University of the Philippines-Diliman

College of Social Science and Philosophy

Department of Linguistics
A.Y. 2015-2016
First Semester

In Partial Fulfilment of the Final Requirement

In
Linguistics 190:
Mga Istruktura ng mga Wika sa Mundo

Patchwork, Hodgepodge, and Mishmash:

A paper on compounding in Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog

Researchers:
Castro, Bianca Chia R.
Ferido, Dyan Mariz C.

Submitted to:
Mr. Jay-Ar M. Igno

1. Introduction
Compounding is a type of word formation processes, as well as a derivational process. It
involves the creation of a word or a lexeme from two or more other words or lexemes. In this
paper, we shall call these lexemes as components, and the compound word as the resultant
formation of the two components. These components carry their own lexical category. In most
cases, these components are free morphemes. In languages such as English however, a
preposition (a bound morpheme) can be one of the components of a compound word.
This study is a comparative study of compound words in Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog,
a Philippine-type language. In both Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog, not all compounds are written
as a single word; some put a hyphen or a space between the two components to distinguish the
words from one another. There is inconsistency in the usage of different people. Usage of a
hyphen and a space, however, does not signal a change in meaning; the usage of a hyphen and a
space is mostly concerned with stylistics.
In both Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog, compound words may serve as verb bases compound words may further be derived as verbs, regardless of the lexical category of the
resultant formation.
This study will be mostly concerned with the semantic relations between the two
components constituting the compound word. As stated earlier, the two components may carry
similar or different lexical categories. Its resultant formation or the resulting compound word can
either be a noun, verb, or an adjective. In this paper, we will discuss concepts such as
headedness, attribution, and compositionality in relation to how compound words are formed.

2. Background of the Study

Approaches to compound words have been, to a great extent, descriptivist. Leonard
Bloomfields approach - the endocentricity and exocentricity of compound words applied to both
syntactic and semantic criteria is considered the benchmark of researches on compound words.
The compound word is considered endocentric if the compound carries a similar grammatical
function with its head. The compound word is exocentric if the compound belongs to a different
grammatical category than of its head. Endocentricity and exocentricity, however, is not limited
to determining the grammatical function or the lexical category of the compound word.
Endocentricity and exocentricity of a compound word is also dependent on the semantic relation
of the compound to its head component. A compound word can be considered semantically
exocentric if there is no hyponymical relationship between the head and the compound. A
hyponym is a word of more specific meaning than a general or superordinate term applicable to
it.
Researchers on Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog compounding have used the approach by
Leonard Bloomfield. In Bahasa Indonesia, there are two divisions according to Lieber &
Stekauer (2009) which are endocentric compounds and exocentric compounds. In Indonesian
endocentric compounds have a head that occurs on the left. While an exocentric compound does
not have a constituent that functions as the head.
De Guzman (2005) made use of endocentricity and exocentricity to classify Tagalog
compound words. Aside from endocentric and exocentric (headless) compounds, De Guzman
(2005) identified additional two categories: synthetic compounds and copulative compounds.
3. Purpose of the study
The overall purpose of this study is to examine the compound words in Bahasa Indonesia
and Tagalog and generate a conclusion regarding which classifications will accommodate both
compounds in aforementioned languages. This will also discuss the way on how these words are
classified independently. Views according to different language experts on each language will
also be tackled together with their own manner of partition. As words may contain different
interpretations, this will be concerned with another creative way of expression that is through
compounding words. Also, the extensive listing of the compound words in both languages will
open a window on how the native speakers see the world with the use of their language.

4.

Objectives of the Study

1) To enumerate the compound words that are found in Tagalog and Bahasa Indonesia using
2)

3)

secondary data.
To be able to classify the compound words according to:
the lexical categories of both morphemes
the semantic relation of constituents
To be able to generate a conclusion regarding which classifications accommodate both
compounds in aforementioned languages
5.

Scope and limitations

This study is limited to compound words composed of two free morphemes. Bound
morphemes like prepositions, nominalizing affixes, verbal affixes, adjectival affixes which serve
as a component is not covered in this study.
This study only covers words indigenous to Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog, and does not
include compound words with loan words as its components. Filipino words such as teksbuk
text book, kupkeyk cupcake, and naytklab nightclub are not included in the study, since they
follow the structure of English compound words.
As this paper is focused on determining semantic and structural relations between
components in compound words in Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog, compound words having
implicit semantic relations (TAG tubig-ulan rain water, anak-mayaman person born to
wealth) is sparingly discussed.

6.

Review of related literature

6.1. Studies on compounding
Most studies on compounding make use of Leonard Bloomfields semantic classification

of compounds. According to Bloomfield (1933), compounds fall into two main groups:
endocentric and exocentric. This is based on the analysis of the relation of the components to
4

each other and the analysis of the relation of the compound as a whole to its components. In
analyzing the relation of the components to each other, Bloomfield distinguished syntactic from
asyntactic compounds. In analyzing the relation of the compound as a whole to its components,
Bloomfield raised the issue of endocentricity and exocentricity. (Benczes, 2006)
The compound word is considered endocentric if the compound has the same
grammatical function, or lexical category, as the head component. The compound word
greenhouse is a noun, similar to its head component, which is house. The compound word is
considered exocentric if the compound belongs to a different lexical category from its head.
Endocentricity and exocentricity, however, is not limited to grammatical functions. There
are compounds that belong to the same grammatical category as the head component, yet are
labelled exocentric by Bloomfield. (Benczes, 2006). The endocentricity and exocentricity of a
compound also depends on the hyponymical relationship between the head and the compound.
Researches on compounding in English are large in number. In Liebers Introducing
Morphology, compounding is considered a type of lexeme formation. According to Lieber
(2009), compounds are words that are composed of two (or more) bases, roots, or stems. In
English, free bases are used to compose compounds. Distinguishing a compound from a random
sequence of words can be problematic. In the case of English, compounds are often stressed on
their first or left-hand base, whereas phrases typically receive stress on the right. Lieber (2009)
cited greenhouse and green house as examples. The formers stress falls on the word green,
while the latters stress falls on the word house. This is one test for identifying compounds in
English.
English compounds are said to be right-headed. Other languages such as Turkish are also
right-headed. The rightmost base determines lexical and semantic category of the compound
word. Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog are said to be left-headed. The leftmost component of the
compound word determines the lexical category of the word.
In general, there are two ways of classifying compound words in English: (1) by
classifying them according to the lexical categories of its components (root and synthetic) (2) by
classifying them according to the semantic relation of the components.

Figure 1. Different types of compounds in English according to Lieber (2009)

A number of studies of compounding in English are dedicated to the semantics of
combinations in compound words. Benczes Creative Compounding in English is dedicated to
the semantics of metaphorical and metonymical Noun-Noun combinations in English. The book
is largely concerned with the cognitive processes underlying the formation of metaphorical and
metonymical compound words, as well as the role of theories and frameworks in establishing a
classification for compounds. One chapter is dedicated to cognitive linguistics. Latter chapters
are dedicated to the semantics and pragmatics of compound word formation.
6.2. Bahasa Indonesia
This language is a part of a language subgroup that is one of the most politically powerful
in the Austronesian language family. Together with other 32 languages including the Bahasa
Melayu (formerly Bahasa Malaysia), According to Ethnologue, the Malay branch of the Malayo
Chamic subgroup under the Malayo Polynesian branch of the Austronesian family. The
Malay languages spread over Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak State, Kuching, Samarahan, Sri
Aman, and Betong districts. Speakers of these languages also sporadically present in the
Philippines, Singapore and other places. The spread of this language is also brought forth by the
prominence of Islamic faith throughout the world. In this paper, the term Malay is used to refer
to the language of Malaysia that is also known Bahasa Melayu, Malay, and Malaysian.
A brief history of the language is written by Quinn (2001). In this article, he said that
Indonesian or Bahasa Indonesia (BI), which stands for the language of Indonesia is the 20 th
century name for the Malay language that is spoken now throughout Indonesia and was chosen
as the archipelagos national language to promote unity in their country proclaimed in 1928. It is

also believed that having this language as their national language will help them in developing
their new nation. The Malay language arrived from Malacca into Indonesia because of the
annexation of Portuguese in 1511. Since the country is archipelagic, language was used in
commerce and trade. On the 17th century, Indonesia was colonized by Netherlands. Malay
language is still used for communication in this period though Dutch was learned by elites. Next
occupation that happened to Netherland East Indies is of the Japanese. Freedom was gained by
the Indonesian when they realized that nationalism is generally expressed in Dutch and other
languages making the nationalist movement created Sumpah Pemuda (Young Peoples Vow) of
the country formulated BI as the language for national unity and led to the series of events that
brought their independence in 1945. Year 1972, Malaysia and Indonesia shared the same
language that is Malay which allowed close communication and commerce between the two
countries. And eventually, the two diversified across time and acquired different innovations of
their own.
Writers such as Errinton (1986), Fokker (1960), Alisjahbana (2005), and Berg (1949)
explored the development of the said language as part of social and cultural change in Indonesia.
Moreover, some highlights are also given to linguistic continuity and discontinuities between BI
and other languages that are coexisting with it in Indonesia. A general account about the origin of
BI is also written in Alisjahbana (2005). More on linguistics is the concern of von de Wall (1864)
where he studied the morphology of Malay together with different morphological paradigms
such as productive, unproductive, and borrowed terminologies in the language. His study is
considered to be one of the firsts to be published about the Malay language. Gonda (1949) on the
other hand, used older data of languages in Indonesia which belong to Malay family to answer
questions of Malay. He then also makes an important remark about the ter- affix. The study
Fokker (1960) is the first article that deals with BI syntax intensively. But there are still stylistics
problems that are still unanswered by this publication hence, the need to more up-to-date studies.
6.2.1 Bahasa Indonesia in comparison with Bahasa Malaysia
Since the two languages are related, the differences between the two are hard to grasp.
This is mainly because one of them started off as a dialect (BI) which diversified with the Malay
language (now Bahasa Melayu / Bahasa Malaysia) (BM) and eventually became a language as

