Chapter3 (Compatibility Mode)

3 Fluid Statics
ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

3
Fluid Statics
3-1
3 Fluid Statics
3
Fluid Statics
3.1
Introduction / Motivation
3.2
Pressure
3.2.1
Pressure at a Point
3.3
Variation of Pressure with Depth
3.3.1
Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids
3.3.2
Hydrostatic Pressure in Gases
3.4
Measurement of Pressure and Manometry
3.4.1
Barometer
3.4.2
U-Tube Manometer
3.4.3
Inclined-Tube Manometer
3.5
Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Submerged Surfaces
3.5.1
Magnitude of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
3.5.2
Direction of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
3.5.3
Line of Action of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
3-2
3 Fluid Statics
3
Fluid Statics
3.5.3.1
Determination of yP
3.5.3.2
Determination of xP
3.5.4
Centroidal Coordinates and Moments of Area
3.6
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Submerged Surfaces
3.6.1
Horizontal Component
3.6.2
Vertical Component
3.7
Buoyancy
3.7.1
Physical Explanation for Origin of Buoyancy
Force
3.7.2
Buoyancy Force on Submerged Bodies
3.7.3
Buoyancy Force on Floating Bodies
3.8
Stability
3.8.1
Notion of Stability
3.8.2
Stability of Submerged Bodies
3.8.3
Stability of Floating Bodies
3-3
3 Fluid Statics
Learning Objectives
To understand:
The concept of pressure & how it varies in a fluid at rest
How to calculate & measure pressure with manometers
The concept of buoyancy
How to calculate forces on plane and curved surfaces,
including buoyancy forces
How to calculate the stability of floating objects
How to calculate forces and pressures in many
typical static fluid mechanics problems
3-4
3 Fluid Statics
3.1
Fluid statics fluids at rest
Hydrostatics liquids
Aerostatics gases
Fluid statics
no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers
no relative motion between fluid and solid surface
no shear (tangential) stresses
Recall: du dy 0 u = 0, or constant
everywhere
only normal stresses force exerted on fluid at rest is
normal to surface at point of contact
Normal stress is the pressure
Fluid statics pressure variation only due to weight of
fluid involves gravity fields and gravitational
acceleration g
3-5
3 Fluid Statics
3.1
Applications / significance of fluid statics:

Pressure distribution in atmosphere and oceans
Design of manometer pressure measuring
instruments
Forces on submerged plane (flat) and curved
surfaces
Design of water dams, liquid storage tanks
Buoyancy forces acting on floating or submerged
bodies
Stability analysis of floating and submerged bodies
3-6
3 Fluid Statics
3.2
Pressure
KEY IDEA: Pressure is normal force on a fluid per unit

area
normal stress
SI units: N/m2 or Pa
Standard atmospheric pressure 101.33 kPa
Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician &
philosopher, did the early experiments with
barometer, and based on these, suggested that the
pressure remains constant throughout a static fluid,
and independent of the shape or cross section of the
container (Pascal Principle)
1623-1662
Together with Fermat, Pascal also puts the theory of

probability on firm foundation (Pascals triangle)
Unit of pressure is named after him: 1 Pa = 1N/1m2
3-7
3 Fluid Statics
3.2
Pressure
KEY IDEA: Absolute pressure (Pabs)
actual pressure at a given point
measured relative to absolute vacuum (absolute zero
pressure)
cannot be negative
KEY IDEA: Gage pressure (Pgage)
Difference between
absolute pressure
and local atmospheric
pressure
Pgage = Pabs - Patm
3-8
3 Fluid Statics
3.2
Pressure
KEY IDEA: Vacuum pressure (Pvac)
Used when absolute pressure falls below atmospheric
pressure
Negative gage pressure
Pvac = Patm - Pabs
3-9
3 Fluid Statics
3.2.1 Pressure at a Point

Pressure at any point
in a fluid is the same
in all directions
Pressure is a scalar
quantity: it has a
magnitude, but not a
specific direction
Consider wedgeshaped fluid element
of unit length (into
page) in equilibrium
3-10
3 Fluid Statics

Mean pressures at three surfaces are P1, P2 and P3
Newtons second law force balance in x- and zdirections:
ma x 0 P1z P3l sin 0
(3.2.1)
1
Fz maz 0 P2 x P3l cos 2 g xz 0 (3.2.2)
weight of fluid element
From geometry:
x l cos
(3.2.3)
z l sin
(3.2.4)
3-11
3 Fluid Statics

Substituting (3.2.3) and (3.2.4) into (3.2.1) and (3.2.2)
yields:
P1 P3 0
(3.2.5)
1
P2 P3 g z 0
2
(3.2.6)
z 0 last term in (3.2.6) goes to zero wedge
becomes infinitesimal fluid element shrinks to a point
Combining the above results,

