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tAPPROVED
ycelel nce
ESCO Press
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E ducational S tandards C orporation
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This book was written as a general guide. The author and publisher have neither liability
nor can they be responsible to any person or entity for any misunderstanding, misuse, or
misapplication that would cause loss or damage of any kind, including loss of rights,
material, or personal injury, or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by the
information contained in this book.
D e d ic a tio n
To my beautiful wife, Laurie: Thanks for all of your patience, support, kindness, encouragement,
and love during this endeavor.
To my children, Brian and Stacy: Thanks for giving Dad the time he needed to write this book.
Hopefully the quality time sacrificed from the family will help make this world a better place to live.
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to the following companies and associations for providing artw ork and reference
m aterials for use in this book:
AC& R Components, Inc.; Addison Products Company; Air Conditioning and R efrigeration Institute
(ARI); Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration News; AlliedSignal G enetron Refrigerants;
A lnor Instrum ent Company; Alternative Fluorocarbons E nvironm ental A cceptability Study
(AFEAS); American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE);
Blissfield Manufacturing Company; BVA Oils; Carrier Corporation; Castrol N orth America;
C opeland Corporation; Danfoss Automatic Controls, Division o f Danfoss, Inc.; The Delfield
Company; DuPont Canada; DuPont Company; Engineered Systems M agazine; Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA); ESCO Institute; Ferris State University; Frigidaire Com pany; Hy-Save,
Inc.; Pitzographics; Programme for Alternative Fluorocarbon Toxicity Testing (PAFT); Refrigeration
Research; Refrigeration Service and Contracting (RSC) Journal; Refrigeration Service Engineers
Society (RSES); Refrigeration Technologies; Rheem Air Conditioning Division; R obinair Division,
SPX Corporation; Spectronics Corporation; Sporlan Valve Company; Tecumseh Products Company;
T herm al Engineering Company; TIF Instruments, Inc.; Trane Company; Tyler Refrigeration, Inc.
Forew ord
There is an old tale about a young sparrow who, upon being told that the sky was falling, lay down
on his back with his legs sticking up into the air. This caused a lot o f laughter am ong the animals
watching, and one of them asked, Do you think you are going to keep the sky from falling with
your skinny legs? The sparrow replied, One does what one can.
This is the spirit with which this book on understanding and troubleshooting m odem refrigeration
and air conditioning systems was written. The hvac/r industry is experiencing a m assive transition
with new refrigerants and oils, and the author hopes that this book will help educate hvac/r students
and service technicians to find solutions to the ozone depletion and global warming problem s the
world now faces.
Table of Contents
Ch a p t e r O n e :
Ch a p t e r T w o :
SUBCOOUNG AND SUPERHEATING_______________________ _______________ __
15
Ch a p t e r T h r e e :
Co m pressio n S ystem ________________________________ ____________ _
45
Ch a p t e r F o u r :
M eterin g D evices ___________________________________ ______________
81
Ch a p t e r F iv e :
S ystem Ch a r g e ______________________________________
103
Ch a p te r S ix :
D iagnosing A ir Conditioning S ystems____________________ _____________ 123
Ch a p te r S ev e n :
S ystematic T roubleshooting ____________________________ __________
131
Ch a p te r E ig h t :
A lternative R efrigerants, Refrigerant Blends, and O il s __________________ 153
Ch a p ter N in e :
Leak detection , Evacuation,
Ch a p ter T e n :
O zone Depletion
and
and
G lobal W a rm in g _____________________________
225
A ppen d ix A :
Alternative Refrigerant and O il Retrofit Gu id elin es _____________________ 251
A ppen d ix B :
A lter native R e f r ig e r a n t U p d a t e s ____________________________
,N D EX ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 289
CHAPTER
ONE
Refrigerant Pressures,
States, and C o nd itio ns
The typical vapor compression refrigeration
system shown in Figure 1-1 can be divided into