suggested by an article (Accredited Language Services, 2015). One difference that appears at
the surface of the spoken language is the intonation, vocabulary, and pronunciation. And from
those who are native speakers or near-native speakers, there are some notable differences found.
Seng (n.d.) sharing of vocabulary is not two-sided. Only vocabularies of BM are found in BI.
Some difference in vocabulary is also found. Example is the word for speak that is cakap in
BM while bicara in BI, and afternoon, evening that is BM petang while sore in BI. Words
with /e/ are usually pronounced as schwa [] then seen in the first syllable in Indonesian as said
by Lapoliwa (1981). However, in BM the /e/ is usually pronounced as a stronger version of
schwa everywhere it is seen. They also differ from outside influences that affect their language.
BI is mainly affected by Dutch and Javanese while BM is greatly affected by English. In treating
English loan words which ends in tion BI usually replaces it with as and si/i BM is more
restrictive and only utilizes the si/i ending since they are leaning more to the source language.
Both languages were highly influenced by Sanskrit since these languages are spoken in
economically strategic locations.
6.2.2 Studies on Compounding and Word Formation in Bahasa Indonesia
All of the few studies found in Indonesian greatly deals with morphology and/or word
formations in general. One of these is Kusuma & Mardijono (2013) which talks about the slang
words specifically used in the Indonesian version of Cosmo Girl!. They explored the processes
on how aforementioned words were formed and then classified them into groups making their
study purely qualitative in nature. They concluded that in this magazine, four types of word
making processes are prevalent that are clipping, blending, borrowing, and multiple processes.
Indonesian slang word formations dominantly fall in multiple processes as they revealed.
Moreover, they argued that from Chaedars and Yules word formation categories, addition,
deletion, and substitution must be added under multiple processes. Much like any other
languages, words in Indonesian may be divided into inflectional and derivational structures. A
portion of Tala (2003), is dedicated to Indonesian morphology where explanation for the two is
cited. The author discussed only the affixation process in derived words which involves the
prefixes, suffixes, and what he calls the confixes which are combinations of the two. Infixes
were disregarded since they are irrelevant to the study and are relatively few in Indonesian as the

writer explained. Derivational structures may be prefixed, suffixed, confixed, and doubleprefixed while the inflectional structures are only suffixed by enclitic possessive pronouns and
functional words or particles such as lah, -kah, -pun, and tah. A type of word formation that is
reduplication in Indonesian is studied thoroughly by Mistica, Andrews, Arka, & Baldwin
(2009). Changes brought by the morphological process are concisely interpreted by the writers.
Emphasis is given to verb reduplication with the agentive voice marking meN- affix.
Morphology of dialects of Bahasa Indonesia have also been studied. A notable work is of
Muhadjir (1981) where he focused on the morphology of the conventional and modern Jakartan
Dialect. Sentences in focus are transitive, semi-transitive, and intransitive verbal sentences. The
author also presents a static/dynamic dichotomy to capture other categories of verbal predicate
that is not based on the absence or presence of object or compliment, they are based on aspect of
action. Nevertheless, a portion is dedicated to morphophonemics since Jakarta dialect start of the
Malay languages. Analysis of root morphemes is also presented by the author even some
complete forms and reduplicated one. Separate chapters are given to discuss affixation since this
morphological process is productive in Malay languages. The last chapter deals with
reduplication in the dialect that is of category: reduplication of root morpheme and affixation
processes and root morpheme together as one morpheme process. In addition, the vocabulary list
of Stokhof (1931) contains a thousand of words from different languages but most of the lexical
items are of BI since it is widely used in the archipelago. Ample amount of information is also
given by the author about the linguistic situation of the country under the Dutch colonizers.
6.2.3 Word formation processes in Bahasa Indonesia
As defined in Payne (2006), morphology may be taken as a subdiscipline of linguistics
which is concerned about how words are formed and how meaningful units combine to shape
words and semantically adjust in a systematic way. These ways are called the morphological
processes of which words are formed. In Yule (2006), he enumerated some word formation
processes which are ways to new words or of new meanings. These are prefixation, infixation,
suffixation, circumfixation, clipping, backformation, coinage, blending, clipping, backformation,
conversion, acronyms, derivation, conversion, derivation, and compounding. On the other hand,
Chaer (2008) gave frequently used morphological processes in BI includes afiksasi (affixation),

reduplikasi (reduplication), pemajemukan atau komposisi (compounding), and abreviasi

(abbreviation). Aside from the above-mentioned types, Syamsudin (2007) further mentions
modificasi intern (internal modification), suplisi (suppletion), modifikasi zero (zero
modification), derivasi balik (back-derivation), matanalisis (meta-analysis), and analogi
(analogy) that are processes that are seldom used to form words in BI. The above-mentioned
frequently used processes will be defined below with the aid of works written by Chaer (1994;
2008) and of Syamsudin (2007). In addition grammars written by Atmosumarto (1996), Djenar
(2003), and Sneddon (2010) are also used by the researchers.
Afiksasi / Affixation Affixes in Indonesian may be attached to any word class that may
produce meaning that may be the same of entirely different. All of the writers agree that in
Indonesian, the affixes may be bifurcated into inflectional and derivational affixes. There are two
important inflectional affixes; meN- and di- which are voice affixes attached to transitive verbs.
Derivational affixes on the other hand, are ber-, meN- (attached to nouns and adjectives), ter-,
pe-, -an, peN/per- -an, ke- -an, meN- -an. These affixes may also be combined to one another
such as memper- - an. Due to ever present language change some affixes are not further explored
such as isme, -si and itas though these affixes usually appear on loan words. Moreover, when
prefixation is done in a word, there is a subsequent assimilation that happens with the last
segment of the prefix to the first segment of the stem. Affixes have been quite a struggle for BI
learners because context is usually needed to understand first before meaning can be derived for
the word and there are affixes that are homophones. These prefixes are also usually dropped in
colloquial usage of the language yet they are necessary to a well-formed speech.
Examples:
Prefixation ber- + renang = berenang to swim
meN- + tulis = menulis to write
Suffixation makan eat + -an = makanan food
lukis draw + -an = lukisan drawing
Circumfixation ? - ke- + baik good + -an = kebaikan goodness
per- + bertemu meet + -an = pertemuan meeting
Reduplikasi/ Reduplication According to Sneddon (2010), there are three types of
reduplication in Indonesian: partial, imitative, and full reduplication. It is to remember that

10

partial reduplication is considered no longer productive in Indonesian. This process perform in

different operations such as aspectual operation, reciprocals, and for number.
Examples:
Imitative ramah-tamah hospitable and friendly
kaya-raya very wealthy
Full Reduplication negeri country = negeri-negeri countries
buku book = buku-buku books
Pemajemukan/ Komposisi/ Compounding a defining property of compounding is that
two words which are combined to form a new word with a new meaning. There are two divisions
according to Lieber & Stekauer (2009) which are endocentric compounds and exocentric
compounds. In Indonesian endocentric compounds have a head that occurs on the left. While an
exocentric compound does not have a constituent that functions as the head.
Examples:

rumah makan dining room

bunga hari sunflower

Abreviasi/ Abbreviation like in many other languages, this process involves shortening
of words. It also includes acronyms and symbols. When words are being shorted the combination
of the initial letters of sequence of words are being taken to form a new word that stands for the
same meaning as the multi-word construction.
Examples:

Yogyakarta Yogya

Universitas Airlangga UNAIR

6.3. Tagalog
Hitherto, there are more or less 170 languages spoken in the Philippines (Ethnologue,
2015) and one of these is Tagalog. Of the huge Austronesian language family, it belongs to the
Malayo Polynesian subgroup. Some inconsistencies were seen in the lower order subgrouping
where Tagalog is a member. Ethnologue says that it is under a Philippine subgroup while Blust
(1991) suggests that it is under the West Malayo Polynesian subgroup and followed by the
Philippine subgroups. Latter writer also claims that there is indeed an ambiguity in naming the
subgroup where the Philippine languages are to be placed. The researchers then agreed to follow
Blusts proposal on Philippine languages subgrouping.
There are 15 subgroups under the Philippine subgroup as written in Blust (1991) and
narrowed into 9 in Blust (2005). These are Bashiic, Cordilleran, Central Luzon, Greater Central

11

Philippine (GCP), Kalamian, Inati, Bilic, Sangiric, and Minahasan. Tagalog then, is a wellstudied language that is a member of the GCP subgroup together with 100 other languages.
Speakers of the said language are widely distributed in the Philippines such as in Manila,
Mindoro and most of Luzon. Throughout the world because of the increasing Filipino migrants
all over the world.
In the year 1935, Commonwealth of the Philippines included an article in its constitution
that the nation needs a national language. From the eight regional languages: Ilokano,
Pangasinan, Pampango, Bikol, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Waray- Samarnon, and Tagalog, there is
still no chosen national language. As a step in putting forward a national language, the
government established Komisyon ng Wikang Pambansa. This led to the creation of the
Executive Order No. 134 s. 1937 which states that Tagalog to be the basis of the national
language of the Philippines (Almario, 1977). A lot of controversies have happened that revision
happened making the national language Filipino which then is formalized under 1987
Constitution Article XIV section 6.
Furthermore, writers such as Garcia (1992), Tolentino (1937), and Cubar E. & Cubar N.
(1944) and a lot more wrote about the grammar of Tagalog in general. In their works, portions
are allotted about the phonology, morphology, basic syntax, and semantics of the aforementioned
language. Some specific fields that are studied in Tagalog are its complex morphology studied by
Blake (1950), De Guzman (1978), and Cena (1979) and structure as studied by Paz (1967),
Sabbagh (2014), and Aldridge (2009).Changes that have happened to Tagalog after the
colonization by the Americans and Spaniards were also recorded in works such as in
Intermediate Tagalog: Developing cultural awareness through language. This specific article
takes up evidences of the Filipino culture that is mirrored through the language Tagalog such as
concept of respect by using the po and opo. And due to language contact, this language also
change in which it tends to concatenate its properties to one western language that is English.
Alegre (1991) wrote about the phenomenon of Taglish, code-switching, and code-mixing that is
now prevalent in the speech of the younger generation.
6.3.1 Studies on Tagalog compounding

