UniversityofCapeTown

CIV5002Z

Structuralconcretepropertiesandpractice

LaboratoryReportAssignment

CourseSupervisor:ProfM.Alexander

23April2012

Student:MichaelComninos
StudentNumber:CMNMIC001

Contents

Part1Mixdesigns
1. Introduction
2. Mix1Requiredconcreteproperties
3. Mix1Mixdesignprocess
4. Mix2Requiredconcreteproperties
5. Mix2Mixdesignprocess

Part2Laboratoryreportontrialmixes
1. Laboratoryreportsummary
2. Mixdesign
3. Laboratorydata,resultsandobservations
4. Conclusionsanddiscussions
5. References

Part 1 - Mix Designs

1. Introduction
Part 1 of this report details the mix designs for a concrete to be used in a high strength concrete slab and
a concrete to be used in a buried pier.
The report outlines the fresh and hardened properties required from the concrete for the different
applications. It describes the design mix process undertaken by the author and explains the logic and
reasoning behind the choices of mix materials and mix proportions and how these choices aim to achieve
the required properties.

2. Mix 1 Required concrete properties

The concrete will be used in a high-strength post-tensioned slab. The following fresh and hardened
concrete properties are required for this application:

2.1

High strength

A high design strength of 45 MPa is required to withstand the high compressive stresses induced by post
tensioning and to ensure that the serviceability limits on the tensile stresses within the concrete are not
exceeded. (Tensile serviceability stress limits are proportional to the compressive strength of the
concrete)

2.2

High workability

The congested secondary reinforcement requires the mix to be highly workable to allow concrete to flow
through and around the reinforcement with minimal vibration (it is difficult to get standard poker vibrators
through congested reinforcement therefore vibrations will be limited)

2.3

Early strength gain

To facilitate rapid construction and quick turnaround times of falsework and formwork, it is important that
the casting, stressing and stripping cycle is made as efficient as possible. The concrete needs to reach a
certain strength before stressing is permitted and therefore early strength gain will allow the contractor to
stress relatively early thereby facilitating the overall speed of construction.

2.4

Low permeability

A 130mm deep slab with both top and bottom secondary reinforcement present is likely to have cover in
the region of 30mm. Therefore with limited cover, low permeability (in particular in the cover region) is
important to ensure durability.

2.5

Low long term creep and shrinkage

It is important to limit long term creep and shrinkage in a post tensioned slab as high creep and shrinkage
strains will result in high prestress losses and therefore inefficient use of prestressing materials.

2.6

No alkali-silica reaction (ASR)

For well documented structural and durability reasons, ASR within the hardened concrete must be
prevented

3. Mix 1 Mix design process

The following mix design process was undertaken with the aim of achieving the properties described in 2
above. Reasons and logic behind the choices of materials and mix proportions are provided within the
mix design steps. The mix design method and the tables, equations and charts used are from section
11.2 of Fultons concrete technology 9th edition.

3.1

Determine required strength of concrete

A design strength of 45 MPa has been specified in order to withstand the relatively high stresses induced
by prestressing. Assuming the degree of control will be good (which is a reasonable assumption given
that the control on site should be good for post tensioning type construction), from table 16.1 a minimum
margin of 8.2 MPa will be used giving a target strength of 53.2 MPa.

3.2

Specify slump

The mix requires the fresh concrete to be highly workability due to the congested secondary
reinforcement. A slump of 100mm is therefore specified.

3.3

Select binder types and blend proportions

Use or non-use of a cement extender (FA or GGBS)

A cement extender will be used for the following reasons:

Greywake is a potentially reactive aggregate. An extender will be advantages as both Fly Ash
(FA) and Ground Granulated Blastfurnace Slag (GGBS) retard or prevent ASR by reducing the
active alkali content in the binder in comparison with a pure CEM1 mix with equivalent binder
content.

The cover to the reinforcement is likely to be low (given the thickness of the slab) therefore
decreased permeability of the concrete in the cover zone is important for durability. The use of
extenders (both FA and GGBS) reduces the permeability of the hardened concrete.