(3.2.7)
P1 P2 P3 P
regardless of value of
KEY IDEA: Pressure at a point in a fluid
has the same magnitude in all directions
3-12
3 Fluid Statics
3.3
Consider a rectangular fluid element of height z, length
x, and unit depth (into page) in equilibrium:
3-13
3 Fluid Statics
3.3
Force balance in vertical z-direction:
maz 0 Px P P x g xz 0
Px g xz 0
P g z 0
In the limit as z 0 :
KEY IDEA:
dP
g
dz
(3.3.1)
Negative sign pressure in a static fluid increases with

depth
3-14
3 Fluid Statics
3.3.1 Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids
3-15
3 Fluid Statics

Assume incompressible fluid = constant
Integrating (3.3.1) between two points with elevations z1
and z2:
P2
z2
P1
z1
dP g dz
P2 P1 g z2 z1
(3.3.2)
KEY IDEA: Easier to remember:
Pbottom P top g z
(3.3.3)
where z is the absolute difference in depth between

the two points of interest
3-16
3 Fluid Statics

KEY IDEA: Pressure in a fluid is independent of shape or
cross section of container
Except for small diameter tubes where surface
tension effects become significant
KEY IDEA: Pressures changes with vertical distance
(depth), but remains constant in other directions
KEY IDEA: Pressure is the same at all points on a
horizontal plane in a given fluid
KEY IDEA: Pascals law If a continuous line can be
drawn through the same fluid from point 1 to point 2,
P1 = P2 if z1 = z2
3-17
3 Fluid Statics
Same pressures at A, B, C, D, E, F and G since they are

at the same depth and they are interconnected by same
fluid
H and I pressures different since these 2 points
cannot be interconnected by the same fluid, even though
they are at same depth
3-18
3 Fluid Statics

Pressure force exerted by fluid always normal to surface
at specified points
Multiple immiscible fluids of different densities stacked
on top of one another:
P1 Patm 1 gh1 2 gh2 3 gh3
3-19
3 Fluid Statics

In summary:
KEY IDEA: Pressure change across fluid column of
height h is
P gh
KEY IDEA: Pressure increases downward with depth in

a given fluid Pbottom > Ptop
KEY IDEA: Pascals law 2 points at same elevation in
a continuous fluid at rest are at the same pressure
KEY IDEA: Pressure is constant across a flat fluid-fluid
interface
3-20
3 Fluid Statics
3.3.2 Hydrostatic Pressure in Gases

Gases are compressible constant appreciable
changes in gas density with changes in pressure and
temperature
Assume ideal gas law equation of state:
where
(3.3.4)
P RT
P : absolute pressure
R : gas constant
T : absolute temperature
Substituting (3.3.4) into (3.3.1):
dP
gP
dz
RT
Separating the variables:
P2
(3.3.5)
z2
P2
dP
g dz
P P ln P1 R z T
1
1
Assume isothermal conditions T = T0 = constant:
g z 2 z1
P2 P1 exp
RT
0
(3.3.6)
3-21
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.1
Earths Standard Atmosphere
3-22
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.1
In the troposphere (from sea-level (z = 0) to z =11 km),
temperature variation is of the form
T T1 z
(3.3.7)
where
T1 = 288.16 K = 15C (temperature at sea-level)

= 0.00650 K/m (lapse rate)
From (3.3.7):
(3.3.8)
dT dz
Using (3.3.5):
dP
gP
dz
RT
(3.3.5)
Substituting (3.3.8) into (3.3.5) and integrating:
dP
gP
dT
RT
dP
g dT
P R T
3-23
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.1
At z = 0, P = P1 = 101.33 kPa, T = T1. Hence
P
dP
g dT
P P T R T
g
1
1
T R
P
g
T
ln
ln ln
P1 R T1
T1
T1 z
P
ln ln
P1
T1
z
P P1 1
T1
g
R
g
R
(3.3.9)
g
where
5.26 for air
R
In the stratosphere (from z = 11 km to z = 20.1 km),

T = T0 = constant = -56.5C
Pressure distribution is given by (3.3.6)
3-24
3 Fluid Statics
3.4
Measurement of Pressure and Manometry
3.4.1 Barometer
Barometer used for measuring

atmospheric pressure
A tube is filled with mercury and
inverted while submerged in a
reservoir
PB Patm
Mercury has a very low vapor

pressure of 0.16 Pa at room
temperature of 20C nearvacuum in closed upper end
PC 0
Force balance in vertical direction:
Patm gh
Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647)

3-25
3 Fluid Statics
3.4.1 Barometer
At sea-level, with Patm = 101.33 kPa, and Hg = 13,595
kg/m3, barometric height is h = 0.76 m
A water barometer would be 10.3 m high
Length and cross-sectional area of tube have no effect
on h, provided tube diameter is sufficiently large to avoid
surface tension (capillary) effects:
3-26
3 Fluid Statics
3.4.2 U-Tube Manometer