12

Schachter and Otanes (1972) dedicated a section on Nominal Compounds under the
chapter 3 entitled Nominals and their Expansions. According to Schachter and Otanes, a
compound may be defined, for practical purposes, as a word composed of two potentially distinct
words; a nominal compound, as a compound that functions as a nominal. Both the components
or nominal compounds are capable of occurring independently.
Schachter and Otanes identified five types of compound words in Tagalog based on the
semantic relation of its components. These are (1) Descriptive (2) Object (3) Purpose (4)
Possessive (5) Source.
Paz (2003) described Filipino as an affixing language. Filipino, according to Paz, has the
flexibility to form words from stems which at times are difficult to subject to traditional
grammatical categorization. According to Paz, compound words in Filipino are formed by two
stems or words (affix + stem). The meaning of the resultant form may or may not be an
aggregate meaning of both words. While Schachter and Otanes (1972) and De Guzman (2005)
considered na and -ng as mere linkers between two components, Paz (2003) went further and
posited that compound words are derived from a phrase which consists of two words joined by a
marker (na, -ng, sa).
Paz divided compound words into two sets: (1) the first set consists of two types of
compound words (a) Attributive phrase (b) Possessive phrase. These types are labeled based on
the semantic load of the marker joining the two components. The attributive phrase consists of
two words or stems joined by the marker na/-ng. The possessive phrase consists of two words or
In Aspects of Tagalog Compounding, De Guzman (2005) explored the nature of Tagalog
compounding. The study attempts to determine the syntactic, morphological, semantic, and
pragmatic aspects of Tagalog compounding. De Guzman adapted a lexicalist approach in
locating morphological and semantic rules of compounding in the lexical component of the
grammar. It is mentioned in the paper that Tagalog compound words are similar with French
compound words - both have compound words which use a linker. French uses de whereas
Tagalog uses the possessive particle ng and the relative particle na in some resultant formations.
Furthermore, De Guzman addressed the issue of lexical and syntactic categories in Tagalog. The
study maintains the usage of the three major classes of words: N(oun), V(erb), and A(djective).
Further discussion on the viability of maintaining these three major classes can be found in De
Guzmans Lexical Categories in Tagalog (1996).

13

De Guzman (2005) identified four types of compound words in Tagalog: (1) endocentric
(2) exocentric (3) synthetic (4) copulative. Under the endocentric category, De Guzman included
pet names of people as examples of compound words (e.g. Leonciang panot, Pilosopong Tasyo,
Reginang daldal). De Guzman also presented figures displaying the productivity of each lexical
category in a resultant formation.
7. Methodology
In the gathering of data, the researchers performed the archiving method. The
examination of archival materials is thus important because they are ever-present, substantial and
strategically useful. University libraries and online databases are explored to be able to find
possible sources of the data needed to be analyzed. For Tagalog, the researchers will make use of
grammar references in the form of books and dictionaries, specifically of Schacter & Otanes
Tagalog Reference Grammar. On the other hand, grammar resources for Bahasa Indonesia are
the ones used Bahasa Indonesia Malaysia course in the university, mainly Atmosumarto (1996)
and Sneddon (2010). The archiving is done by reading secondary sources and then highlighting
the compound words both in Tagalog and Bahasa Indonesia, and then compiled in an excel file.
Moreover, the process used for analyzing the data gathered are series of qualitative
research methods that is: the descriptive approach and comparative approach. The former is used
to be able to explain the manner on how compound words are made in each language and the
latter will also allow the researchers to generate conclusion regarding the possible similarities
and differences in these said word formation process between the two languages.
8.

Presentation of Data
A comprehensive list of compound words in Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog is found in the

appendix.
1) Root + Root
Noun (linker) + Noun
Henceforth, Noun is abbreviated to N.

14

BAHASA INDONESIA

GLOSS

(Word Class)
air mata (N)

teardrop

air + mata
water + eye
tandatangan (N)

signature

tanda + tangan
mark + hand

TAGALOG
anak pawis (N)

GLOSS
laborer

anak + pawis
child + sweatt
inang-bayan (N)

motherland, homeland

ina (-ng) + bayan

mother (linker) + nation
N + Verb
Henceforth, Verb is abbreviated to V.

BAHASA INDONESIA
mantel mandi (N)

GLOSS
bathrobe

mantel + mandi
robe + bath
kamar tidur (N)

bedroom

kamar + tidur
room + sleep

15

TAGALOG

GLOSS

This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.

N + Adjective
Henceforth, Adjective is abbreviated to Adj

BAHASA INDONESIA
kulit luar (N)

GLOSS
cuticle

kulit + luar
flesh + space
jarum panjang (N)

minute hand

jarum + panjang
needle + long

TAGALOG
dugong bughaw (N)

GLOSS
royal blood

dugo (-ng) + bughaw

blood (linker) + azure blue
tabang lamig (N)

stout but sickly person

taba (-ng) + lamig

fats (linker) + cold
V+V

BAHASA INDONESIA
ambil alih (V)

GLOSS
to replace

ambil + alih
take + over

16

jual-beli (N)

buy and sell

jual + beli
sell + buy

TAGALOG

GLOSS

urong sulong (N)

one step forward, two steps back

urong + sulong

indecisiveness

retreat + advance
labas pasok, labas masok (N)

entering and exiting repeatedly

labas + pasok
exit + enter
V+N

BAHASA INDONESIA
tusuk gigi (N)

GLOSS
toothpick

tusuk + gigi
pin + tooth
Tanggung jawab (Adj)

responsible

Tanggung + jawab
to bear + answer

TAGALOG
hampas lupa (N)

GLOSS
tramp, bum

hampas + lupa
slap + earth
akyat bahay (N)

burglar

akyat + bahay

17

climb + house
V + Adj

BAHASA INDONESIA
kerjasama (N)

GLOSS
cooperation

kerja + sama
to work + same
omong kosong (Adj)

senseless

omong + kosong
to speak + zero

TAGALOG

GLOSS

This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.
Adj + Adj

BAHASA INDONESIA
indah permai (Adj)

GLOSS
beautiful (view/place)

indah + permai
pencah-belah (Adj)

broken into pieces

pencah + belah

TAGALOG
hubot hubad (Adj)

GLOSS
stark naked

hubo (at) + hubad

without undergarments + naked
Adj + N
18

BAHASA INDONESIA
mahasiswa (N)

GLOSS
university student

maha + siswa
+ student
berat tangan (Adj)

lazy

berat + tangan
heavy + hand

TAGALOG
kapos palad (N)

GLOSS
less fortunate person

kapos + palad
insufficient + palm
puting tainga (N)

a selfish or stingy person

puti (-ng) + tainga

white + ear
Adj + V

BAHASA INDONESIA
setiausaha (N)

GLOSS
secretary

setia + usaha
loyal + venture
salah paham (N)

misunderstanding

salah + paham
incorrect + belief

TAGALOG

GLOSS

19

This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.

2) Stem + Root

BAHASA INDONESIA
golongan atas (N-Adj)

GLOSS
elite

golongan + atas
makanan kecil (N)

snack

makanan + kecil
pencari nafkah (N-Adj)

breadwinner

pencari + nafkah
pemandu sorak (N)

cheerleader

pemandu + sorak

TAGALOG
pantawid gutom (N)

GLOSS
something that appeases hunger

pang- + tawid + gutom

instrumental affix + bridge + hunger
panawag pansin (N)

attention-getter

pang- + tawag + pansin

instrumental affix + call + attention
pamatid uhaw (N)

thirst-quencher

pang- + patid + uhaw

instrumental affix + cut + thirst

3) Root + Stem

20

BAHASA INDONESIA
purnakaryawan (N)

GLOSS
retired worker

purna + karyawan
mata pelajaran (N)

subject

mata + lesson

TAGALOG

GLOSS

This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.

9. Discussion
9.1. Bahasa Indonesia compounding
On the syntactic and semantic grouping of Bahasa Indonesia compound words
Generally, compounding is one of the many word formation processes in languages
throughout the world. As described above, according to Lieber (2009), Words that are considered
to be compound may be composed of two or more bases, roots, or stems. And as suggested by
the data presented above, in Bahasa Indonesia (BI) two words commonly forms a compound
word. Furthermore, most of the writers (Alisyahbana 1953; Munaf 1951; Mees 1955; and
Badudu 1978) in BI gave an agreeing description of compound words in the said language. Just
like what Chaer (2008) stated, in BI compound words are composed of two words (free or
bound) as its elements, and thus give rise to a new word and a new understanding. In Munafs
(1951) words, two words that became one sense. It is very evident that the data correspond
with Chaers claim. There are also characteristics of BI compounds. First is that, resultant form is
expected to form a new meaning or understanding. Second, elements of the new formed word
may not be separated. Lastly, the structure of the elements cannot be altered. If grammatical units
are inserted between elements or order or words is inverted, the supposedly compound words
will yield an entirely different meaning or even a total loss of meaning.