Extender Type
A FA extender will be used for the following reasons:

In order to reduce shrinkage the mix requires as low a water content as possible. Water content
is the main influencing factor with regard to shrinkage with an almost linear relationship between
shrinkage and water content. FA blends tend to reduce the quantity of water required for a given
consistency
In order to reduce long-term creep and shrinkage a relatively high aggregate content is required.
Aggregates have a two-fold effect on creep and shrinkage, a) the source of creep and shrinkage
is the hardened cement paste and the greater the aggregate content, the lesser the amount of
paste is available for creep and shrinkage (simple proportional mathematics) and b) the
aggregate actually has a restraining effect on creep and shrinkage movement. FA blends permit
an increase in stone content
The mix requires a high workability. FA improves workability.

Cement / extender proportions

The concrete requires high early strength development and both GGBS and FA slightly retard the
development of strength. The percentage cement extender will therefore be limited to 20%
A blend of 80% CEM 1-52.5 with 20% Fly Ash is to be used. The relative density of the blend is
D = 100 / [%CEM1/DCEM1 + %FA/DFA] = 100 / [80/3.14 + 20/2.3] = 2.93

3.4

Select water:binder ratio

The water:binder (w:b) ratio is the major influencing factor on the strength of the concrete. The
compressive strength is related to the capillary porosity of the hardened cement paste which is a function
of the water:binder ratio and of the degree of hydration of the cement. For this high strength concrete, a
relatively low water:binder ratio will be required.
3

For a target strength of 53 MPa, a w:b ratio of 0.55 is appropriate if CEM I - 52.5 is used (obtained from
PPC data sheets)

3.5

Use of an admixture

The superplasticiser Sika Viscocrete will be used to reduce the water content required (giving the
associated creep, shrinkage, durability and strength benefits as described in 3.3. and 3.4. above) to
achieve the specified slump of 100mm. An initial dosage of 0.5l per 100kg of cementitious material is
prescribed (based on supplier literature). The dosage will be refined and optimised through laboratory and
site trial mixes. Based on suppliers literature, it is assumed that the addition of the superplasticiser will
result in a 15% higher slump than a control mix without plasticiser at the same water content

3.6

Select and characterise sand

The characteristics of sand significantly influence the amount of water required to make a given volume of
concrete workable. The Philippi Dune Sand has a low standard water requirement (SWR) of
approximately 180 l/m3. The Crusher sand has a relatively high SWR in the region of 215 l/m3. It would
therefore be beneficial to use as high a proportion of dune sand as possible to limit the water content
required for the given slump. However the dune sand has a low fines content and a limited range of
grading and these combined factors can lead to segregation and bleeding in concretes. It is therefore
advisable to blend the dune sand with a small portion of crusher sand which will increase the range of
grading and prevent bleeding. The strength of the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) between the cement
paste and the aggregate, which directly affects the strength of the concrete, is improved as bleeding is
reduced; therefore controlling bleeding is a prerequisite to producing the relatively high strength concrete
required.
A blend of 70% dune sand with 30% crusher sand will be used. A SWR of 190 l/m3 is assumed for the
blend. The Fineness Modulus (FM) of the blend is 2.33.

3.7

Determine water content

The SWR of the sand blend is approximately 190 l/m3 as described above. This prescribes the water
content required to achieve a 75mm slump without the use of an admixture. It is assumed that the use of
the superplasticiser will achieve the required slump of 100mm with the same water content. Therefore the
water content specified is 190 l/m3

3.8

Cement content

Mc = water content / w:b ratio = 190 / 0.55 = 345 kg/m3

CEM 1 -52.5 = 256 kg
4

FA = 64 kg

3.9

Stone Content

Ma = CBD(K-0.1FM)
CBD = 1500 kg/m3
K = 1 (moderate vibration likely for post tensioned slab)
Therefore Ma = 1500 (1 0.1 x 2.33) = 1151 kg.
Stone content can be increased due to use of FA. Using table 11.5, the percentage of additional stone
allowed for a FA content of 20% of total cementitious material is approximately 3.5% therefore stone
content can be increased to 1151 x 1.035 = 1191 kg, say 1190kg.

3.10 Sand content

Sand content, which is calculated by volume remaining after cement, water and stone content have been
calculated, is:
Ms

Ds x 1000 x [1 Mc / Dc x 1000 Ma / Da x 1000 Mw / 1 x 1000]

2.65 x 1000 x [1 345 / 2.93 x 1000 1190 / 2.7 x 1000 190 / 1 x 1000]

667 kg

Dune sand = 467 kg

Crusher sand = 200 kg
A summary of the mix proportions together with the mix quantities for a 0.015m3 trial mix is provided in
table 1 below.

