sargasso Sea faces potential harm from a variety of sources. These sources include
pollution from ship and land-based sources and " the harvesting of Sargassum for use as
fertilizer and biofuels ". The Sargasso Sea ecosystem also may be vulnerable to global threats
such as climate change and ocean acidification.

Analyse the reasons for a comparatively poorer development of

fishing grounds in tropical areas. ( 250 words)
Fishes in Tropical areas has the high containt of Fat & oil resulting in less demand for
human consumption. For Instance: Oily fish, such as sardines, contain between 10-25% of
fat.
Impure shoals.
The Temperature condition in Tropical areas is also harsh; Fishes are very sensitive to
temperatures, and when the temperatures warm because of climatic condition the fish will
move away. along with that, Fish usually migrate to feed or to reproduce.
The another one major reason for the poorer fishing condition is, " Lack of Single Species "
of fishes in specific area. For Instance: " Pelagic fish " which is, few amoung abudentelly
found fish species in Tropical area.
Continental Shelf isn't vast in tropical latitudes. Hence, poor fishing grounds
pollution, Vegetarian population
non availability of mixing of cold and wram currents --> phytoplanktons, which give rise to
fishing grounds
extinction of corals

What are nappes? Explain the theories related to origin of rift valleys.
Nappes are the topographical features created due to excessive folding of the rock strata.
When a recumbent fold whose limbs are nearly horizontal is subjected to further folding,
then the rocks are fractured along the axis of folding and one arm of the fold thus broken is
pushed a long distance from its original position.Such displaced rock masses are called
nappes.
The origin of rift valleys still remains a mystery. The hypotheses regarding the origin of the
rift valley are grouped in two categories:
Tensional hypothesis: It is based on the concept of dropped keystone of the arch' of the
building. When two parallel cracks developed in the crustal surface due to tensional forces
and when the side blocks on the either side of the crack are pulled apart due to tensional

forces, the middle portion sinks downward and thus an open space is formed called as rift
valley.
But it is criticized on the basis that when faulted middle block sank the it would be able to
displace magma lying below it. Thus it would be followed by volcanic activities which were
not observed.
Compressional Hypothesis: The main proponent of this theory was E.C Bullard. This theory
proposes that the cracks are developed due to compressive force and the side blocks are
thrown up along the thrust fault in the form of horsts. These upthrown blocks are called
overthrusting rift blocks. The middle portion is forced to slip downward called as rift block.
Two figures showing tensional and compression forces have to be drawn

Certainly the problem of mountain building is one in which the

hypothesis of continental rift solves more difficulties than it creates.
Explain in the light of continental drift theory by Alfred Wegener.
Harold Jeffrey's thermal hypothesis which described mountains as random wrinkles over
earth surface created during cooling of the earth in geological past. It was under criticism as
it could not explains dynamism associated with mountain chains of the world i.e. increase in
height, underlying seismisity and vulcanism, marine sediments on mountain top. It also
count all mountains as of same age as they are produced during cooling.
Alfred Wegner's hypothesis was new in it's explanation to these events. He associated origin
of mountains to drifting continents as he assumes light SIALIC continental mass moves over
denser and molten SIMATIC mass. He explained origin of Alps as folding and uplifting of
geosyncline between eurasian and african plate and that of Rookies and Andes as crumbling
and uplifting of SIMA while American continents drifted westward. He also proceeded to
explain seismisity as result of friction bet SIAL and SIMA.
As he attempted to paint the whole canvass with a single brush, he contradicted himself as
initially he assume floating and easy moving of SIAL over SIMA and later explaining
mountain building as result of crumbling and upfolding due to friction between them. His
hypothesis also could not explain continentality of some mountain chains like Ural so as no
convincing explaination for drifting force.
Inspite of this his explaination of mountain building was a great leap forward in explaining
geological phenomenon and served as basis for plate tectonic theory-a greatest piece of
geological synthesis.