21

Example:
kambing hitam scapegoat

kambing yang hitam black goat

pemberi suara voter

pemberi dengan suara giver with voice

Ibu jari thumb

Sapu tangan handkerchief

jari Ibu mothers finger

tangan sapu hand broom

It is also evident that compound words may also be categorized in different ways. But we
should keep in mind that structurally, most BI compounds are left-headed. This means that head
(word that determines the word class to where the whole compound belongs) appears to be in the
first element position.
Example:
gunung (N) mountain+ api (N) fire = gunungapi (N) volcanoe
meja (N) table + tulis (V) to write = meja tulis (N) desk
sandiwara (N) play+ bisu (Adj) mute= sandiwara bisu (N) pantomime
bolak (V) back + balik (V) return = bolak-balik (V) to and fro
cuci (V) to wash + mukha (N) face = cuci mukha (V)
kenal (V) to know+ pasti (Adj) definite = kenal pasti (V) identify
kelam (Adj) dim + kabut (Adj) foggy = kelam kabut (Adj) murky
tinggi (Adj) high + hati (N) heart = tinggi hati (A) bossy
Also, most of the compounds composed of an noun followed by aan adjective or vice
versa, most of the resultant forms are adjectives. Adjective followed by a verb usually yield
nouns as the data suggests. The most common classification found is based on the structure of
the word which is used in the data presentation. From there, we can infer that a BI compound
may consist of both roots, a stem and a root, and vice versa. These compounds may also be
categorized according to their nature like how Lieber (2009) divided English compounds by
nature.
a. Endocentric Compounds the object referred to by the compound is also referred to by
the head. In other words, the compound represents a subtype of the head.
Example:

22

merah (Adj) red + muda (Adj) young = merah muda (Adj) pink = a kind of red that
is young
pengatin (N) a person who participates in a wedding+ wanita (N) lady= pengatin
wanita (N) bride = a person that participates in a wedding that is a lady
minyak (N) oil + wangi (Adj) fragrant = minyak wangi (N) perfume = a kind of oil
that is fragrant
b. Exocentric Compounds the object referred to by the compound is different from that
of the head.
Example:
kaki (N) leg+ tangan (N) hand = kakitangan (N) staff
ringan (Adj) light + tulang (N) bone= ringan tulang (Adj) industrious
kaki (N) leg + botol (N) bottle = kaki botol (Adj) drunkard
Moreover, these compounds may also be divided according to the resultant words
meaning. One is the natural compound which includes compound words whose meaning is
evident or seen in the real world (physical). The other one is the figurative compound which is
comprised of compounds that have metaphorical meaning. Hence, we can infer that endocentric
compounds are natural compounds while exocentric compounds are figurative compounds. Aside
from the above mentioned, Munaf (1951) added four more divisions. First, compounds that are
formed by elements which corroborates with each other. This group is called the kata majemuk
kopulatif or the coordinative compounds such as:
lemah weak + lembut soft = lemah lembut gentle
yatim fatherless + piatu motherless = yatim-piatu orphan .
Second type composed of compounds where its first element describes or says something
about the subsequent element. The first element acts as the modifier in this case. The group is
called kata majemuk determinatif or attributive compounds such as:
salah wrong + paham to understand = salah paham misunderstanding
setia loyal + usaha work = setiausaha secretary

23

Third of the grouping is composed of a verb followed by its specific objective. No writer have
given name for this group but it may be related to the usual type of compounds: subordinative
compounds. In English, the one element acts as the object of the other element. It also occurs in
BI such as:
cuci to wash+ mukha face = cuci muka to wash ones face
And the last, is the kata majemuk posesif that usually have a second word which possess the first
word as in:
bua fruit+ bibir mouth = bua bibir topic
9.2. Tagalog compounding
On the syntactic formation of compound words in Tagalog
Lieber (1992) made use of the X-bar system of Tagalog, along with this condition, to
demonstrate principles of word construction in Tagalog.
Licensing Conditions in Tagalog
a. Xn -> ...X{n-1.n}..., where recursion is allowed for n = 0
b. i. Head initial with respect to complements.
ii. Head initial with respect to modifiers.
iii. Head initial with respect to specifiers.
c. Pre- and post-head constituents are either Xmax or X0.
Many word formation processes in Tagalog are head-initial, or left-headed. Much of
Tagalog category-changing derivational word formation is prefixal. Affixes such as nominal
affixes, verbal affixes (excluding aspectual affixes), and adjectival affixes among others are
prefixal. According to Lieber, Tagalog compounding fits the left-headed structure, that is, the
lexical category the first component of the compound word determines the lexical category of the
resultant formation.
Evidence of left-headedness of Tagalog compounding according to Lieber (1992)
a. Noun + Noun = Noun
matang
+
lawin = matang-lawin keen eyes
nguso(ng)
+
baboy = ngusong-baboy protruding upper lip

24

isip

lamok = isip-lamok weak mind

b. Adjective + Noun = Adjective

amoy
+
isda = amoy isda fishy-smelling
lasa(ng)
+
isda = lasang-isda fishy tasting
c. Verb + Noun = Verb
magbigay
+
magbangong +

galang = magbigay-galang show respect

puri = magbangong-pari redeem ones honor

d. Deverbal (synthetic) compounds

pamatid
+
uhaw = pamatid-uhaw thirst quencher
panawag
+
pansin = panawag-pansin attention-getter
However, Lieber (1992) only took into consideration four types of compound words in
Tagalog: Noun-Noun, Adjective-Noun, Verb-Noun, and Deverbal compounds. According to our
data, other combinations of components exist in Tagalog. For instance,
a. Noun + Adjective = Noun
dugo(ng)

bughaw = dugong-bughaw royal blood (NOUN)

taba(ng)

lamig = tabang-lamig stour but sickly person (NOUN)

b. Verb + Verb = Verb, Noun

bantay

salakay = bantay-salakay opportunist (NOUN)

itulak

kabigin

= itulak-kabigin neither has an advantage over the

other(ADJECTIVE)
c. Adjective + Adjective = Adjective
hubo (at)
d.

hubad = hubot hubad stark naked(ADJECTIVE)

Adjective + Noun = Noun, Adjective

doble

kara

= doble-kara pretentious person (NOUN)

basa(ng)

sisiw = basang-sisiw a person helplessly soaked wet (NOUN)

bukas

palad = bukas-palad generous (ADJECTIVE)

25

As the examples above demonstrates, the compound word, or the resultant formation,
does not always take the lexical category of the head component. The proposed left-headedness
of Tagalog in Lieber (1992) is not all encompassing, especially when we consider the issue of the
grammatical function of a Tagalog word. A Tagalog word can change its function according to its
syntactic and semantic relation with other words in a sentence construction. One of the first task
a researcher shall encounter when analyzing the formation of a Tagalog compound word, is
classifying a Tagalog word according to a word class - which is a rather formidable task.
According to the data the researchers have gathered, the verb never appears as the second
or the rightmost component, except when the head component is also a verb.
9.3. Proposed grouping/classification of compounds in Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog according
to the semantic relation of the components to the compound word/resultant formation
Structurally, the compound words in the two languages appears in root + root formation.
Combination of two elements whether noun, adjective, and verb or of same word class is found
in Bahasa Indonesia. Also, root + stem and stem + root formation also occur in the
aforementioned language. On the other hand, Tagalog does not have compound formations
which employ a verb as the rightmost component of the compound word, except when the
leftmost component is also a verb. Stem + root formations are also present in Tagalog. These
formations are also called deverbal or synthetic compound words.
Semantically, these compounds may be divided into the following groups and subgroups:
1. Natural Compounds - all of the compounds that are considered a part of group are those who
have a meaning which is evident in the physical world. This means that the referent of the
compound word appeals to the senses.
1a. Endocentric Compounds - as presented above, compound words in both languages
have this classification and both are left-headed. This section includes compound words as a

26

whole represents a subtype of the head. It will also include the attributive and possessive type of
compounds which are considered as different from endocentric groups in Bahasa Indonesia as
Munaf (1951) enumerated in his study. The researchers observed that Bahasa Indonesia and
Tagalog have these kinds of compounds. The non-head, or the rightmost component of the
compound word in both Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog, refers to a kind or a quality of the head
component. Endocentric compounds have a high degree of compositionality the meaning of the
components motivates the overall meaning of the compound.
Examples:
Bahasa Indonesia
kamar (N) room

+ kecil (N) small

= kamar kecil (N) toilet

duta (N) representative

+ besar (Adj) big

= duta besar (N) ambassador

sulat (N) writing

+ kamay (N) hand

= sulat-kamay (N) handwriting

isip (N) behavior

+ bata (N) child

= isip-bata (N) childish, immature

bahay (N) house

+ aklatan (N) library = bahay-aklatan (N) library

Tagalog

1b. Exocentric Compounds compound words are considered exocentric when there is
no hyponymical relationship between the head component and the compound word/resultant
formation. One might need to activate the imagination in order to have an understanding how the
compound word came about from its components. In some cases, the non-head may refer to a
quality of the head component.
Examples:
Bahasa Indonesia
jarum (N) needle
mata (N) eye

+ panjang (Adj) long = jarum panjang (N) minute hand

+ hari (N) day

= matahari (N) sun

Tagalog
dugong (N) blue

+ bughaw (Adj) blue = dugong-bughaw (N) royal blood

27

anak (N) child

+ pawis (N) sweat

= anak-pawis (N) laborer

1c. Copulative Compounds - This section will include compound words which have
element that are considered to be equal. This means that in the construction of the compounds,
none of the elements are considered as the head. The components have equal semantic
contribution to the overall meaning of the compound word.
Examples:
Bahasa Indonesia
tinggi (Adj) high

+ tegap (Adj) sturdy

= tinggi tegap (Adj) high and strong

kurus (Adj) thin

+ kering (Adj) dry = kurus kering (Adj) emaciated

sunyi (Adj) lonely

+ senyap (Adj) silent = sunyi senyap (Adj) deathly still

Tagalog
butot (N) bone

+ balat (N) skin

toyo (N) soy sauce + mansi (N) lime

= butot balat (Adj) severely thin

= toyomansi (N) sauce or flavor of combined soy

sauce and lime

tuldok (N) period

+ kuwit (N) comma = tuldok-kuwit (N) semicolon

humigit (Adj) more than + kumulang (Adj) less than = humigit kumulang (Adv) more or
less
This type of compound is prevalent in Verb + Verb compounds in Tagalog.
bantay (V) to protect
labas (V) to exit

+ salakay (V) to assault = bantay-salakay (N) opportunist

+ pasok (V) to enter = labas-pasok, labas-masok (N) entering and

exiting repeatedly over a period of time

manhik (V) to climb + manaog (V) to descend = manhik-manaog (N) climbing and going
down the stairs repeatedly
1d. Objective Compounds - Under this group are compounds in which one element may
be considered as the object of the other. In the discussion in Bahasa Indonesia, this is labeled as
subordinative compounds. Most words that belong to this group usually are made up of a verb

28

and its specific object as in Bahasa Indonesia. However, in Tagalog this group is frequently
referred as objective compounds.
Examples:
Bahasa Indonesia
tusuk (V) to prick + gigi (N) tooth = tusuk gigi (N) toothpick
gesok (V) to brush + gigi (N) tooth = gesok gigi (V) to brush ones teeth
cuci (V) to wash + mukha (N) face = cuci mukha (V) to wash ones face
Tagalog
bukang (V) open