Mix 1
3

1 m mix
Target
(MPa)

RD

Volumes
(l)

0.015
mix

m3

strength
53.2

Target slump (mm)

75

w/c

0.55

Water (l)

190

190

2.85

CEM1 52.5 (kg)

276

3.14

88

4.14

FA Extender (kg)
Total binder content
(kg)

69

2.3

30

1.035

345

2.93

Stone (kg)

1190

2.7

441

17.85

Dune Sand (kg)

467

2.65

176

7.005

Crusher Sand (kg)

200

2.65

75

Superplasticiser (ml)

1725

25.875

Check totals

2392
OK
1000
Table 1 Design Mix 1

OK

4. Mix 2 Required concrete properties

The concrete will be used in a buried pier with congested reinforcement. It will be exposed to sulphate
attack due to the presence of sulphates at a concentration of 800 mg/l in the ground water. The following
fresh and hardened concrete properties are required for this application:

4.1

Sulphate-resisting concrete

The concrete will be exposed to high concentrations of sulphates which will attack the concrete and
cause deterioration of the concrete unless the mix is designed to resist the sulphate attack. Various
reactions between the sulphate ion and the hydrated calcium aluminate, the calcium hydroxide and the
hydrated calcium silicates within the hardened cement paste cause expansions and contractions in the
concrete which in turn cause high tensile stresses which can result in severe spalling. Resistance to
sulphate attack is provided by increasing the physical resistance of the concrete to the penetration and
capillary induced migration of the sulphate ions and increasing the chemical resistance of the cement to
the reactions described above.

4.2

High workability

The congested secondary reinforcement requires the mix to be workable to flow through the congested
reinforcement. A moderate degree of compaction is likely to be achievable during construction.

4.3

Low heat of hydration and / or reduce rate of heat hydration

Early thermal cracking in concrete occurs when the fresh concrete thermally expands due to heat
released during hydration and then later cools and contracts. When the concrete expands, it is still fresh
with very low stiffness and therefore any restraints to the thermal movement do not induce large stresses.
However during the cooling and contraction phase, the concrete has hardened and stiffened and
therefore any restraints to the movement will induce high tensile stresses. The concrete is still in the early
stage of strength development and is unable to withstand the tensile stresses and therefore cracks.
In this specific application restraints to thermal movement will be both external (previously cast pier
foundation will restrain movement in the newly cast pier) and internal (non uniform distributions of
temperature due to the large size of the member will provide restraint between the internal and external
zones of the member)
Reduced total heat of hydration liberated and reduced rate at which the heat is liberated (thereby allowing
the concrete to gain strength before the tensile stresses develop) are properties of the concrete mix that
will reduce early thermal cracking of the concrete.

4.4

No alkali-silica reaction (ASR)

For well documented structural and durability reasons, ASR within the hardened concrete must be
prevented

5. Mix 2 Mix design process

The following mix design process was undertaken with the aim of achieving the properties described in 4
above. Reasons and logic behind the choices of materials and mix proportions are provided within the
mix design steps. The mix design method and the tables, equations and charts used are from section
11.2 of Fultons concrete technology 9th edition.

5.1

Determine required strength of concrete

A design strength of 20 MPa has been specified. This is a relatively low design strength and is unlikely to
be the limiting criterion with regards to minimum cement content and maximum water cement ratio.
7

Assuming the degree of control will be good, from table 16.1 a minimum margin of 8.2 MPa will be used
giving a target strength of 28.2 MPa.

5.2

Specify slump

The mix requires the fresh concrete to be highly workability due to the congested secondary
reinforcement however a moderate degree of vibration is achievable. A slump of 75mm is likely to be
adequate for this application.

5.3

Select binder types and blend proportions

Sulphate resisting portland cement would ideally be used in this mix however it is not available and
therefore the binder will be a blend of CEM1-52.5 with either GGBS or FA.
Use or non-use of a cement extender (FA or GGBS)
A cement extender will be used for the following reasons:

Extenders reduce the risk of thermal cracking in the concrete by reducing the rate that heat of
hydration is produced

Greywake is a potentially reactive aggregate. Extenders prevent or retard ASR as previously

explained
The use of extenders (both FA and GGBS) reduces the permeability of the hardened concrete
which is a major factor in combating sulphate attack

Extender Type
A FA extender will be used for the following reasons:

FA has a proven capacity to improve the sulphate resistance of the concrete.