Manometers vertical or inclined liquid columns for
measuring pressure differences
Simple open U-tube manometer for measuring PA in a

closed chamber relative to atmospheric pressure Patm,
i.e. gage pressure
3-27
3 Fluid Statics
3.4.2 U-Tube Manometer

Begin at A move down to level z1 (add g z )
jump across fluid 2 to the same pressure P1 move up
to level z2 (subtract g z ):
PA 1 g z A z1 2 g z1 z2 P2 Patm
PA 1 g z A z1 2 g z2 z1 P2
PA P2 1 g z A z1 2 g z1 z2
Another approach:
apply (3.3.2) repeatedly, jumping across at equal
pressures when we come to a continuous mass of
same fluid:
PA P2 PA P1 P1 P2
1 g z A z1 2 g z1 z2
3-28
3 Fluid Statics
Example 2.2
Multiple-fluid manometer
Find pressure difference between chambers A and B
Solution:
PA PB
PA P1 P1 P2 P2 P3 P3 PB
1 g z A z1 2 g z1 z2 3 g z2 z3 4 g z3 zB
3-29
3 Fluid Statics
3.4.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer

To measure small pressure differences
PA 1 gh1 PB 3 gh3 2 gl2 sin

PA PB 2 gl2 sin 3 gh3 1 gh1
PA PB 3 gh3 1 gh1
l2
2 g sin
3-30
3 Fluid Statics
3.4.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer

For a given pressure difference, differential reading l2 of
inclined-tube manometer can be increased over that
obtained with conventional manometer by factor 1 sin
Make small differential reading along inclined tube
becomes large for small pressure differences
3-31
3 Fluid Statics
3.5
On a plane surface, hydrostatic forces form a system of

parallel forces need to determine
Magnitude of resultant hydrostatic force
Point of application of resultant hydrostatic force
(center of pressure)
Consider the top flat,
arbitrary shape surface,

completely submerged in
a liquid
Plane surface lies in xyplane, making an angle of
with the horizontal free
surface
x-axis is the line of
intersection of plane
surface with horizontal
free surface
z-axis passes through O
and is normal to plane
surface
3-32
3 Fluid Statics
3.5
Aim: to find resultant force

and its line of action
3-33
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.1 Magnitude of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
Absolute pressure at any general point on the plate:
P P0 gh
P P0 gy sin
where
h: vertical distance of the point from free surface

y: distance of point from x-axis (from point O)
Hydrostatic force acting on differential area dA:
dF PdA
Resultant hydrostatic force
acting on surface:
dF P0 gy sin dA
dF PdA
P gy sin dA
P A g sin ydA
FR
FR
FR
3-34
3 Fluid Statics

But first moment of area
ydA y
where yC is the y-coordinate of the centroid (or geometric

center) of the surface
Substituting,
FR P0 A g sin yC A
FR P0 gyC sin A
FR P0 ghC A
FR PC A
where
(3.5.1)
(3.5.2)
(3.5.3)
hC yC sin
is the vertical distance of the centroid C from the free

surface of the liquid and
3-35
3 Fluid Statics
PC P0 ghC
is the pressure at the centroid C of the surface, which is
equivalent to the average pressure on the surface.
Hence,
FR PC A Pave A
KEY IDEA: The magnitude of the resultant force acting
on a plane surface of a completely submerged plate in a
homogeneous (constant density) fluid is equal to the
product of the pressure PC at the centroid of the surface
and the area A of the surface
3-36
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.2 Direction of Resultant Hydrostatic Force

Since all the differential forces that were summed to
obtain FR are perpendicular to the surface, the
resultant FR must also be perpendicular to the surface
3-37
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.3 Line of Action of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
Let line of action of resultant force FR pass through

center of pressure CP with coordinates (xP, yP). This
point that the resultant force acts is determined by the
moment condition
3.5.3.1
Determination of yP
yP is determined by equating moment of resultant force
FR about the x-axis to moment
of distributed pressure force
about the x-axis:
y P FR ydF yPdA
A
yp is the distance of CP from

x-axis
3-38
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.3.1
Determination of yP
y P FR y P0 gy sin dA
A
y P FR P0 ydA g sin y 2dA