+ bibig (N) mouth = bukang-bibig, bukambibig (N) expression, talk

of the town
kisap (N) flicker

+ mata (N) eye

= kisapmata (N) in a blink of an eye

akyat (V) to climb + bahay (N) house = akyat-bahay (N) burglar

agaw (V) to seize

+ buhay (N) life

= agaw-buhay (Adj) hovering between life and

death
saling (V) to pour
kuskos (V) to scuff

+ lahi (N) race

= saling-lahi, salinlahi (N) generation

+ balungos (N) requisitions = kuskos-balungos (N) unnecessary

attention given to small and petty details

Synthetic, also known as deverbal compounds, are included in this group.
pamatid (N) instrument for cutting + uhaw (N) thirst

= pamatid-uhaw (N) thirst-

quencher
pantawid (N) instrument for bridging + gutom (N) hunger = pantawid-gutom (N) hunger
appeaser
panawag (N) instrument for calling + pansin (N) attention = panawag-pansin (N)
attention-getting
2. Figurative Compounds - aside from the natural compounds, we also have compounds which
yield metaphorical meanings. This group appeals to the cognitive side of linguistics. Compound
words that belong to this group evoke an abstract concept. Figurative compound words help the
speaker express an either an indirect, or at times, a more intense expression of emotions (love,

29

anger, fear, respect), human traits (indecisiveness, sensitivity), negative concepts (sarcasm,
pretense, cowardice, death) and other usages of compound words which involve usage of
metaphors.
Examples:
Bahasa Indonesia
terang (Adj) bright + hati (N) heart

= terang hati (Adj) intelligent

kaki (N) leg

+ botol (N) bottle

= kaki botol (Adj) drunkard

jam (time)

+ karet (N) rubber = jam karet (idiomatic expression) things in life

are supposed to happen in a very relaxed fashion

Tagalog
bahag (Adj) short

+ buntot (N) tail

= bahag-buntot (Adj) coward

tubong (N) profit

+ lugaw (N) porridge = tubong-lugaw (N) excessive profit from small

investment
puting (Adj) white + tiyan (N) belly

= puting-tiyan (N) a selfish or stingy person

ngiting (N) smile + aso (N) dog

= ngiting-aso (N) sneer, sarcastic smile

pasang (V) to bear + krus (N) cross

= pasang-krus (N) burden

With regards to the formation of figurative compounds, it is, to an extent, culturally

determined. For instance, the compound word pasang-krus, which means burden, may refer to
the biblical account wherein Jesus was carrying His cross on the way to Calvary where He shall
be crucified. Philippines, the country where Tagalog is spoken, is a predominantly Catholic
country. This remarkable event in Jesus life has been incorporated into the lives of the Filipinos
by the compound word pasang-krus.

10.

Conclusion and Recommendations

This study made an attempt to create a classification which accommodates both Bahasa

Indonesia and Tagalog compound words in terms of structure and semantic relations. Because

30

both Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog compound words are left-headed, determining the relation of
a component to another component is an uncomplicated task.
In the case of Tagalog however, determining the grammatical function, or the lexical
category of a word or a root is a rather formidable task. It is imperative to first identify the
lexical category of a component before determining the semantic relation of a component to
another component, as well as determining the semantic relation of a component to the
compound word itself. For instance, the component bantay in the compound bantay-salakay
(which means opportunist or perpetrator of an inside job) can be both a noun or a verb. The
word bantay can both mean the noun guardian and the verb to guard.
With regards to the compositionality of compound words in Bahasa Indonesia, it is rather
difficult to distinguish compounds from non-compounds. The word rumah makan can be
interpreted as a compound as much as it can be interpreted as a phrase. The word rumah makan
can be translated as restaurant or house where one eats, and both are equally correct. Word
order in Bahasa Indonesia suggests that the word that follows another word is considered a
modifier regardless of its lexical category.
Another issue encountered by the researchers is related to the case of foreign concepts in
Bahasa Indonesia. These concepts are incorporated in the language, and follow the structure of
Bahasa Indonesian words. Through this incorporation, the foreign concepts have entered the
consciousness of native speakers of Bahasa Indonesia, and thus, make it difficult to discern and
isolate these concepts from words which are viewed as native compound words. For instance, the
compound word tusuk gigi (which means toothpick) comes from a concept which is originally
foreign to Bahasa Indonesia. Bahasa Indonesia adapts to this concept by creating a compound
word which exactly describes what a toothpick is. The word tusuk means to prick, to pick,
while the word gigi means tooth.
While natural compounds do not pose much of a challenge to the native speaker when it
comes to predicting the semantic relation of the compound to its components, figurative
compounds, however, can be difficult to predict and interpret even for a native speaker. For
instance,
Tagalog

31

sundalong (N) soldier

+ kanin (N) cooked rice

= sundalong-kanin (N) cowardly

+ kanin (N) cooked rice

= aliping-kanin (N) slave who

soldier
aliping (N) slave
works without pay
Both compound words employ the word kanin. However, the semantic contribution of
kanin to the compound word may vary. De Guzman (2005) provided an explanation to the first
compound word. According to De Guzman (2005), the compound sundalong-kanin may refer to
a soldier who survives by eating nothing but rice. Rice alone cannot support and maintain strong,
robust soldiers. It may also be that the physical or emotional constitution of that soldier is
compared with rice, which may be viewed as common, soft, or bland. This interpretation, in turn,
implies cowardice. However, in the second compound word aliping-kanin, it would be a shot in
the dark, trying to figure out the meaning of the compound, even for a native speaker. The
compound aliping-kanin may be interpreted as a slave who works for nothing but food,
specifically rice, as compensation. How the component contributes to the meaning of the
compound becomes evident if we know the meaning of the compound itself.
Having adequate knowledge on a peoples cultural background is crucial in determining
the semantic association of a compound to its components. In addition to culture, studies on how
cognitive processes yield compound words in Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog are also crucial in
determining the regularities in the formation of compound words. Further research should be
made for analyzing compound words using a cognitive linguistic framework.

Bibliography

Alegre, E. (1991). How do you say ikaw naman in English? Sunday Inquirer Magazine, 6(15) , p. 16.
Aldridge, E. (2009). Minimalist questions for the nominalist analysis of Tagalog . Theoretical Linguistics,
35(1) , 51-62.
Alisyahbana, S. T. (1953). Tatabahasa Baru Bahasa Indonesia II. Jakarta: Pustaka Rakyat.

32

Alisjahbana, S. (2005). Sisi gelap perkembangan kota : resistensi sektor informal dalam perspektif
sosiologis. Yogyakarta: LaksBang Press.
Almario, V. (1977). Mula Tagalog hanggang Filipino.
Atmosumarto, S. (1994). Colloquial Indonesian. New York: Routledge.
Balyan, R. & Chatterjee, N. (2015). Translating noun compounds using semantic relations. Computer
Speech and Language 32, 91-108.
Bauer, L. (1983). English word-formation. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Badudu, J. (1973). Adakah Kata Majemuk dalam Bahasa Indonesia. In J. Badudu, Bunga Rumpai Ilmu
Sastra 3. Bandung: Univesitas Padjadjaran.
Benczes, R. (2006). Creative Compounding in English: The Semantics of Metaphorical and Metonymical
Noun-Noun Combinations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Berg, C. (1949). Evolutionary etymology as a corrective in Indonesian linguistics. Acter du XXIe Congres
International des Orientalistes , 243-246.
Blust, R. (1991). The Greater Central Philippines Hypothesis. Oceanic Linguistics, 30(2) , 73129.
Blust, R. (2005). The linguistic macrohitory of the Philippines. Current issues in Philippine linguistics
and athropology: Parangal para kay Lawrence A. Reid , 31-68.
Blake, F. R. (1950). Tagalog noun formation. Journal of the Americal Oriental Society, 70(4) , 271-291.
Cubar, E., & Cubar, N. (1994). Writing Filipino Grammar: Traditions & Trends. Quezon City: New Day.
Cena, R. (1979). Double representations for some loan words in Tagalog. Studies in Philippine
Linguistics, 3(1) , 125-137.
Chaer, A. (1994). Linguistik umum. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.
Chaer, A. (2008). Morfologi Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.
De Guzman, V. (2005). Aspects of Tagalog Compounding. Current issues in Philippine linguistics and
athropology: Parangal kay Lawrence A. Reid , 282-305.
De Guzman, V. (1978). Syntactic Derivation of Tagalog verbs. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.
Djenar, D. (2003). A student's guide to Indonesian grammar. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Errinton, J. (1986). Continuity and change in Indonesian language development. Journal of Asian Studies,
45(2) , 329353
Fokker, A. A. (1960). Pengantar sintaksis Indonesia. Jakarta: Pradja Paramita.

33

Garcia, L. G. (1992). Mga Gramatikang Tagalog/Filipino. Quezon : Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Sentro ng

Wikang Filipino.
Gonda, J. (1949). Indonesian linguistics and general linguistics. Lingua 2 , 308-339.
Jarema, G., Busson, C., Nikolova, R., Tsapkini, K., & Libben, G. (1999). Processing compounds: A crosslinguistic study. Brain and Language 68 , 362-369.
Kusuma, V., & Mardijono, J. (2013). The word formation processes of Indonesian slang words used in
Cosmo Girl! Indonesian teenage magazine. Jurnal Mahasiswa Program Studi Sastra Inggris, 1(1) , 217222.
Lapoliwa, H. (1981). A generative approach to the phonology of Bahasa Indonesia. Pacific Linguistics,
34 , 1-147.
Lieber, R. (1992). Deconstructing morphology: Word formation in syntactic theory. Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press.
Lieber, R. (2009). Introducing Morphology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Lieber, R. (2009). Lexeme formation: The familiar. In R. Lieber, Introducing Morphology (pp. 31-56).
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Lieber, R., & Stekauker, P. (2009). The Oxford handbook of Compounding. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Muhadjir. (1981). Morphology of Jakarta dialect: Affixation and reduplication. Jakarta: Badan
Penyelenggara Seri NUSA.
Munah, H. (1951). Tatabahasa dan Tatakalimat. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press.
Masinambouw, E. (1980). Kata Majemuk. Jakarta: Fakultas Sastra Universitas Indonesia.
Mees, C. A. (1955). Tatabahasa Indonesia. 5th ed. Jakarta: Djakarta-Groningen.
Mistica, M. A. (2009). Double double, morphology and trouble: Looking into reduplication in Indonesian.
Australasian Language Technology Association Workshop , 44-52.
Noche, P. (n.d.). Pagbubuo ng mga Salita: Pagtatambal/Tambalan. Retrieved December 4, 2015, from
https://samutsamot.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/pagbubuo-ng-mga-salita_tambalan.pdf
Quinn, G. (2001). The learner's dictionary of today's Indonesia. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
Paz, C. J. (1967). The morphology and syntax of Tagalog nouns and adjectives. Master's Dissertation:
University of the Philippines Diliman.
Paz, C. J. (2003). Compounding old and new words in Filipino. In Karen L. Adams and Thomas John
Hudak and F. K. Lehman (Eds.), Papers from the Seventh Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian
Languages, 121-135. Tempe, Arizona: Arizona State University, Program for Southeast Asian Studies.