two pressures: condensing (high side) and
evaporating (low side). These pressures are di
vided or separated in the system by the com
pressor discharge valve and the metering de
vice. Listed below are field service terms often
used to describe these pressures:
Condensing
Pressure
Evaporating
Pressure
C o n d e n s in g P r essu re
The condensing pressure is the pressure at
which the refrigerant changes state from a va
por to a liquid. This phase change is referred to
as condensation. This pressure can be read
directly from a pressure gauge connected any
where between the compressor discharge valve
and the entrance to the metering device, as
suming there is negligible pressure drop. In
reality, line and valve friction and the weight
of the liquid itself cause pressure drops from
the compressor discharge to the metering de
vice. If a true condensing pressure is needed,
the technician must measure the pressure as
E vaporating P ressure
The evaporating pressure is the pressure at
which the refrigerant changes state from a liq
uid to a vapor. This phase change is referred to
as evaporation or vaporizing. A pressure gauge
placed anywhere between the metering device
outlet and the compressor (including compres
sor crankcase) will read the evaporating pres
sure. Again, negligible pressure drops are as
sumed. In reality, there will be line and valve
pressure drops as the refrigerant travels through
the evaporator and suction line. The technician
must measure the pressure as close to the evapo
rator as possible to get a true evaporating pres
sure. On small systems where pressure drops
are negligible, this pressure is usually measured
near the compressor (see Figure 1-2). Gauge
placement on small systems is usually not criti
cal as long as it is placed on the low side of the
refrigeration system, because the refrigerant
Mostly liquid
Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted on a
saturated liquid. Any time saturated liquid and
vapor are together (as in the condenser and
evaporator), vapor pressure is generated. Va
por pressure acts equally in all directions and
affects the entire low or high side of a refrig
eration system.
R e f r ig e r a n t S ta te s a n d C o n d it io n s
M odem refrigerants exist either in the vapor or
liquid state. Refrigerants have such low freez
ing points that they are rarely in the frozen or
solid state. Refrigerants can co-exist as vapor
and liquid as long as conditions are right. Both
the evaporator and condenser house liquid and
vapor refrigerant simultaneously if the system
is operating properly. Refrigerant liquid and
vapor can exist in both the high or low pres
sure sides o f the refrigeration system.
Along with refrigerant pressures and states are
refrigerant conditions. Refrigerant conditions
can be saturated , superheated, or subcooled.
Saturation
Saturation is usually defined as a temperature.
The saturation temperature is the temperature
at which a fluid changes from liquid to vapor
or vapor to liquid. At saturation temperature,
liquid and vapor are called saturated liquid and
T s m p s ra tu rs
P r iit u r t
t * m p r c i( u r
( P *0)
-1 0
18
2 2
8
7
h * i* M f *
2 6
30
3 -0
11
35
32
39
33
28 1
26 6
26 4
.
.2 7
4 4
34
29 0
-3
4 .8
35
29 9
-2
5 3
40
____3 4 j6 _
-1
5 .8
45
19 5
62
50
44 9
50 7
6 7
55
7 2
60
6 6 ,9
78
65
61 5
83
70
70 7
8 8
76
9 3
80
86 4
99
85
95 0
1 0 .5
90
104 2
1 1 .0
95
113 9
10
116
100
124 1
11
12 2
105
136 2
12
1 2 .8
no
1 4 6,8
13
13 4
115
1 5 9 .0
14
14 0
120
171.9*
15
14.7
125
1 8 5 .5
16
153
130
1 9 9,8
17
1 6 ,0
135
2 1 4 .8
18
167
19
1 7 .3
20
1 8 .0
21
187
22
19.4
23
20.2
24
2 0 .9
25
217
26
2 2 ,4
27
2 3 .2
28
2 4 ,0
29
2 4 .8
Subcooling
Subcooling always refers to a liquid at a tem
perature below its saturation temperature for a
given pressure. Once all of the vapor changes
state to 100% saturated liquid, further removal
of heat will cause the 100% liquid to drop in
temperature or lose sensible heat. Subcooled
liquid results. Subcooling can occur in both the
condenser and liquid line and is a sensible heat
process. Another method o f subcooiing liquid,
called liquid pressure amplification, is cov
ered in Chapter Two. This method increases
the pressure on subcooled liquid, causing it to
be subcooled even more. This creates a liquid
with a temperature below its new saturation
temperature for the new higher pressure.