A
yP FR P0 yC A g sin I xx ,O
(3.5.4)
Second moment of area of plane surface about the xaxis passing through O:
I xx ,O y 2 dA
Parallel axis theorem:
(3.5.5)
I xx ,O I xx ,C yC2 A
(3.5.6)
Ixx,C is the second moment of area of plane surface about
an axis passing through the centroid and parallel to the
x-axis
yC (y-coordinate of centroid) is the distance between the
two parallel axes
3-39
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.3.1
Determination of yP
Substituting (3.5.1) and (3.5.6) into (3.5.4),
yP FR P0 yC A g sin I xx ,O
FR P0 gyC sin A
(3.5.4)
I xx ,O I xx ,C yC2 A
yP P0 gyC sin A P0 yC A g sin I xx ,C yC2 A

yP P0 A yC P0 A yP yC gA sin yC2 gA sin g sin I xx ,C
yP yC P0 A yP yC yC gA sin g sin I xx ,C
g sin I xx ,C
yP yC
P0 A yC gA sin
yP yC
I xx ,C
P0 g sin yC A
(3.5.7)
3-40
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.3.1
Determination of yP
KEY IDEA: If P0 = 0 (considering gage pressures),
(3.5.7) becomes
I xx ,C
(3.5.8)
yP yC
yC A
KEY IDEA:
Resultant force FR does not pass through centroid C
but passes through center of pressure CP
Since I xx ,C 0 , y y
P
C
CP lower than C
yC A
(except when = 0)
As yC increases, CP moves closer to C
3-41
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.3.1
Determination of yP
3-42
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.3.2
Determination of xP
3-43
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.3.2
Determination of xP
Summing moments about the y-axis,
xP FR xdF xPdA
A
xP FR x P0 gy sin dA
A
xP FR P0 xdA g sin xydA

A
xP FR P0 xC A g sin I xy ,O
(3.5.9)
Cross moment of area of plane surface about the x- and

y-axes passing through O:
I xy ,O xydA
(3.5.10)
I xy ,O I xy ,C xC yC A
(3.5.11)
Parallel axis theorem:
3-44
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.3.2
Determination of xP
Ixy,C is the cross moment of area of plane surface about

axes passing through the centroid and parallel to the xand y-axes
Substituting (3.5.1) and (3.5.11) into (3.5.9),
xP xC
I xy ,C
P0 g sin yC A
(3.5.12)
If P0 = 0 (considering gage pressures), (3.5.12) becomes
xP xC
I xy ,C
yC A
(3.5.13)
3-45
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.3.2
Determination of xP
Note:
Ixy,C can be positive, negative or zero
Ixy,C = 0 plane surface is symmetrical with respect
to an axis passing through the centroid and parallel to
either the x- or y-axes xP = xC CP lies directly
below C along the y-axis
Can assume P0 = 0 if same ambient pressure acting
on both sides of surface
3-46
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.4 Centroidal Coordinates and Moments of Area

Centroidal coordinates and moments of area for some
common areas are given as follows:
3-47
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.4
Centroidal Coordinates and Moments of Area
3-48
3 Fluid Statics
Reviewing
The magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane surface of a

completely submerged plate in a homogeneous (constant density)
fluid is equal to the product of the pressure PC at the centroid of the
surface and the area A of the surface
FR PC A Pave A
3-49
3 Fluid Statics
Reviewing
In the case of gage pressure (or set Po = 0)
I xx ,C
yP yC
yC A
xP xC
I xy ,C
yC A
3-50
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.3
Gate 5 m wide is
hinged at B and
rests against smooth
wall at A
Find:
a) Force on gate
due to water
pressure
b) Horizontal force P
exerted by wall at
A
c) Reactions at
hinge B
3-51
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.3
Solution:
Part (a)
Gate is 10 m long from A to B centroid (CG) is halfway
between at elevation 3 m above B
Depth of centroid hC = 15 3 = 12 m
Gate area = 10 x 5 = 50 m2
z
Neglect P0 as acting on both sides of gate
Hydrostatic force on gate:
FR PC A
FR ghC A
FR 1000 9.8112 50
FR 5.886 106 N
3-52
3 Fluid Statics
Part (b)
Example 3.3
First find center of

pressure of FR
Gate is a rectangle:
I xy ,C 0
y
ba
510
417 m 4
12
12
3
I xx ,C
Centroid (C):
hC yC sin
hC
12
20 m
yC
sin 3 5
3-53
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.3
Center of Pressure (CP):
I xx ,C
yP yC
yC A
I xx ,C
l yP yC
yC A
417
l
0.417 m
20 50
Distance of B to force FR = 10 l 5 = 4.583 m
Taking moments counterclockwise about B:
PL sin FR 5 l 0
P 10 3 5 5.886 106 5 0.417 0

P 4.496 106 N
3-54
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.3
Part (c)
Summing forces on gate:
Bx FR sin P 0
Bx 5.886 106 3 5 4.496 106 0