34

Payne, T. (2006). Morphological processes and conceptual categories. In Exploring language structure:
A student's guide. New york: Cambridge University Press.
Syamsudin, A. (2007). Modul Struktur Bahasa Indonesia. Bandung: Sekolah Pascasarjana Universitas
Pendidikan Indonesia.
Sabbagh, J. (2014). Word order and prosodic-structure constraints in Tagalog. Syntax 7(1) , 40-89.
Scalise, S. & Vogel, I. (2010). Cross-disciplinary issues in compounding. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Publishing Company.
Schacter, P., & Otanes, F. (1972). Tagalog reference grammar. Los Angeles: University of California
Press.
Seng, C. (n.d). Malaysian versus Indonesian. Retrieved November 16, 2015, from Omniglot:
http://www.omniglot.com
Sneddon, J. (1996). Indonesian: A comprehensive grammar. London: Routledge.
Stokhof, W. A. (1931). Holle: Vocabularies in languages of Indonesia Vol. 1-3. Pacific Linguistics.
Ramos, T. (1971). Tagalog structures. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Ramos, T. & Goulet, R. M. (1981). Intermediate Tagalog: Developing cultural awareness . Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press.
Reid, A. (2001). Understanding Melayu (Malay) as a source of diverse modern identities. Journal of
Southeast Asian Studies 32(3) , 295-313.
Tala, F. (2003). A study of stemming effects on information retrieval in Bahasa Indonesia. nstitute for
Logic, Language and Computation Universeit Van Amsterdam .
Tolentino, G. E. (1937). Ang Wika & Baybaying Tagalog. Manila.
Weiskopf, D. (2007). Compound nominals, context, and compositionality. Synthese 156(1), 161-204.
Yule, G. (2006). The study of language (3rd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.

35

APPENDIX
Indonesian Compound Words
ROOT + ROOT
a. Noun + Noun
RESULTANT
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

GLOSS

FORM
(Word Class)

air

water

mata

eye

air mata

teardrop

(N)
gunung

mountain

api

fire

gunung api

volcano

(N)
ibu

mother

jari

finger

ibu jari

thumb

(N)
kapal

vessel

laut

sea

kapal laut

ship

(N)
ibu

mother

kota

city

ibu kota

capital (city)

(N-Adj)

36

anak

child

laki-laki

man

anak laki-laki

boy

(N-Adj)
pasta

paste

gigi

tooth

pasta gigi

toothpaste

(N)
rumah

house

tangga

stairs

rumah tangga

household

(N)
warga

inhabitant

negara

country

warganegara

citizen

(N-Adj)
mata

eye

hari

day

matahari

sun

(N)
sapu

broom

tangan

hand

sapu tangan

handkerchief

(N)
kaki

leg

botol

bottle

kaki botol

drunkard

(Adj)
mata

eye

sapi

cow

mata sapi

fried egg

(N)
datuk

ancestor

bandar

croupier

datuk bandar

mayor

(N)
tanda

mark

tangan

hand

tandatangan

signature

(N)
kaki

leg

tangan

hand

kakitangan

staff

(N)
tanah

land

air

water

tanah air

homeland

(N-Adj)
tulang

bone

punggung

back (body)

tulang punggung

spine

(N)
daya

power

juang

struggle

daya juang

power struggle

(N)

37

surat

letter

kabar

new

surat kabar

newspaper

(N)
purba

ancient

laka

time (malay) purbalaka

ancient

(N-Adj)
bulan

moon

madu

honey

bulan madu

honeymoon

(N)
tanda

mark

mata

eye

tanda mata

souvenir

(N)
anjing

dog

air

water

anjing air

otter

(N)
sandal

slippers

jepit

clip

sandal jepit

flip-flops

(N)
cakra

disc

angka

figure

cakra angka

dial

(N)
pisang

banana

manila

manila

pisang manila

abaca

(N)
gaya

style

busana

clothing

gaya busana

fashion

(N)
riwayat

history

hidup

life

riwayat hidup

biography

(N)
buah

fruit

bibir

lips

buah bibir

topic

(N)
pesta

jam

party

hour

gadis

karet

maiden

rubber

pesta gadis

bachelorette

(N)

party

jam karet

things in life

(N)

which are
supposed to
happen in a very

38

relaxed fashion
jam

hour

tangan

hand

jam tangan

wristwatch

(N)
kumis

beard

kucing

cat

kumis kucing

type of plant

(N)
kaca

glass

mata

eye

kaca mata

eyeglasses

(N)
laki

male

bini

female

laki bini

married couple

(N)
bunga

flower

hari

sun

bunga hari

sunflower

(N)
sikat

brush

gigi

tooth

sikat gigi

toothbrush

(N)
sepeda

bicycle

motor

motor

sepeda motor

motorcycle

(N)
minyak

oil

tanah

land

minyak tanah

crude oil

(N)
kaos

undershirt

kaki

leg

kaos-kaki

socks

(N)
anak

child

perempuan

female

anak perempuan

girl

(N)

b. Noun + Verb

39

RESULTANT
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

FORM

GLOSS

(Word Class)
bak

basin

cuci

to wash

bak cuci

sink

(N)
mantel

cloak

mandi

to bathe

mantel mandi

bathrobe

(N)
rumah

house

makan

to eat

rumah makan

restaurant

(N)
kamar

room

tidur

to sleep

kamar tidur

bedroom

(N)
ruang

space

tunggu

to wait

ruang tunggu

lounge

(N)
meja

table

tulis

to write

meja tulis

desk

(N)
kolam

pool

renang

to swim

kolam renang

swimming pool

(N)
kapal

vessel

terbang

to fly

kapal terbang

airplane

(N)

c. Noun + Adjective
RESULTANT
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

FORM

GLOSS

(Word Class)
uang

money

kecil

small

uang kecil

change (money)

40

(N)
guru

teacher

besar

big

guru besar

head teacher

(N)
duta

representativ

besar

big

e
kota

city

duta besar

ambassador

(N)
praja

territory

kota-praja

municipal

(N-Adj)
juru

expert

selam

to dive

juru selam

diver

(N)
orang

person

tua

old

orang tua

parents

(N)
kulit

skin

luar

outside

kulit luar

cuticle

(N)
jarum

needle

panjang

long

jarum panjang

minute hand

(N)
anak

child

tanggung

half-hearted

anak tanggung

teenager

(N-Adj)
sandiwara

play

bisu

mute

sandiwara bisu

pantomime

(N)
kambing

goat

hitam

black

kambing hitam

scapegoat

(N-Adj)
kamar

room

kecil

small

kamar kecil

toilet

(N)
minyak

oil

wangi

fragrant

minyak wangi

perfume

(N)
rumah

house

sakil

ill

rumah sakit

hospital

(N)
kepala

head

botak

bald

kepala botak

bald head

41

(N-Adj)

d. Verb + Verb
RESULTANT
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

FORM

GLOSS

(Word Class)
bolak

back

balik

return

bolak-balik

to and fro

(V)
jual

sell

beli

buy

jual-beli

buy and sell

(n - v)
terimah

ambil

accept

take

kasih

alih

love

over

terimah kasih

to be thankful to

(V)

someone

ambil alih

to replace

(V)
tolak

refuse

ansur

tolak ansur

give and take

(n - v)
simpan

temu

save

come

pinjam

karya

borrow

to work

together
serah

surrender

simpan pinjam

savings and loan

(n - v)

(banking)

temu karya

work meeting

(N)
terima

accept

serah terima

to handover

(V)
putar

swivel

balik

reverse

putar balik

to turn over

(V)

42

e. Verb + Noun
RESULTANT
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

FORM

GLOSS

(Word Class)
masuk

to enter

akal

reason

masuk akal

sensible

(Adj)
gempa

to move

bumi

earth

gempa bumi

earthquake

(N)
cuci

to wash

mukha

face

cuci mukha

to wash (face)

(V)
tusuk

to prick

gigi

tooth

tusuk gigi

toothpick

(N)
gesok

tanggung

to brush

to bear

gigi

jawab

tooth

answer

gesok gigi

to brush ones

(V)

teeth

tanggung jawab

responsible

(Adj)

f. Verb + Adjective
RESULTANT
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

FORM

GLOSS

(Word Class)
kenal

know

pasti

definite

kenal pasti

to identify

(V)

43

temu

come

ramah

friendly

together
kerja

to work

temu ramah

to interview

(V)
sama

same

kerjasama

cooperation

(N)
omong

speak

kosong

empty

omong kosong

senseless

(Adj)

g. Adjective + Adjective
RESULTANT
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

FORM

GLOSS

(Word Class)
merah

red

muda

young

merah muda

pink

(Adj)
merah

red

tua

old

merah tua

maroon

(Adj)
yatim

fatherless

piatu

motherless

yatim-piatu

orphan

(N-Adj)
indah

naik

timbul

beautiful

to go up

appear

permai

turun

tenggelam

scenic

to go down

sink

indah permai

beautiful

(Adj)