FA will reduce the water content required for a given consistency. This reduces the cementitious
content required and hence the heat liberated which will reduce thermal cracking

Cement / extender proportions

The requirements for concrete exposed to sulphate attack specify a minimum 25% and maximum 40% FA
content. Given the various benefits of FA as listed above, the maximum limit will be used.
A blend of 60% CEM 1-52.5 with 40% Fly Ash is to be used. The relative density of the blend is
D = 100 / [%CEM1/DCEM1 + %FA/DFA] = 100 / [60/3.14 + 40/2.3] = 2.74

5.4

Select water:binder ratio

Although the water binder ratio is the major influencing factor on the strength of the concrete, the low
design strength renders this criterion non-critical. The critical criterion with regard to water binder ratio for
this mix will be the requirement for concrete exposed to sulphate attack. From table 8.6 of Fultons
concrete technology, the maximum water:binder ratio for a Class 2 concentration of sulphates (0.3 g/l to
1.2 g/l in ground water) is 0.55.
As predicted, for a target strength of 28.2 MPa, a w:b ratio of 0.55 is more than adequate.

5.5

Use of an admixture

The superplasticiser Sika Viscocrete will be used to reduce the water content required (giving the
associated durability and thermal cracking benefits as described above) to achieve the given slump of
75mm. An initial dosage of 0.5l per 100kg of cementitious material is prescribed. The dosage will be
refined and optimised through laboratory and site trial mixes. Based on suppliers literature, it is assumed
that the addition of the superplasticiser will result in a 15% higher slump than a control mix without
plasticiser at the same water content

5.6

Select and characterise sand

A blend of 70% dune sand with 30% crusher sand will be used for similar reasons as described and
explained for mix 1.

5.7

Determine water content

The SWR of the sand blend is approximately 190 l/m3. This prescribes the water content required to
achieve the specified 75mm slump without the addition of an admixture. Allowing for the use of a
superplasticiser, a water content of 180 l/m3 is specified to achieve the 75mm slump.

5.8

Cement content

Mc = water content / w:b ratio = 180 / 0.55 = 327 kg/m3 say 330 kg/m3 (This cement content meets the
minimum cement content criteria of 310 kg/m3 for concrete exposed to sulphate attack as specified in
table 8.6 of Fultons concrete technology)
CEM 1 -52.5 = 198 kg
FA = 132 kg
9

5.9

Stone Content

Ma = CBD(K-0.1FM)
CBD = 1500 kg/m3
K = 1 (moderate vibration likely for post tensioned slab)
Therefore Ma = 1500 (1 0.1 x 2.33) = 1151 kg.
Stone content can be increased due to use of FA. Using table 11.5, the percentage of additional stone
allowed for a FA content of 40% of total cementitious material is approximately 6% therefore stone
content can be increased to 1151 x 1.06 = 1262 kg, say 1260kg.

5.10 Sand content

Sand content, which is calculated by volume remaining after cement, water and stone content have been
calculated, is:
Ms

Ds x 1000 x [1 Mc / Dc x 1000 Ma / Da x 1000 Mw / 1 x 1000]

2.65 x 1000 x [1 330 / 2.74 x 1000 1260 / 2.7 x 1000 180 / 1 x 1000]

617 kg

Dune sand = 432 kg

Crusher sand = 185 kg
A summary of the mix proportions together with the mix quantities for a 0.015m3 trial mix is provided in
table 2 below.

10

Mix 2

Target
(MPa)

RD

Volumes
(l)

0.015m3
mix

strength
28.2

Target slump (mm)

75

w/b ratio

0.55

Water (l)

180

180

2.7

CEM1 52.5 (kg)

198

3.14

63

2.97

FA Extender (kg)
Total binder content
(kg)

132

2.3

57

1.98

330

2.74

Stone (kg)

1260

2.7

467

18.9

Dune Sand (kg)

432

2.65

163

6.48

Crusher Sand (kg)

185

2.65

70

2.775

Superplasticiser (ml)

1650

24.75

Check totals

2387

1000

OK

OK

Table2Mixdesignformix2

11

Part 2 Laboratory report on trial mixes

This part of the report covers the results that were obtained from the trial mixes carried out by the student
group. (Note that the trial mixes were undertaken in student groups and the mix materials and mix
proportions differ from those specified in Part 1)

1. Laboratory Report Summary

Trial mixes were produced for the 2 concretes described in Part 1. Cubes and prisms samples were cast
for compressive strength tests, shrinkage tests and durability index tests.
The results from the tests are summarised as follows:

Mix 1 failed to achieve its 28-day target strength of 53.2 MPa and only achieved a mean strength of
40.3 MPa. The slump measured was in the target range. The shrinkage strains measured (235
microstrain after 44 days) were within expected values and are not considered excessive. The
durability index tests returned values which classify the concrete in the good durability class.