Bx 0.964 106 N
Bz FR cos 0
Bz 5.886 106 4 5 0
Bz 4.709 106 N
3-55
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.4
y
Tank of oil
with right
triangular
panel near
bottom
Assume P0 =
0 Pa gage
Find
a) Hydrostatic
force on
panel
b) Center of
pressure
3-56
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.4
Solution:
Part (a)
Centroid of triangle is 4 m up,
2 m over from lower left hand
Area of triangle:
1
A 12 6 36 m 2
2
Depth of centroid: hC = 5 + 4 = 9 m
Hydrostatic force:
FR PC A
FR ghC A
FR 900 9.81 9 36
FR 2.861 106 N
3-57
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.4
Part (b)
Second moments of area:
a = 12 m, b = 6 m, d = 0
I xx ,C
ba
36
6 12
36
288 m 4
6 12
ba
b 2d
72
72
2
I xy ,C
6 2 0 72 m4
Centroid (C):
hC yC sin
hC
9
18 m
yC
sin sin 30
3-58
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.4
Center of pressure (CP):
I xx ,C
yP yC
yC A
I xx ,C
288
yP yC
0.444 m
yC A 18 36
I xy ,C
xP xC
yC A
I xy ,C
72
xP xC
0.111 m
yC A 18 36
Resultant force FR = 2.861 x 106 N acts through (xP, yP),
which is below and to the right of centroid
3-59
3 Fluid Statics
3.6
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Submerged Surfaces
Consider arbitrary curved surface:
Incremental pressure
forces are normal to
the local area element
forces vary in
direction along the
surface cannot be
added numerically
Separate into
horizontal component
FH and vertical
component FV
3-60
3 Fluid Statics
3.6.1
3-61
3 Fluid Statics
3.6.1
Project curved surface AB horizontally (along x-axis) onto

vertical plane BC get projected area S on vertical plane
AB
Projected area S lies on a vertical plane ( = 90)
Can determine centroid C and center of pressure CP
Can determine magnitude and line of action of resultant
horizontal force due to hydrostatic pressure FX
Consider column of fluid enclosed by curved surface AB
and projected area S lying on vertical plane BC:
3-62
3 Fluid Statics
3.6.1
FH is the horizontal component of the force exerted by

the fluid on the curved surface AB
By Newtons third law, FH is the horizontal component
of the force exerted by the curved surface on the fluid
(liquid column)
3-63
3 Fluid Statics
3.6.1
Liquid column is in static equilibrium horizontal forces

must balance:
FH FX
KEY IDEA: The horizontal component of hydrostatic
force acting on a curved surface is equal to the force on
the plane area formed by the projection of the curved
surface onto a vertical plane normal to the component. It
acts through the center of pressure (not centroid) of the
projected area
3-64
3 Fluid Statics
3.6.2 Vertical Component

Consider free-body diagram of fluid column contained in
vertical projection above curved surface AB:
3-65
3 Fluid Statics
3.6.2
Vertical Component
FV is the vertical component
of the force exerted by the
fluid on the curved surface AB
By Newtons third law, FV is
the vertical component of the
force exerted by the curved
surface on the fluid (liquid
column)
W is the weight of the liquid
column extending vertically
from curved surface AB to
horizontal free surface ED
3-66
3 Fluid Statics
3.6.2 Vertical Component

Assume P0 = 0 (considering gage pressures)
Liquid column is in static equilibrium vertical forces
must balance:
FV W
KEY IDEA: The vertical component of pressure force on
a curved surface equals in both magnitude and direction
to the weight of the entire fluid column above the curved
surface, and acts through the center of gravity (centroid)
of the fluid column
3-67
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.5
Dam with parabolic
shape
z z 0 x x0
x0 = 10 m, z0 = 24 m
Fluid: water ( =
1000 kg/m3)
Omit atmospheric
pressure (P0 = 0 Pa
gage)
Find FH and FV
acting on dam and
position CP where
they act
Width of dam: b =
100 m
3-68
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.5
Solution:
Vertical projection of curved surface is a rectangle 24 m
high and 100 m wide
hC yC sin
hC yC sin 90 yC
Depth of centroid:
yC = hC = 12 m
Horizontal component FH:
FH ghC A
FH 1000 9.8112 24 100

FH 2.825 108 N
3-69
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.5
Line of action of FH below free surface:
hP y P yC
I xx ,C
yC A
1
100 24 3
hP y P 12 12
12 24 100
hP = 16 m
FH acts 8 m from bottom
Vertical component FV weight of parabolic portion of
fluid above curved surface
FV g x0 z 0 b
3
2
FV 1000 9.81 10 24 100
3
FV 1.570 108 N
3-70
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.5
FV acts downward on surface at 3x0/8 = 3.75 m from
origin
Total resultant force on
dam:
F FH2 FV2
2.825 10 1.570 10
8 2
8 2
F = 3.232 x 108 N
F acts down and to the
right at angle of
1.570
tan
29
2.825
1
F passes through
(3.75 m, 8 m)
3-71
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.5
Move down along 29 line until strike dam equivalent

center of pressure CP:
xCP = 5.43 m
zCP = 7.07 m
3-72
3 Fluid Statics
3.7
Buoyancy
3.7.1 Physical Explanation for Origin of Buoyancy Force
Hydrostatic pressure in a constant density fluid increases

linearly with depth
A net upward vertical force acts on body because
pressure forces acting from below body are larger than
the pressure forces acting from above body
Resultant upward vertical force due to unbalanced
hydrostatic forces called buoyancy force or upthrust
3-73
3 Fluid Statics
3.7.2 Buoyancy Force on Submerged Bodies