(places/view)

naik turun

to go up and

(V)

down

timbul tenggelam

sneaking

(V)
putih

white

bersih

clean

putih bersih

pure

44

(Adj)
kurus

thin

kering

dry

kurus kering

emaciated

(Adj)
lemah

weak

lembut

soft

lemah lembut

gentle

(Adj)
tinggi

high

tegap

sturdy

tinggi tegap

high and strong

(Adj)
hitam

sunyi

balck

lonely

manis

senyap

sweet

silent

hitam manis

black and

(Adj)

attractive

sunyi senyap

deathly still

(Adj)
kelam

dim

kabut

fog

kelam kabut

murky, hazy

(Adj)
pencah

broken

belah

half

pencah-belah

broken into

(Adj)

pieces

h. Adjective + Noun
RESULTANT
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

FORM

GLOSS

(Word Class)
panjang

ringan

long

light

tangan

tulang

hand

bone

panjang tangan

tendency to

(Adj)

steal

ringan tulang

industrious

(Adj)
terang

bright

hati

heart

terang hati

intelligent

(Adj)
tengah

middle

hari

day

tengah hari

noon

45

(N-Adj)
berat

heavy

tangan

hand

berat tangan

lazy

(Adj)
sakit

ill

hati

heart

sakit hati

heartache

(N)
maha

tinggi

great

high

siswa

hati

student

heart

mahasiswa

university

(N-Adj)

student

tinggi-hati

proud (bossy)

(Adj)
anak

child

angkat

raise

anak angkat

adopted child

(N)
buta

blind

huruf

letter

buta huruf

illiterate

(Adj)
keras

hard

kepala

head

keras kepala

stubborn

(Adj)

i. Adjective + Verb
RESULTANT
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

FORM

GLOSS

(Word Class)
setia

loyal

usaha

work

setiausaha

secretary

(N)
lalu

salah

past

wrong

lintas

paham

to move

lalu lintas

traffic

across

(N)

to

salah paham

misunderstandin

understand

(N)

46

ROOT + STEM
RESULTANT
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

FORM

GLOSS

(Word Class)
purna

complete

karyawan

employee

purnakaryawan

retired worker

(N)
mata

core

pelajaran

lesson

mata pelajaran

subject

(N)
STEM + ROOT
RESULTANT
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

FORM

GLOSS

(Word Class)
makanan

food

kecil

small

makanan kecil

snack

(N)
pesuruh

messenger

jaya

victorious

pesuruhjaya

commissioner

(N)
pengeras

intensifier

suara

voice

pengeras suara

loudspeaker

(N)
pengantin

person who

wanita

woman

participates

pengantin wanita

bride

(N)

at a wedding
pemandu

a person who

sorak

cheer

guides
berdarah

have blood

pemandu sorak

cheerleader

(N)
panas

hot

berdarah panas

warm-blooded

(Adj)
pemberi

giver

suara

voice

pemberi suara

voter

47

(N)
pencari

finder

nafkah

living

pencari nafkah

breadwinner

(N-Adj)
golongan

group

atas

upper

golongan atas

elite

(N-Adj)

Tagalog compounds
ROOT + ROOT
a. Noun (linker) + Noun
WORD 1

GLOSS

(W1)
mata(ng)

WORD 2

GLOSS

(W2)
eye

lawin

RESULTANT

GLOSS

FORM
eagle

matang-lawin

keen eye

48

(N)
nguso(ng)

ngipin(g)

mouth

teeth

baboy

aso

pig

dog

ngusong-baboy

protruding upper

(N)

lip

ngiping-aso

sharp teeth

(N)
isip

mind

lamok

mosquito

isip-lamok

weak mind

(N)
boses

voice

ipis

cockroach

boses-ipis

weak voice

(N, Adj)
lakad

walk

pagong

turtle

lakad-pagong

slow walk

(N, Adj)
bahay

house

kubo

hut

bahay-kubo

hut

(N)
sundalo(ng)

soldier

kanin

cooked ice

sundalong-kanin cowardly soldier

(N)

tao(ng)

human

lupa

earth

taong-lupa

mortal

(N)
bahay

house

aklatan

library

bahay-aklatan

library

(N)
bahay

bahay

bahay

house

house

house

bakasyunan vacation

kalakal

paaralan

bahay-

vacation place

place

bakasyunan (N)

business

bahay-kalakal

business

(N)

establishment

bahay-paaralan

schoolhouse

school

(N)
bahay

house

sanglaan

pawnshop

bahay-sanglaan

pawnshop

(N)
silid

room

aralan

studying

silid-aralan (N)

room for studying

49

place
silid

room

kainan

eating place

silid-kainan (N)

dining room

silid

room

tulugan

sleeping

silid-tulugan

bedroom

place

(N)

anak

child

araw

sun

anak-araw (N)

albino

awitin(g)

song

bayan

nation

awiting-

folk song

bayan(N)
bunga(ng)

fruit

araw

sun

bungang-araw

prickly heat

(N)
saligan(g)

support

batas

law

saligang-batas

constitution

(N)
bata(ng)

child

lansangan

streets

batang-

homeless child

lansangan (N)
dahon(g)

leaf

palay

rice

dahong-palay

name of a

(N)

poisonous snake

bahay

house

bata

child

bahay-bata (N)

uterus

balat

skin

sibuyas

onion

balat-sibuyas

onion-skinned/ a

(N)

weak-willed,
sensitive person

balat

skin

kayo

plural form

balatkayo (N)

disguise, pretense

of you
araw

day

gabi

night

araw-gabi (N)

whole day

asal

behavior

bata

child

asal-bata (N)

childish

asal

behavior

hayop

animal

asal-hayop (N)

bestiality

bala(ng)

araw

day

balang-araw (N) someday

bale

wala

none

balewala (Adj)

of no value or
worth

50

banghay

a scan

aralin

lesson

banghay-aralin

lesson plan

(N)
bato(ng)

stone

bakal

iron

batong-bakal,

iron ore

batumbakal (N)
bunga(ng)

bunga(ng)

fruit

fruit

isip

kahoy

mind

wood

bungang-isip

product of the

(N)

mind

bungangkahoy

fruit of a tree

(N)
daluyan(g)

medium

luha

tears

daluyang-luha

tear duct

(N)
damo(ng)

grass

dagat

sea

damong-dagat

seaweed

(N)
gawa(ng)

creation

kamay

hand

gawang-kamay

handmade

(N)
gawa(ng)

creation

tao

human

gawang-tao (N)

man-made

haba(ng)

duration

buhay

life

habang-buhay,

forever

habambuhay
(N)
hugis

shape

puso

heart

hugis-puso (N)

heart-shaped

hukbo(ng)

fleet

karagatan

ocean

hukbong-

navy

karagatan (N)
hukbo(ng)

fleet

panghimpa

referring to

hukbong-

pawid

the sky

panghimpapawi

air force

d (N)
hukbo(ng)

fleet

sandatahan

armed

hukbong-

armed forces

sandatahan (N)
ina(ng)

mother

bayan

nation

inang-bayan (N) homeland,

motherland

51

ina(ng)

mother

wika

language

inang-wika (N)

mother tongue

ingatan(g)

safeguard

yaman

treasure

ingatang-yaman

treasury

(N)
isip

mind

kabutihan(g) kindness

kakitiran(g)

kalapit

narrow

proximate

bata

child

isip-bata (N)

loob

insides

kabutihang-loob kindness,

isip

bayan

mind

town

immature

(N)

generosity

kakitirang-isip

narrow-

(N)

mindedness

kalapit-bayan

neighboring town

(N)
lakas

strength

loob

insides

lakas-loob (N)

courage

laman(g)

resource

dagat

sea

lamang-dagat

resources from the

(N)

sea

laman(g)

resource

lupa

earth

lamang-lupa (N) any type of crop

pakita(ng)

display

gilas

agility

pakitang-gilas

display of

(N)

excellence to
impress people

pakita(ng)

display

loob

insides

pakitang-loob

display of kindness

(N)
panukala(ng

proposition

batas

law

)
puno(ng)

panukalang-

proposed law, bill

batas (N)
head

bayan

town

punong-bayan,

town mayor

punung-bayan,
punumbayan
(N)
puno(ng)

head

guro

teacher

punong-guro

principal

(N)
puno(ng)

head

lungsod

city

punong-lungsod

capital city

52

(N)
puno(ng)

sawi(ng)

head

ill-fated

tanggapan

palad

office

palm

person

punong-

head office,

tanggapan (N)

headquarters

sawing-palad,

an ill-fated person,

sawimpalad (N)

a rejected person

sinag

rays

araw

sun

sinag-araw (N)

sunlight, sunrays

sinag

rays

buwan

moon

sinag-buwan

moonlight

(N)
sulat

writing

kamay

hand

sulat-kamay (N) handwriting

akda(ng)

work,

guro

teacher

akdang-guro

manuscript
alila(ng)

slave

alsa

masterpiece

(N)
kanin

cooked rice

balutan

alilang-kanin

slave who works

(N)

without pay

alsa-balutan (N)

sudden departure
with all of ones
things because of
feeling of being
unwanted

anak

child

pawis

sweat

anak-pawis (N)

laborer

balita(ng)

news

kutsero

driver of a

balitang-kutsero

news that is untrue

horse-drawn (N)
vehicle
bugto(ng)

interval

hininga

breathing

bugtong-hininga sigh
(N)

bulaklak

buto (at)

flower

bones

dila

balat

tongue

skin

bulaklak-dila

words said without

(N)

seriousness

butot-balat

skeleton thin

(nadj)