A thorough understanding of pressures, states,
and conditions of the basic refrigeration sys
tem enables the service technician to be a good
systematic troubleshooter. It is not until then
that a service technician should even attempt
systematic troubleshooting.
Superheat
Superheat always refers to a vapor, A super
heated vapor is any vapor that is above its
saturation temperature for a given pressure. In
order for vapor to be superheated, it must have
reached its 100% saturated vapor point. In other
Metering device
Evaporator
itmi!
;
h i -Hi! i ! 11i 1
,__ *11i'l m m m
rrn m re 3B i I HI 111
' FTl f-h i
M f fLFl
c
s
ll^
i n 111 n t r i 11111! 11
limn
Compressor
IIIIIIJ o
minim
Figure 1-3. Basic refrigeration system
Discharge Line
One function o f the discharge line is to carry
the high pressure superheated vapor from the
com pressor discharge valve to the entrance of
the condenser. The discharge line also acts as
a desuperheater, cooling the superheated va
pors that the compressor has compressed and
giving that heat up to the ambient (surround
ings). These compressed vapors contain all of
the heat that the evaporator and suction line
have absorbed, along with the heat of compres
sion o f the compression stroke. Any generated
m otor winding heat may also be contained in
the discharge line refrigerant, which is why the
beginning of the discharge line is the hottest
part o f the refrigeration system. On hot days
when the system is under a high load and may
have a dirty condenser, the discharge line can
Condenser
The first passes o f the condenser desuperheat
the discharge line gases. This prepares the high
pressure superheated vapors com ing from the
discharge line for condensation, or the phase
change from gas to liquid. Remember, these
superheated gases m ust lose all o f their super
heat before reaching the condensing tempera
ture for a certain condensing pressure. Once
the initial passes o f the condenser have rejected
enough superheat and the condensing tempera
ture or saturation temperature has been reached,
these gases are referred to as 100% saturated
vapor. The refrigerant is then said to have
reached the 100% saturated vapor point, Figure
1-4.
One o f the main functions o f the condenser is
to condense the refrigerant vapor to liquid.
Condensing is system dependent and usually
takes place in the lower two-thirds o f the con
denser. Once the saturation or condensing tem
perature is reached in the condenser and the
refrigerant gas has reached 100% saturated
vapor, condensation can take place if more heat
is removed. As more heat is taken away from
the 100% saturated vapor, it will force the vapor
to become a liquid or to condense. W hen con
densing, the vapor will gradually phase change
to liquid until 100% liquid is all that remains.
This phase change, or change of state, is an
example of a latent heat rejection process, as
the heat removed is latent heat not sensible heat.
The phase change will happen at one tempera
ture even though heat is being removed. Note:
Evaporator
1i i 111111 I f f 111i 1
I I ) t 1! ! |
Metering device
100% liquid
<
ft e im iw i'
= L _ ra
limn ^
Compressor
IIIIIIJ o
100% saturated vapor point
saturated liquid + vapor
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
Desuperheated gas
Condensing begins
Subcooling begins
Subcooled liquid
Superheat begins and the
100% saturated vapor point
_______
Iiii
Figure 1-4. Basic refrigeration system showing 100% saturated vapor a n d liquid points
Receiver
The receiver acts as a surge tank. Once the
subcooled liquid exits the condenser, the re
ceiver receives and stores the liquid. The liquid
level in the receiver varies depending on
whether the metering device is throttling opened
or closed. Receivers are usually used on sys
tems in which a thermostatic expansion valve
(TXV or TEV) is used as the metering device.
The subcooled liquid in the receiver may lose
or gain subcooling depending on the surround
ing temperature of the receiver. If the subcooled
liquid is warmer than receiver surroundings, the
liquid will reject heat to the surroundings and
subcool even more. If the subcooled liquid is
cooler than receiver surroundings, heat will be
gained by the liquid and subcooling will be
lost.
A receiver bypass is often used to bypass liq
uid around the receiver and route it directly to
the liquid line and filter drier. This bypass pre
vents subcooled liquid from sitting in the re
Liquid Line
The liqu id lin e tra n sp o rts h ig h pressure
subcooled liquid to the m etering device. In
transport, the liquid may either lose or gain
subcooling depending on the surrounding tem
perature. Liquid lines may be wrapped around
suction lines to help them gain more subcooling,
Figure 1-6. Liquid/suction line heat exchangers
can be purchased and installed in existing sys
tems to gain subcooling. The importance of
liquid subcooling will be covered more exten
sively in Chapter Two.
Metering Device
The metering device meters liquid refrigerant
from the liquid line to the evaporator. There
are several different styles and kinds o f meter
ing devices on the market with different func
tions. Some metering devices control evapora
tor superheat and pressure, and some even have
pressure limiting devices to protect compres
sors at heavy loads.
The metering device is a restriction that sepa
rates the high pressure side from the low pres
sure side in a refrigeration system. The com
pressor and the metering device are the two
components that separate pressures in a refrig
eration system. The restriction in the metering
device causes liquid refrigerant to flash to a
lower temperature in the evaporator because of
its lower pressure and temperature.
Evaporator
The evaporator, like the condenser, acts as a
heat exchanger. Heat gains from the product
load and outside ambient travel through the
sidewalls of the evaporator to vaporize any liq
uid refrigerant. The pressure drop through the
metering device causes vaporization of some
From condenser
Suction Line
The suction line transports low pressure super
heated vapor from the evaporator to the com
pressor. There may be other components in the
suction line such as suction accumulators,
Evaporating temperature
iMiiiifiifctiiiih
Superheated suction vapor----- '
Condensing temperature
H
mi m
i t n . m *U M i i 1J)
iijiliH fn ii
TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT
Figure J-7. Refrigeration system showing liquid/suction line heat exchanger
A pplic a tio n
of
P r essu r es , S ta tes ,
and
C o n d itio n s
Systematic troubleshooting requires mastering
the function of all refrigeration system compo
nents. It is also important to be able to recog
nize the pressure, state, and condition of the
working fluid (refrigerant) in the refrigeration
system components. Figure 1-8 illustrates the
basic refrigeration system. The legend lists re
frigerant pressures, conditions, and states for
the points shown in Figure 1-8. An explanation
of the pressure, condition, and state of each
point should clarify any system weaknesses.
Assume the following conditions for Figure
1- 8:
Refrigerant = R-134a
Discharge (condensing) pressure =124
psig (100F)
Suction (evaporating) pressure = 6 psig
(0F)
Discharge temperature = 180F
Condenser outlet temperature = 90F
TXV inlet temperature = 80F
M o t o r i n g d e v ic e
"
^ 100% li()ui(]
r t T W lT T i^
u I l i t 1.1 i. i J B
IflT T T T T T x
limn ^
u
C o m p re s s o r
IIIIIIJ o
Point
Location
Pressure
Condition
State
#1
Com pressor
discharge
High
Superheated
Vapor
#2
Condenser inlet
High
Superheated
Vapor
#3
100 % saturated
vapor point
High
Saturated
Vapor
#4
100 % saturated
liquid point
High
Saturated
Liquid
#5
Condenser outlet
High
Subcooled
Liquid
#6
TXV Inlet
High
Subcooled
Liquid
#7
Middle of evaporator
low
Saturated
Vapor
and liquid
#8
100% saturated
vapor point
Low
Saturated
Vapor
#9
Evaporator outlet
low
Superheated
Vapor
#10
lo w
Superheated
Vapor
Figure 1-8. Basic refrigeration system showing refrigerant pressures, states, anti condition locations
12