Consider a submerged body which lies between an
upper curved surface 1 and lower curved surface 2:
Body experiences net upward buoyant or upthrust force
FB FV 2 FV 1
(fluid weight above 2) - (fluid weight above 1)

= weight of fluid equivalent to body volume
3-74
3 Fluid Statics
3.7.2 Buoyancy Force on Submerged Bodies

KEY IDEA: Archimedes Principle:
A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical
buoyant (upthrust) force equal to the weight of the fluid it
displaces
Eureka - herka (I have found it!)
Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth
Archimedes
(287-212 BC)
Alternatively, sum the vertical forces on elemental

vertical slices through the immersed body:
3-75
3 Fluid Statics
3.7.2
Buoyancy Force on Submerged Bodies
FB g
z1 dAH
body
FB g body volume
Line of action of buoyant
force FB passes through
center of volume of displaced
body known as center of
buoyancy B
Center of buoyancy B may or may not correspond to
actual mass center of immersed bodys own material,
which may have variable density
3-76
3 Fluid Statics
3.7.3
Buoyancy Force on Floating Bodies
Shaded portion of body is the displaced volume

Buoyancy force:
FB = weight of fluid displaced
FB = g(displaced volume)
Vertical equilibrium:
FB W
3-77
3 Fluid Statics
3.7.3 Buoyancy Force on Floating Bodies

KEY IDEA: Law of Flotation (Archimedes Principle):
Buoyancy force on an object equals to the weight of the
displaced volume of fluid in which it floats
Note:
Displaced volume = volume of
submerged portion of floating
body = Vsub
Since there can be no net
moments for static equilibrium,
buoyant force FB and body
weight W are collinear
3-78
3 Fluid Statics
a)
b)
Example 3.6
Hydrometer floats at level which is
a measure of specific gravity of
liquid
Top part of hydrometer extends
above liquid surface
Divisions on hydrometer allow
specific gravity to be read directly
Hydrometer calibrated such that
in pure water it reads exactly 1.0
at air-water interface
Obtain relation for specific gravity
of a liquid as a function of
distance z from mark
corresponding to pure water
Determine mass of lead that must
be poured into a 2-cm-diameter,
20-cm-long hydrometer if it is to
float halfway (the 10-cm mark) in
pure water
3-79
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.6
Solution:
Part (a)
Hydrometer in static equilibrium:
FB W w gVsub w gAz0
(E3.6.1)
A: cross sectional area of tube

w: density of pure water
In fluids less dense than water (f < w) hydrometer
sinks deeper liquid level rises a distance z above z0
FB W f gVsub f gA z0 z
(E3.6.2)
Relation also valid for fluids denser than water (f > w)
z < 0
Relating (E3.6.1) and (E3.6.2),
w gAz0 f gA z0 z
f
z0
SG f
w z0 z
z0 is constant for a given hydrometer

3-80
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.6
Part (b)
Neglect weight of glass tube
W mg FB w gVsub
m wVsub
m w R 2 hsub
m 1000 0.012 0.1
m 0.0314 kg
3-81
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.7
Body floats in between 2 immiscible fluids

Evaluate x
3-82
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.7
Solution:
Let length of body perpendicular to page be L
Volume of displaced fluid:
V1 axL
Buoyancy force:
FB1 1 gaxL
FB 2 2 ga b x L
FB 1 gaxL 2 ga b x L
Weight of body:
W gV gabL
3-83
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.7
Vertical equilibrium:
FB W
1 gaxL 2 ga b x L gabL
1 x 2 b x b
2 b
x
2 1
0 x b 1 2
3-84
3 Fluid Statics
3.8
Stability
3.8.1 Notion of Stability

Ball on floor analogy
Case (a) stable any small
disturbance generates a restoring
force (due to gravity) that returns
body to its initial equilibrium position
Case (b) neutrally stable when
displaced, body has no tendency to
move back to its initial location, nor
does it continue to move away
Case (c) unstable body may be
in equilibrium instantaneously, but
any infinitesimal disturbance causes
body to roll off hill body does not
return to initial position but diverges
from it
3-85
3 Fluid Statics
3.8.2 Stability of Submerged Bodies

Stability of a submerged body depends on relative
locations of
Center of gravity G of body
Center of buoyancy B (centroid of displaced volume)
3-86
3 Fluid Statics
(i)

B is above G stable
Disturbance of body produces a restoring moment to

return body to its original stable position
3-87
3 Fluid Statics
(ii)