53

dapit

hapon

hunos

dili

afternoon

dapit-hapon (N)

sunset, dusk

hunos-dili (N)

careful
consideration
before acting

ibayo(ng)

faraway

dagat

sea

ibayong-dagat

overseas, abroad

(N)
kabayo(ng)

horse

dagat

sea

kabayong-dagat

seahorse

(N)
mata(ng)

mata

eyes

eyes

manok

pobre

chicken

poor

matang-manok

eyes which cannot

(N)

see in the dark

matapobre (N)

rich persons who

are snobbish
towards poor
people

pakita(ng)

display

tao

human

pakitang-tao (N) hypocrisy, pretense

pampalubag

appeaser

loob

insides

pampalubag-

consolation

loob (N)
puso(ng)

heart

mamon

soft cake

pusong-mamon

softhearted/

(N)

effeminate

rosas

rose

hapon

afternoon

rosas-hapon (N)

chrysanthemum

salita(ng)

word

ugat

root

salitang-ugat

rootword

(N)
samaan(g)

mutual

loob

insides

samaang-loob

mutual resentment

(N)
simba(ng)

mass

gabi

night

simbang-gabi

early morning

(N)

mass held on the

week before
christmas eve

54

tainga(ng)

ear

kawali

wok pan

taingang-kawali

someone who turns

(N)

a deaf ear to any

suggestion,
someone who is
not willing to heed

taing
takaw

gluttony

bituin

star

taing-bituin (N)

meteor

mata

eye

takaw-mata (N)

passing fancy for

something new and
tasty that has
caught ones eye

tao(ng)

human

gubat

forest

taong-gubat (N)

tubig

water

tabang

tastelessness tubig-tabang

savage
freshwater

(N)
tubo(ng)

profit

lugaw

porridge

tubong-lugaw

excessive profit

(N)

from a small
investment

tuldok

period

kuwit

comma

tuldok-kuwit

semicolon

(N)
dalaga(ng)

guhit

maiden

line

bukid

palad

farm

palm

dalagang-bukid

a country maiden/

(N)

a type of fish

guhit-palad (N)

fate

b. Noun + Verb
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

RESULTANT
FORM

GLOSS

This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.

55

c. Noun (linker) + Adjective

WORD 1
dugo(ng)

GLOSS
blood

WORD 2
bughaw

GLOSS
blue

RESULTANT
FORM
dugong-bughaw

GLOSS
royal blood

(N)
taba(ng)

fat

lamig

cold

tabang-lamig (N)

stout but sickly

person

bato(ng)

stone

buhay

alive

batong-buhay (N)

white stone

ulila(ng)

abandoned

lubos

complete

ulilang-lubos (N)

completely

child

abandoned child
with no living
relatives

puno(ng)

head

abala

busy

punong-abala (N)

host, hostess

d. Verb + Verb
WORD 1
bantay

GLOSS
guard

WORD 2
salakay

GLOSS
attack

RESULTANT
FORM

GLOSS

bantay-salakay

opportunist;

(N)

perpetrator of an
inside job

urong

retreat

sulong

charge

urong-sulong

indecisiveness

(V, N)
atras

retreat

abante

charge

atras-abante (V)

indecisiveness

akyat

ascend

baba

descend

akyat-baba (V)

going up and down

repeatedly,
implies anxiety

manhik

ascend

manaog

descend

manhik-manaog

going up and down

(V)

repeatedly
56

labas

exit

pasok

enter

labas-pasok,

entering and

labas-masok (V) exiting repeatedly

laglag

let down

luksa

mourn

laglag-luksa (N) the day which

marks the end of a
mourning period

itulak

push

kabigin

pull

itulak-kabigin

in is the same in

(V)

both cases, neither

has an advantage
over the other

abot

reach

agaw

seize

abot-agaw (Adj) in a dying state

abot

reach

kisap

shimmer

abot-kisap (Adj) continuous

d. Verb + Noun
WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

RESULTANT

GLOSS

FORM

basag

break

ulo

head

basag-ulo (N)

fight

bayad

pay

utang

debt

bayad-utang (N)

payment

buka(ng)

open

bibig

mouth

bukang-

favorite

bibig,bukambibig

expression/talk of

(N)

the town

hanap

find

buhay

life

hanap-buhay (N)

livelihood

ingat

protect

yaman

wealth

ingat-yaman (N)

treasurer

lukso(ng)

jump

tinik

thorn

luksong tinik (N)

a kind of jumping
game

hampas

slap

lupa

earth

hampas-lupa (N)

tramp, bum

bigay

give

loob

interior,

bigay-loob (N)

gift

insides

57

ningas

give

kaya

ability

bigay-kaya (N)

dowry

burn

kugon

a kind of

ningas-kugon (N)

someone who does

grass

not finish what he

started/someone
who only shows
enthusiasm at the
start

akyat

climb

bahay

house

akyat-bahay (N)

burglar

abot

reach

kaya

ability

abot-kaya (Adj)

affordable

abot

reach

kamay

hand

abot-kamay (Adj)

within reach

abot

reach

tanaw

sight

abot-tanaw(Adj)

within a distance
visible to the eye

agaw

seize

buhay

life

agaw-buhay (Adj)

hovering between
life and death

agaw

seize

pansin

attention

agaw-pansin (Adj)

attention-getting

bigay

give

alam

knowledge

bigay-alam (N)

notification

bigay

give

daan

road

bigay-daan (N)

the act of giving

way or giving an
opportunity to
someone

bigay

give

galang

respect

bigay-galang (N)

the act of showing

respect, reveration

bigay

give

katwiran

logic

bigay-katwiran (N) justification

bigay

give

todo

full extent

bigay-todo (Adj)

full exertion of
ones ability

hamapasan(

crash

alon

wave

g)
nakaw

hampasang-alon

shoreline

(N)
steal

tingin

glance

nakaw-tingin (N)

stealing glances

58

ligaw

court

tingin

glance

ligaw-tingin (N)

the act of wooing

or courting
expressed in
meaningful looks

salin(g)

pour

wika

language

salinwika,

translation

salingwika (N)
samain(g)

be

palad

palm

samaing-palad (N)

unfortunat

unlucky,
unsuccessful

e
agaw

seize

dilim

darkness

agaw-dilim (N)

twilight

agaw

seize

liwanag

light

agaw-liwanag (N)

daybreak

agaw

seize

tulog

sleep

agaw-tulog (N)

condition of being
half-asleep

hampas

slap

kalabaw

kapit

cling

tuko

kuskos

scratch

balungos

water

hampas-kalabaw

strong and

buffalo

(N)

merciless beating

gecko

kapit-tuko (N)

cling tightly

kuskos-balungos

unnecessary

(N)

attention given to
small and petty
details

luksa(ng)

mourn

parangal

recognition

luksang-parangal

eulogy

(N)
luto(ng)

cook

makaw

makaw

lutong-makaw (N)

rigged competition

ngiti(ng)

smile

aso

dog

ngiting-aso (N)

sarcastic smile,
sneer

pasa(ng)

carry the

krus

cross

pasang-krus (N)

burden

gata

pulp

pulot-gata, pulut-

honeymoon

burden
pulot

pick up

59

gata (N)
salin

pour

lahi

race

salinlahi (N)

generation

salin(g)

join

pusa

cat

saling-pusa (N)

a substitution/ a
playmate whose
participation in
the game is only to
please him or her

tawa(ng)

laugh

aso

dog

tawang-aso (N)

mocking laugh

kapit

cling

bisig

arm

kapit-bisig (N)

with arms locked

together

kisap

shimmer

mata

eye

kisapmata (N)

blink of an eye, an
instant

takip

conceal

butas

hole

takip-butas (N)

a substitute

e. Verb + Adjective
WORD 1 GLOSS WORD 2 GLOSS

RESULTANT FORM

GLOSS

This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.

f. Adjective (linker) + Adjective

WORD 1

GLOSS

WORD 2

GLOSS

RESULTANT

GLOSS

FORM
hubo (at)

without

hubad

naked

hubot hubad (Adj)

stark naked

undergarme
nts

60

humigit

more

kumulang

less

humigit-kumulang

more or less

(Adv)
bukod

positioned

tangi

unique

bukod-tangi (Adj)

stand-out

g. Adjective + Noun
WORD 1
basa(ng)

GLOSS
wet

WORD 2
sisiw

GLOSS
chick

RESULTANT
FORM
basang-sisiw (N)

GLOSS
helplessly soaked
wet in the rain

bukas

open

loob

interior,

bukas-loob (Adj)

insides

sincere,
wholehearted

buka(ng)

open

isip

mind

bukang-isip (Adj)

open-mindedly

bukas

open

puso

heart

bukas-puso (Adj)

sincere, frank,
wholehearted

doble

double

kara

mask

doble-kara (N)

two-faced,
pretentious

lampas

exceeding

tao

human

lampas-tao (Adj)

taller than the

average person

patay

dead

gutom

hunger

patay-gutom (N)

tramp afflicted
with hunger

pikit

closed

mata

eyes

pikit-mata (Adj)

with closed eyes/

implies hesitance
towards something

bahag

short

buntot

tail

bahag-buntot (Adj)

cowardly

bahag

short

hari

king

bahaghari (N)

rainbow

buka(ng)

open

liwayway

dawn

bukang-liwayway

dawn, daybreak

(N)

61

hati(ng)

half

gabi

night

hatinggabi (N)

midnight

kapos

insufficient

palad

palm

kapos-palad (N)

less fortunate
people

pantay

even

paa

foot

pantay-paa (N)

dead person

puti(ng)

white

tainga

ear

puting-tainga (N)

a selfish or stingy
person

puti(ng)

white

tiyan

belly

puting-tiyan (N)

a selfish or stingy
person

sira(ng)

broken

plaka

vinyl

sirang-plaka (N)

record

referring to a
person who is
saying something
over and over
again

takip

concealed

silim

bukas

open

palad

palm

takipsilim (N)

twilight, nightfall

bukas-palad (Adj)

generous

h. Adjective + Verb
WORD 1 GLOSS WORD 2 GLOSS

RESULTANT FORM

GLOSS

This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.
ROOT + STEM
WORD 1 GLOSS WORD 2 GLOSS

RESULTANT FORM

GLOSS

This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.

STEM + ROOT (Synthetic compound words)

WORD 1

GLOSS WORD 2 GLOSS

RESULTANT FORM

GLOSS

62

pamatid

pantawid

panawag

used for
cutting
used for
bridging
used for
calling

uhaw

thirst

pamatid-uhaw

thrist-quencher

gutom

hunger

pantawid-gutom

hunger appeaser

panawag-pansin

attention-getter

pansin

attentio
n

63