Mix 2 achieved a mean 28-day strength of 58.3 MPa easily meeting its 28-day target strength of 28.2
MPa. The slump measured was in the target range. The shrinkage strains measured (267.5
microstrain after 44 days) were within expected values and are not considered excessive. The
durability index tests returned values which classify the concrete in the excellent durability class
thereby meeting its sulphate resistance durability requirement

2. Mix designs

The mix design processes were undertaken as a collective group. Water binder ratios were obtained
from a Cement and Concrete Institute Brochure for the strength criterion and from Fultons concrete
technologyforthesulphateexposurecriterion.
A 100% CEM1 52.5 mix was chosen for mix 1 as the concrete application and environment did not
dictateanyspecialdurabilityrequirements(whichwouldnecessitatetheuseofanextender)andearly
strengthgainrequiredforprestressingwasconsideredmoreimportant.The criteriondeterminingthe
w:bratioformix1wasthehighstrengthrequirement.
A50%CEM152.5/50%GGBSextenderwaschosenformix2toincreasethedurabilityoftheconcrete
asnecessitatedbyitsexposureconditiontosulphateattack.Thecriteriondeterminingthew:bratiofor
mix2wastheexposuretosulphateattack.
Targetslumpsof75mmwerespecifiedforbothmixes

12

Summariesofthemixdesignsformix1and2areprovidedintables3and4below.

Mix1

1m3mix

RD

Volumes(l)

0.015m3
mix

Targetstrength(Mpa)

53

Targetslump(mm)

75

w/c

0.6

Water(l)

190

190

2.85

CEM152.5(kg)

320

3.14

102

4.80

FAExtender(kg)
0
Total binder content
(kg)
320

2.3

0.00

2.93

Stone(kg)

1150

2.7

426

17.25

DuneSand(kg)

525

2.65

198

7.88

CrusherSand(kg)

225

2.65

85

3.38

Superplasticiser(ml)

Checktotals

2410

OK

1001

OK

Table3Trialmix1

Mix2

1m3mix

RD

Volumes(l)

0.015m3
mix

Targetstrength(Mpa)

28

Targetslump(mm)

75

w/c

0.5

Water(l)

170

170

2.55

CEM152.5(kg)

170

3.14

54

2.55

GGBSExtender(kg)
170
Total binder content
(kg)
340

2.9

59

2.55

2.74

Stone(kg)

1150

2.7

426

17.25

DuneSand(kg)

540

2.65

204

8.10

CrusherSand(kg)

232

2.65

88

3.48

Superplasticiser(ml)

1000

15

Checktotals

2432

OK

1000

OK

Table4Trialmix2

13

3. Laboratory data, results and observations

3.1

3.1.1

Mix 1

Workability

The trial mix achieved a slump of 95mm. This was within the target range of 75mm +/- 25mm. No
admixture was require to achieve this slump

3.1.2

Strength

The trial mix achieved an average 28-day cube strength of 40.3 MPa with a standard deviation of 0.1
MPa. This is significantly below the target strength of 53.2 MPa

Cube
Mark

Age at Mass
Test

Cube
Dim.

Dens.

Mean
Dens.

Fail.
Load

fcu

Mean
fcu

(Days)

(g)

(mm)

(kg/m3)

(kg/m3)

(kN)

(MPa)

(MPa)

2528
2509
2416
2538

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

2528
2509
2416
2538

356.0
364.0
502.0
516.0

35.6
36.4
50.2
51.6

2378
2438
2465
2541

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

2378
2438
2465
2541

376.0
380.0
558.0
582.0

37.6
38.0
55.8
58.2

2330
2490
2531
2541

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

2330
2490
2531
2541

402.0
404.0
564.0
602.0

40.2
40.4
56.4
60.2

Mix 1

Mix 2

Mix 1

14

Mix 2

14

Mix 1

28

Mix 2

28

2519
2477

2408
2503

2410
2536

Table5Compressivetestresultsformix1and2

14

Strength
gain (%)