B is below G unstable
Disturbance of body produces an overturning moment
(iii) B and G coincide neutrally stable

body has no tendency to overturn or right itself
3-88
3 Fluid Statics
3.8.3 Stability of Floating Bodies

A floating body has 6 degrees of freedom its motions
are defined as translations (3 degrees of freedom) and
rotations (3 degrees of freedom) about a set of
orthogonal axes
3-89
3 Fluid Statics

Along x-axis Sway (forward/astern)
Along y-axis Surge (starboard/port)
Translation
Along z-axis Heave (up/down)
Along x-axis Pitch (about sway axis)
Along y-axis Roll (about surge axis)
Along z-axis Yaw (about heave axis)
Rotation
Roll and pitch are the dynamic equivalents of heel and

trim, respectively
3-90
3 Fluid Statics

As floating body rotates,
location of the center of buoyancy B (which passes
through centroid of the displaced volume) may
change: B B
location of center of gravity G of body remains
unchanged
3-91
3 Fluid Statics

Metacenter M point of intersection of original vertical
axis with line of action of buoyancy force after an angle
of heel
Metacentric height GM
determines stability of floating body
important parameter in design of floating bodies
need to determine GMT
(transverse metacentric height)
corresponding to roll (angular
displacement about y-axis) and
GML (longitudinal metacentric
height) corresponding to pitch
(angular displacement about xaxis) for different water levels
before construction of floating
body
3-92
3 Fluid Statics
3.8.3
(i)
M above G GM > 0 Stable equilibrium

Restoring couple acts on floating body in its displaced
position tending to restore it to its original position
Restoring couple = W GM sin W GZ
(GZ is called the righting arm)
3-93
3 Fluid Statics
3.8.3
(ii)
(iii)
M below G GM < 0 Unstable equilibrium

Overturning couple acts on body
M coincides with G GM = 0 Neutral equilibrium
Zero resultant couple body has no tendency to
return to, nor move further away from original position
Stability of floating body is not simply determined by

relative positions of B and G, unlike submerged bodies
3-94
3 Fluid Statics
3.8.3
For an upright vessel, point of buoyancy (buoyancy

center) is at B
B is centroid of volume of fluid displaced by floating body
(and is shape dependent)
Vessel is given a slight angular perturbation center
of buoyancy shifts: B B
B and B are centroids of volume of displaced fluid
before and after perturbations, respectively
3-95
3 Fluid Statics

Determination of GM main result
From geometry,
KM KG GM KB BM
(3.8.1)
GM KB BM KG
(3.8.2)
where KB and KG can be obtained from

center of gravity and buoyancy calculations,
and BM is known as the metacentric radius,
which is given by (see suppl. slides for proof)
BM
I Oy
Vsub
(3.8.3)
IOy second moment of area of the plane of floatation (water

line cross section) about the Oy-axis
Vsub volume of submerged portion of floating body
(displaced volume)
Plane of flotation refers to water plane
3-96
3 Fluid Statics

Plane of flotation:
I Oy
x 2 dA
Area
Rolling about y: rolling

Rolling about x: pitching
Rolling about z: yawing
3-97
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.8
Barge has uniform rectangular cross section of width 2b

and vertical draft of height h
G is exactly at waterline
Determine
Metacentric height
Range of ratio b/h for which barge is stable
3-98
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.8
Solution:
KG h
KB h 2
Assuming barge has length L into

paper plane of flotation is a
rectangle with base L and height
2b
3
I Oy
2b
Vsub
2b 3 L
12
3
2b L h 2bLh
L
KM KB BM KG GM
GM KB BM KG
2b3 L
2
I Oy
b
BM
3
Vsub 2bLh 3h
3-99
3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.8
GM KB BM KG
h b2
GM h
2 3h
Metacentric height:
b2 h
GM
3h 2
b2 h
0
For stability: GM 0
3h 2
2
3
b

2
h
b
3

h
2
Barge wider relative to draft stability improves
Lowering G also improves stability
3-100
3 Fluid Statics

Factors affecting selection of GMT
(a) GMT should be large enough:
in a passenger ship to prevent capsizing due to
large heel (roll) angle in case of partial flooding
to minimize serious heeling due to strong beam
wind
to render a ship stable for various cargo loading
conditions
to prevent large heeling angles during turning
(b) GMT should be small enough to prevent violent rolling
in waves
Taking moment about an axis parallel to y-axis passing
through G,
Restoring couple = J Oy
(Newtons second law for angular motion)
3-101
3 Fluid Statics
3.8.3
JOy is the moment of inertia of the floating body about

its axis of rotation Oy
Negative sign arises because couple acts so as to
decrease
Moment arm = GM T sin
3-102
3 Fluid Statics
3.8.3
Hence,
W GM T sin J Oy
Restoring couple due to initial
angular displacement of angle
For small ,
Hence,
W GM T J Oy
W GM T
&
&
& 2
0 &
J Oy
which is the equation of simple harmonic motion with