36.0

89%

50.9

87%

37.8

94%

57.0

98%

40.3

100%

58.3

100%

Compressive Strength Development Curves

Compressive Strength (MPa)

70
60
50
40
Mix 1

30

Mix 2

20
10
0
0

10

15
Age (days)

20

25

30

Figure1Compressivestrengthgainsformixes1and2

Further trial mixes with decreased water:binder ratios will be required to achieve the target strength of
53.2 MPa

3.1.3

Early strength gain

The average 3-day and 7-day cube strengths were 36.0 MPa and 37.8 MPa respectively giving an 89%
strength gain at 3 days and a 94% strength gain at 7 days. These values indicate that although the
ultimate target strength was not achieved, the required early strength gain property (required for rapid
construction) was achieved

3.1.4

Shrinkage

Shrinkage measurements of 235 microstrain after 44 days of drying were recorded. Typically 50% of
shrinkage has taken place after a drying period of approximately 50 days and therefore the total
shrinkage of the mix could roughly be estimated to be in the region of 470 microstrain.
Large variations in shrinkage strain were detected not only between the different test specimens but also
between the different sides of the same specimen. For example strains of 190 microstrain and 310
microstrain were recorded on specimen C sides 1 and sides 2 respectively. Measurements to determine
shrinkage strain are extremely sensitive and small variations in temperature combined with human

15

handling errors can results in large variations in strains. It is likely that this was the cause of the
anomalous results.

Shrinkage - Comparison
300.00

250.00

Starin ( 10-6)

200.00

150.00
Mix 1
Mix 2
100.00

50.00

0.00
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Age (days)

Figure2Shrinkagestrainresultsformixes1and2

The shrinkage strains recorded appear consistent with prediction models (which themselves vary greatly)
and are not excessive and therefore it can be concluded that the mix will not cause high prestress losses
due to shrinkage.

3.1.5

Durability Index tests

3.1.5.1

Oxygen Permeability Test

Oxygen permeability tests were conducted on three disc samples of 70mm nominal diameter and 30mm
nominal thickness (for actual measured diameters and thicknesses refer to detailed results sheets). The
samples were placed in a sealed falling head permeameter apparatus and subjected to an initial pressure
of approximately 100kPa. The pressure decay was monitored from which the coefficient of permeability
(k) was determined. The Oxygen Permeability Index (OPI) is defined as OPI = -log10k

16

The samples achieved a mean co-efficient of permeability (k) of 1.55 x 10-6 m/s which equates to a mean
OPI of 9.8. Good correlation was achieved between the three samples with a standard deviation on the
OPI results tending to zero.
Disk
Number

k (m/s)

OPI

1.6E-10

9.8

1.5E-10

9.8

1.5E-10

9.8

Mean

1.6E-10

9.8

Std dev

0.0

0.0

Table6OPIresultsformix1

An OPI value of 9.8 indicates a concrete of good durability class and low permeability and thus likely to
have a good carbonation resistance.

3.1.5.2

Water Sorptivity Test

The same specimens that were used for the Oxygen Permeability Test were used for the water sorptivity
test to provide an indication of the porosity of the concrete. The lower the water sorptivity index, the better
is the potential durability of the concrete. The bottom face of a disc sample is exposed to a few
millimetres of water. At regular time intervals, the sample is weighed to determine the mass of water
absorbed, and the sorptivity is determined from the plot of mass of water absorbed versus square root of
time.
The mean sorptivity of the 3 samples was 11.3 mm/hr0.5 with a standard deviation of 1.5 mm/hr0.5. This
equates to a mean porosity of 12%.
Disk
Number

Sorptivity (mm/hr0.5)

Porosity (%)

11.1

11.8

12.9

11.7

9.9

12.6

Mean

11.3

12.0

Std dev

1.5

0.5

Table7Watersorptivityresultsformix1
17

A sorptivity value of 11.3 mm/hr0.5 and a porosity of 12% indicate a concrete of poor durability class
(sorptivity values of between 6 10 mm/hr0.5 are indicative of a good durability class of concrete).

3.1.5.3

Chloride Conductivity Test

Chloride conductivity tests were conducted on 3 core samples. Either side of the core ends were exposed
to a NaCl chloride solution and then accelerated diffusion of the chloride ions was achieved by applying a
10V potential difference across the core. The amperage was measured to determine the chloride
conductivity. The lower the chloride conductivity, the better is the potential durability of the concrete.

Disk
Number

Conductivity (mS/cm)

1.28

1.51

1.45

Average

1.41

Average

0.12

Table8Chlorideconductivityresultformix1

The mean chloride conductivity of the samples was 1.41 mS/cm with a standard deviation of 0.12 mS/cm.
This indicates a concrete of good durability class with good chloride resistance

3.1.5.4

Overall durability index

Both the oxygen permeability test results and the chloride conductivity test results indicate a concrete of
good durability class with good carbonation and chloride resistance. The water sorptivity test on the other
hand indicates a poor durability class. Correlations between test result from the oxygen permeability test
and the chloride conductivity tests versus tests carried out on existing concrete exposed to carbonation
and marine conditions respectively have shown to be good and thus both these tests are considered
reliable indicators of the durability of the concrete. The water sorptivity test however only measures the
porosity of the concrete and not the rate of absorption and therefore is not as good an indicator of
durability. For the above reasons, the OPI and chloride conductivity tests results will take precedence
when concluding on the durability of the concrete and therefore the concrete durability can be classed as
good.

18

3.2

3.2.1

Mix 2

Workability

The trial mix achieved a slump of 75mm. This was within the target range of 75mm +/- 25mm. The slump
was achieved with the addition of a superplasticiser.

3.2.2

Strength

The trial mix achieved a mean 28-day cube strength of 58.3 MPa with a standard deviation of 2.7 MPa.
This is far greater than the target strength of 28.2 MPa which is not unexpected given that the governing
criterion for w:b ratio was for sulphate resistance and not strength.
For laboratory results, see section 3.1.2 above.

3.2.3

Early strength gain

The mean 3-day and 7-day cube strengths were 50.9 MPa and 57.0 MPa respectively giving an 87%
strength gain at 3 days and a 98% strength gain at 7 days.
These values indicate that early strength gain was achieved although this was not a required property for
this mix.

3.2.4

Shrinkage

Shrinkage measurements of 267.5 microstrain after 44 days of drying were recorded. Typically 50% of
shrinkage has taken place after a drying period of approximately 50 days and therefore the total
shrinkage of the mix could roughly be estimated to be in the region of 330 microstrain.
The correlation of the shrinkage measurements for the various samples and the sides of the samples
appears to be better than that of mix 1 with strains ranging between 220 microstrain and 300 microstrain.
The shrinkage strains recorded appear consistent with prediction models (which themselves vary greatly)
and are not excessive. Reduced shrinkage strains is not a requirement of this mix and thus the shrinkage
results require no further evaluation.
For shrinkage laboratory results for mix 2, see section 3.1.4 above.

19

3.2.5

Durability Index tests

Durability index tests, as described in 3.1.5, were conducted on samples taken from mix 2. The test
methodologyisnotrepeatedunderthissectionandonlyresultsareprovided.

3.2.5.1

Oxygen Permeability Test

The samples achieved a mean co-efficient of permeability (k) of 1.51 x 10-6 m/s which equates to a mean
OPI of 9.8. Good correlation was achieved between the three samples with a standard deviation on the
OPI results tending to zero.
Disk
Number

k (m/s)

OPI

1.55E-10

9.8

1.46E-10

9.8

1.53E-10

9.8

Mean

1.51E-10

9.8

Std dev

0.0

0.0

Table9OPIresultsformix2
An OPI value of 9.8 indicates a concrete of good durability class and low permeability and thus likely to
have a good carbonation resistance.

3.2.5.2

Water Sorptivity Test

The mean sorptivity of the 3 samples was 5.4 mm/hr0.5 with a standard deviation of 0.9 mm/hr0.5. This
equates to a mean porosity of 11.2%.
Disk
Number

Sorptivity (mm/hr0.5)

Porosity (%)

6.3

11.2

5.4

10.3

4.4

12.1

Mean

5.4

11.2

Std Dev

0.9

0.9

Table10Watersorptivityresultsformix2
20

A sorptivity value of 5.4 mm/hr0.5 and a porosity of 11.2% indicate a concrete of excellent durability class
(sorptivity values of <6 are considered excellent). It is likely that the use of a GGBS extender (blended
50% / 50% with the CEM 1 52.5) together with the low w:b ratio contributed to the low sorptivity value.

3.2.5.3

Chloride Conductivity Test

The mean chloride conductivity of the samples was 0.5 mS/cm with a standard deviation of 0.07 mS/cm.
This indicates a concrete of excellent durability class with excellent chloride resistance (chloride
conductivity value < 0.75 are considered excellent). It is likely that the use of a GGBS extender (blended
50% / 50% with the CEM 1 52.5) together with the low w:b ratio contributed to the low chloride
conductivity value.

Disk
Number

Conductivity (mS/cm)

0.44

0.50

0.57

Average

0.50

Std Dev

0.07

Table11Chlorideconductivityresultsformix2
3.2.5.4

Overall durability index

The durability index test results indicated that the mix achieved good to excellent durability properties.
This was one of the main requirements of the mix as good durability properties were required to combat
sulphate attack. The mix has met these requirements through the use of a GGBS extender and a low w:b
ratio.

4. Discussions and conclusions

Although the 2 mixes were designed for concrete uses in different applications and therefore different
concrete properties are expected, it is still useful to compare the mixes when drawing conclusions from
the results.

21

4.1

Workability

Mix 1 achieved a slump of 95mm without the addition of a superplasticiser admixture whilst mix 2
achieved a slump of 75mm with the addition of 1 l/m3 of superplasticiser. The higher slump was achieved
in mix 1 due to the higher water content (190 l/m3 as oppose to 170 l/m3). The use of an admixture for
mix 1 is advisable as this will lower the water content (which will lower the w:b ratio for the same cement
content) whilst still achieving the same consistency
Mix 2s water content and admixture dosage are deemed correct as the required slump was achieved
with a relatively low water content

4.2

Strength

Mix 1 failed to achieve its target strength of 53.2 MPa. Although not required of the concrete, Mix 2
achieved a 28 day strength of 58.3 MPa. The higher strength of mix 2 was achieved due to the lower w:b
ratio (0.5 vs. 0.6). It is advised that a new trial mix for mix 1 be batched using a w:b ratio in the region of
0.5. This need not be achieved by increasing the cement content and can instead be achieved by
lowering the water content by using an admixture as described in 4.1 above.

4.3

Early strength gain

Both mix 1 and mix 2 achieved good early strength gains with 3 day strengths of 89% and 87%
respectively and 7 day strengths of 94% and 98% respectively. It is not surprising that mix 1 achieved
good early strength gain given that it contains 100% CEM 1 - 52.5 however it is slightly surprising that
the 50% component of GGBS in mix 2 did not retard the early strength gain. A conclusion can be drawn
that GGBS does not retard early strength development and it is perhaps only FA extenders, which contain
no free calcium and therefore rely purely on CH from the cement hydration reaction, that retard early
strength development in concrete.

4.4

Shrinkage

The shrinkage strains of mix 1 are less than those of mix 2 (235 microstrain vs. 267 microstrain). On initial
inspection of the mixes, it would be expected that mix 1 would have the higher shrinkage strains given
that both the water content and the w:b ratio of mix 1 is higher than those of mix 2, whilst there is very
little difference in aggregate content. However on closer inspection, this apparent anomalous result can
be explained by previous research results which have shown that the incorporation of GGBS in concretes
at 50% replacement levels has the effect of causing a possible 20% increase in shrinkage at early ages in
small exposed laboratory specimens. This increase in shrinkage of the GGBS blend only occurs in
laboratory specimens and can be ignored for shrinkage calculations of the structural element

22

4.5

Durability

The durability index results achieved for both mix 1 and mix 2 are more than satisfactory for their
respective exposure classes and conditions and therefore mix proportions and materials do not need to
be altered for the durability criterion.
The water sorptivity test and the chloride conductivity tests for mix 2 exceeded those of mix 1 and the mix
2 concrete achieved an excellent durability class. This was one the main requirements of mix 2 due to
the severe sulphate exposure condition. The lower chloride conductivity and water sorptivity values in mix
2 can be explained by the presence of the GGBS extender in mix 2 which lowers the values of these
durability indexes by up to 50%, as is the case with these results. It must be noted however that the OPI
results of the 2 mixes were very similar and this is in line with previous research which shows that OPI is
not significantly improved by the addition of FA or GGBS extenders.

5. References

Fultons concrete technology 9th edition

Website - www.theconcreteportal.com/perf_spec.html
PPC suppliers brochure CEM I 52.5

23

AppendixADetailedLabResult