angular frequency
W GM T
J Oy
t a sin t b cos t
3-103
3 Fluid Statics

and period of oscillation
J Oy
W GM T
GMT T
Notes:
Ship with large GMT is called a stiff ship greater
stability but shorter period of roll T vessel less
comfortable for passengers and is subjected to strains
which may damage its structure
Cargo vessels GM varies with loading although some
control of its value is possible by adjusting position of
cargo
Warships and racing yachts larger GM because
stability more important than comfort
3-104
3 Fluid Statics
3.8.3
Reasonable agreement between theoretical and

experimental values of T has been found for rolling
motion of ships but less agreement for pitching motions
If only forces acting are W and B (both of which are
vertical), then G does not move horizontally
instantaneous axis of rotation lies on horizontal plane
through G IOy = IG
Oscillation causes some flow around body which has
been neglected oscillations usually damped by
viscosity of water unless further disturbances such as
waves cause new angular displacements some
passenger liners have mechanical dampers installed
(See lab ME2134-1: Stability of Floating Body)
3-105
3 Fluid Statics
Supplement Slides
3-106
3 Fluid Statics
3.8.3
Evaluation of BM
Tilting the body by a small angle

submerges a small wedge (green) and
uncovers an equal wedge (yellow)
New center of buoyancy B
x Vsub
xdV
Vsub
Vorig
xdV
tan
green
yellow
xL x tan dx
floatation
I Oy
x
BM
tan Vsub
green
xdV
xdV
yellow
xL x tan dx
x 2 dA I Oy tan
3-107
3 Fluid Statics
3.8.3

Proof:
I Oy
x 2 dA
x 2 dxdy
Area
Area
y L x b
x 2 dxdy
y 0 x b
yL
x b
x
dy
3 x b
y 0
3
yL
2
b3dy
3 y 0
3-108
3 Fluid Statics

Hence (3.8.4) becomes
or
BM Vsub I Oy
BM
I Oy
Vsub
For transverse metacentric radius,
BM T
I Oy
Vsub
Similarly, for longitudinal metacentric radius,
I Ox
BM L
Vsub
Once KB, KG and BM are known, can evaluate
metacentric height GM using
GM KB BM KG
http://www.polysep.ucla.edu/c101a/YoungMunsonOkiishi%20A%20Brief%20Intro/Clips/V2_7.mov
(3.8.2)
3-109
3 Fluid Statics
Reviewing
Archimedes Principle:
A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical buoyant (upthrust)
force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces
FB g body volume
Center of buoyancy B may or may not correspond to actual mass

center of immersed bodys own material
For stability the metacentre must be above the center of gravity
or GM > 0
3-110
3 Fluid Statics
Reviewing
Pressure in a fluid is independent of shape or cross
section of container
Pressures changes with vertical distance (depth), but
remains constant in other directions
Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane
in a given fluid
dP
g
dz
Easier to remember:
Pbottom P top g z
where z is the absolute difference in depth between the two
points of interest
3-111

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3 Fluid Statics

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Applications / significance of fluid statics:

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

KEY IDEA: Pressure is normal force on a fluid per unit

Together with Fermat, Pascal also puts the theory of

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

3.2.1 Pressure at a Point

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

3.2.1 Pressure at a Point

ma x 0 P1z P3l sin 0

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

3.2.1 Pressure at a Point

z 0 last term in (3.2.6) goes to zero wedge

becomes infinitesimal fluid element shrinks to a point

Combining the above results,

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Negative sign pressure in a static fluid increases with

3.3.1 Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

3.3.1 Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids

KEY IDEA: Easier to remember:

where z is the absolute difference in depth between

3.3.1 Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids

3.3.1 Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids

Same pressures at A, B, C, D, E, F and G since they are

3.3.1 Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids

P1 Patm 1 gh1 2 gh2 3 gh3

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

3.3.1 Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids

KEY IDEA: Pressure increases downward with depth in

3.3.2 Hydrostatic Pressure in Gases

Assume isothermal conditions T = T0 = constant:

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

T1 = 288.16 K = 15C (temperature at sea-level)

Substituting (3.3.8) into (3.3.5) and integrating:

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

In the stratosphere (from z = 11 km to z = 20.1 km),

Barometer used for measuring

Mercury has a very low vapor

Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647)

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

3.4.2 U-Tube Manometer

Simple open U-tube manometer for measuring PA in a

3.4.2 U-Tube Manometer

3.4.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer

PA 1 gh1 PB 3 gh3 2 gl2 sin

3.4.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Submerged Surfaces

On a plane surface, hydrostatic forces form a system of

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

arbitrary shape surface,

Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Submerged Surfaces

Aim: to find resultant force

3.5.1 Magnitude of Resultant Hydrostatic Force

Absolute pressure at any general point on the plate: