The 14th IGEM Young Person Paper

Competition
Simple Bolts Are Not Simple

Author name: Kam Chung Ken, Gloriane

Title: Engineer
Organization: The Hong Kong and China Gas Co Ltd
Address: 363 Java Road, North Point, Hong Kong
Email: gloriane.kam@towngas.com
Office Phone: +852 2963 2219
Date: 12th June 2015

Table of content
Section
1.
2.
3.
4.
4.1
4.2
5.
6.

Introduction
Existing standards and published information
Recommended boundary for safe steel bolting materials
Use of the recommended boundary to select appropriate bolting
materials
Property class 12.9 steel bolt
The appropriate bolting materials
Quality assurance (QA) measures on bolts
Conclusion
Figure 1 Failure of high tensile steel bolt due to stress corrosion
cracking
Figure 2 Failure of high tensile steel bolt due to hydrogen
embrittlement
Appendix A: Different steels for different pressure level application
Appendix B: Hydrogen embrittlement
Appendix C: Stress corrosion cracking
Appendix D: The identification of EN 10269 material for the
starting material of ISO 898-1:2013 property classes 5.6 and 8.8
Reference
Table 1 Different warning levels on various mechanical properties of
steels suggested by the existing standards and related information to
deal with brittle failure
Table 2 Comparison between the key selection indicators and the
mechanical properties of different property classes of steel in ISO
898-1:2013
Table 3 The starting materials of EN 10269 for property classes 5.6
and 8.8
Table 4 Recommended standards for the testing methods according
to the key selection indicators
Table 5 Dimensional limitations on testing bolt in the elongation
percentage at break and impact strength tests
Table a: The chemical composition of ISO 898-1:2013 property
classes 5.6 and 8.8
Table b: The matching of EN 10269 materials to property classes 5.6
and 8.8 according to the chemical composition
Table c: The matching of EN 10269 materials to property classes 5.6
and 8.8 according to the tensile strength:

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1. Introduction:
Bolt is tiny in terms of size when comparing with the entire gas infrastructure but they
are used extensively in various pressure equipment (e.g. valves, pipework assembly
etc.) of gas network to be the primary means of transferring loads. Thus, bolt failure
in gas network could lead to serious consequences. For this reason, correct use of
bolts is important.
But Are Higher Strength and Harder Bolts Better? This is a common myth. In fact,
they are much susceptible to brittle failure. The common brittle failure modes are
stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement. For example, the Hendrix
Group reported that the hard low alloy steel bolts (HRC 44) failed due to hydrogen
embrittlement which caused complete separation of the 1 inch gas ball valve without
warning leading to natural gas leakage [1]. Also, the US General Motor A ear rear
suspensions began to fail after just 2 years of service which led to the recall of 6.4
million cars as the carbon steel property class 12.8 bolts failed due to stress corrosion
cracking [2].
Although there are some existing standards of particular applications, national
guidelines and studies providing the information about preventing brittle failure in
steels, there is challenge on how to gather and use the important information for
pressure applications in the gas industry. This paper discussed the appropriate
selection and the quality assurance measures of the carbon steel and low alloy steel
bolts for gas distribution network in order to maintain a safe gas system.
2. Existing standards and published information:
Since hydrogen embrittlement (HE) and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) [Appendix B
and C] can be serious problems in some carbon and low alloy steels as shown in
Figures 1 & 2, it is important to choose the right bolting material. Standards and
published information now exist for steels which give different advices to one or two
mechanical properties to prevent brittle failure from happening. This paper studied
and listed them in Table 1 below.

Figure 1. Failure of high tensile steel bolt due to stress corrosion cracking [3]

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Figure 2. Failure of high tensile steel bolt due to hydrogen embrittlement [4]
Mechanical
properties:

Existing
standards
published information:

Tensile
strength T /
Yield
strength Y

Scott MacKenzie, Houghton

International, Inc, Overview of
the Mechanisms of Failure in
Heat Treated Steel Components,
ASM International [5]

Hardness

Concerned
failure
mode:
SCC

T 1380 MPa

The Hendrix Group, Inc. [6]

HE

T 1200 MPa

Health and Safety Executive of

the UK Government [7]

HE

Y 725 MPa

API 6D:2008
14313:2007 [10]

HE

HRC 35

HE & SCC

HRC 37

Institute

HE

HRC 37

Magazine,

HE

HRC 37

Brittle failure

HRC 38

[9]

and

ISO

Journal of The Australian Steel

Institute [11]
Industrial Fasteners
(North America) [12]
Distributors Link
Spring 2005 [4]

ASTM A490M-12 [13]

Elongation at European Pressure Equipment Brittle failure

Directive (PED) 97/23/EC
break
Impact
strength

Warning level:

< 14 %

European Pressure Equipment Brittle failure < 27 J at 20 C

Directive (PED) 97/23/EC
but not > the
lowest operating
temp.

Table 1 Different warning levels on various mechanical properties of steels suggested

by the existing standards and related information to deal with brittle failure

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However, the warning levels to different mechanical properties of steel to prevent the
occurrence of brittle failure shown in Table 1 are dispersed in different sources which
include national guidelines of particular areas, standards of particular applications,
professional journals and local technical institutes, and each source does not provide
comprehensive requirements on steels. Thus, there is a challenge on how to gather all
the useful information and make use of them when selecting the appropriate steel
bolts for pressure application in the gas industry.
3. Recommended boundary for safe steel bolting materials
Since the challenge was identified, this paper studied different relevant sources and
formed a safe boundary for steel bolting materials suitable for gas distribution system
after the study. The safe boundary was composed by 4 key selection indicators (KSIs)
recommended by this paper related to the mechanical properties after the study in a
conservative point of view. Any steel bolting materials which can fall into this safe
boundary should be the appropriate bolts to be used in the gas distribution system for
pressure application.
The 4 KSIs were shown below:
i.
If tensile strength 1200 MPa or yield strength 725 MPa, extra caution
should be needed in ensuring the toughness and ductility of the bolt.
ii.
Elongation percentage at break 14 %
iii.
iv.

ISO V-notch impact strength 27 J at - 20 oC

Hardness < HRC 35.

Figure 3 Recommended boundary for appropriate bolts in gas distribution system

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4. Use of the recommended boundary to select appropriate bolting materials

To select the appropriate carbon steel bolting materials for the gas distribution system,
this paper compared the safe boundary with ISO 898-1:2013 which offers various
property classes of carbon steel and low alloy steel bolting materials and are widely
suggested by different ISO bolt and screw standards[14],[15],[16],[17]. The bolt
grades in ISO 898-1 which fall into the boundary should be the appropriate bolt
grades.
As shown in Figure 4, classes 8.8 and lower bolts of ISO 898-1:2013 could fall into
the boundary. Thus, they should be suitable to be used. On the other hand, property
class 12.9 was totally out of the boundary. Therefore, property class 12.9 bolts should
be forbidden to be used. The detail comparison of the boundary and all bolt grades in
ISO 898-1:2013 was also shown in Table 2.

Figure 4 Comparison of the boundary with bolt grades in ISO 898-1

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P.C.

Tensile
Yield
strength, MPa, strength,
min
MPa, min
1200
725
KSIs
* take extra
* take extra
caution
caution
Different property classes (P.C.) of ISO 898-1:
4.6
400
240
4.8
420
N.A.
5.6
500
300
5.8
520
6.8
600
8.8
800
d 16mm
8.8
830
d > 16mm
N.A.
9.8
900
d 16mm
10.9
1040

Elongation
percentage at
break, %, min

12.9/12.9

1220

14
22
N.A.
20
N.A.

Impact
strength, J,
min
27 at the
specified
temp.
N.A.
27, At -20 oC
N.A.

Hardness

< HRC 35
< HRC 22
< HRC 22
< HRC 22
< HRC 22
< HRC 22
HRC 22 - 32

12
27, At -20 oC

HRC 23 - 34

10

HRC 28 - 37

HRC 32 - 39
Under
investigation

HRC 39 - 44

Table 2 Comparison between the KSIs and the mechanical properties of different bolt
grades in ISO 898-1:2013 [18]
4.1 Property class 12.9 steel bolt:
From Table 2, the P.C. 12.9 steel bolts could not meet the key requirements which
implied that their susceptibility to HE and SCC. Furthermore, ISO 898-1:2013 has a
warning on the use of P.C. 12.9 bolts. It states that Caution is advised when the use
of property class 12.9/12.9 is considered. The capability of the fastener manufacturer,
the service conditions and the wrenching methods should be considered.
Environments may cause stress corrosion cracking of fasteners as processed as well as
those coated. [18] This warning was only added since 2009 version and not in the
older versions, year 1999 and before. On top of it, the standard of The Society of
Automotive Engineers, SAE J1199, no longer allows the use of high-hardness P.C.
12.9 bolt [19] because of its susceptibility to SCC which was in response to the US
General Motor case mentioned above [2]. Thus, it was suggested that P.C. 12.9 should
not be suitable to be the pressure bearing bolt in gas network.
4.2 The appropriate bolting materials
From Table 2, the P.C. 8.8 and lower could meet all key requirements except for the
min. elongation percentage at break (12 %) of P.C. 8.8. But the 12 % is just the
minimum value and there is still high possibility that P.C. 8.8 can still meet this 14 %

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requirement with careful selection of materials. Moreover, EN 1515-4:2009, which

provides a mean to conform to the European Pressure Equipment Directive PED
97/32/EC , states that P.C. 5.6 and 8.8 can meet PED 97/32/EC if the starting
materials conformed to EN 10269. Thus, it was suggested that bolts of P.C. 8.8 and
below were the appropriate bolting materials.
As for the P.C. 9.8 and 10.9 in which not all their properties can meet the KSIs, there
is no warning on the use of them in any standard. If the use of them is necessary, it
was recommended to select the bolts carefully so that the tested mechanical properties
can meet the KSIs as far as possible, and ensure the coating process to be carried out
as per the national or international standards in order to minimize the effect of
hydrogen generated in the coating process which causes HE [20]. Also, the service
condition should be free of corroding elements such as chloride and sulphur.
5. Quality assurance (QA) measures on bolts:
The appropriate selection of bolts should work with the appropriate QA measures in
order to safeguard the gas network. This section suggested the recommended QA
measures.
i.
The selected bolts should meet the international / national standards listed
below. These standards do not only regulate the mechanical properties, but
also the dimensions and the coating process.

ii.

Bolt:
Screw:
Bolt, Screw, Nut:
Cap screw:

ISO 4014:2011
ISO 4017:2014
BS 4190:2001
ISO 4762:2004

If possible, select the starting materials of bolts according to EN 10269 [21]

which is a harmonized standard of the European Pressure Equipment Directive
and states good quality starting materials. This paper identified the appropriate
starting materials for P.C. 5.6 and 8.8 as below by comparing the chemical
compositions and mechanical properties. The comparisons were shown in
Appendix D.

P.C.
Starting materials of EN 10269
5.6
19MnB4; C35E; C43E; 35B2; 20Mn5
8.8
19MnB4; 42CrMo4; 42CrMo5-6; 40CrMoV4-6
Table 3 The starting materials of EN 10269 for P.C. 5.6 and 8.8

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iii.

iv.

Request the inspection certificate of the bolts meeting EN 10204:2004 Type

3.1 from manufacturers with sufficient traceability information, results of
composition test and the tests related to the KSIs (if bolt dimensions are
allowed).
Conduct new sample evaluation test and test the purchased bolts regularly
according to the KSIs. The recommended test methods were shown in Table 4.

Test items
Tensile strength
Elongation percentage at break
Hardness

Standards of test method

ISO 898-1:2013 clause 9.1 or 9.7
ISO 898-1:2013 clause 9.3
Brinell hardness: ISO 6506-1
Rockwell hardness: ISO 6508-1.
Impact strength
ISO 148-1
Table 4 Recommended standards for the testing methods for the key selection
indicators
Test items

Dimensional limitation on testing bolt

For P.C. 4.6 and 5.6
3 d < 4.5 mm
Bolt length 6.5d
d 4.5 mm
Bolt length d + 26 mm
Elongation percentage at
For P.C. 8.8, 9.8 and 10.9
break
3 d < 4.5 mm
Bolt length 6.5d
4.5 d 16 mm
Bolt length d + 26 mm
d > 16 mm
Bolt length 5.5d + 8 mm
For P.C. 5.6, 8.8, 9.8 and 10.9
Impact strength
d 16 mm
Bolt length 55 mm
Table 5 Dimensional limitations on testing bolt in the tests[18]
Since some tests have sample size limitation as shown in Table 5, if the testing
bolts cannot meet the size limitation, this paper recommended the following
actions.
- Take the tensile strength T and hardness results as the indexes to indicate the
toughness and ductility of the bolt.
- If the bolt is not long enough as per the standard elongation test method, it
was recommended conducting the test despite it is not long enough and take
the result as a reference. Bolt with shorter gauge length would obtain a higher
elongation % than those with longer gauge length due to the fact that
localized deformation becomes the principal portion of measured elongation
and leads to a higher elongation % [22].Thus, if the elongation % of a shorter
bolt cannot meet the requirement, it is unlikely for the bolt to meet the
requirement even its length is long enough.

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6. Conclusion:
This paper formed a safe boundary for steel bolting materials suitable for gas
distribution system after various study. The safe boundary was composed by 4 Key
Selection Indicators (KSIs) recommended by this paper in a conservative point of
view as shown below:

ii.

If tensile strength 1200 MPa or yield strength 725 MPa, extra caution
should be needed in ensuring the toughness and ductility of the bolt.
Elongation % at break 14 %

iii.
iv.

Impact strength 27 J at the 20 C

Hardness < HRC 35.

i.

Also, this paper pointed out that the use of P.C. 12.9 bolt of ISO 898-1 should be
forbidden in the gas distribution network system while bolts of P.C. 8.8 were
suggested as the appropriate bolting materials. Moreover, some appropriate quality
assurance measures on bolts were recommended to work with the bolt selection
boundary in order to ensure the safety of the gas distribution system.

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Appendix A
Different steels for different pressure level application:
According to EN 1515-1:2000, low to medium carbon steel and low alloy carbon steel
bolts are suitable for the application under pressure level at and below 40 bar while
high alloy steel bolts are needed for the application under a higher pressure level [23].
It is because that high alloy steels possess less stress relaxation at constant strain at
elevated temperatures as shown in BS 4882:1990 Appendix A and Table 24 which is
suitable for high pressure application and better ductility as well as toughness [24].
BS 4882:1990 points out that relaxation of stress at constant strain occurs in all bolts
at operating temperature > 300oC and the initial elastic stress applied to the bolt
would be reduced. Thus, the tightening force of the bolt reduces. Since high alloy
steels possess less stress relaxation at elevated temperature, they are much suitable to
be used for high pressure application.

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Appendix B
Hydrogen embrittlement:
ASTM F1624 points out that the cause of hydrogen embrittlement is the introduction
of hydrogen into steel that can initiate fracture when stress, including residual stress
or external stress applied during service, is present [25]. ASM Handbook states that
even small amounts of hydrogen can have a deleterious effect, particularly for highstrength steels with tensile strengths of 1240 MPa or more. A few parts per million of
hydrogen dissolved in steel can cause hairline cracking and loss of tensile ductility.
Even when the quantity of gas in solution is too small to reduce tension-test ductility,
hydrogen -induced delayed fracture may occur [26].
Source of hydrogen:
The source of hydrogen can be come from cleaning or plating processes or the
exposure of cathodically protected steel [25].
How to eliminate hydrogen:
During the acid pickling cleaning process before plating, the addition of suitable
inhibitors to the pickling solution eliminates or minimizes attack on the metal and the
consequent generation of nascent hydrogen.
Furthermore, appropriate plating solutions and plating conditions can be selected to
produce a high-cathode efficiency which minimizes the amount of hydrogen
generated on the metal surface. Because the metallic coatings plated on metal often
prevent the hydrogen from leaving the base metal, elevated-temperature baking right
after plating is generally required to allow the hydrogen to move to microstructural
positions in the part interior that are less damaging to the atomic bonds of the iron
matrix. [26]

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Appendix C
Stress corrosion cracking SCC:
Stress-corrosion cracking is a generic term describing the initiation and propagation
of cracks in a metal or alloy under the combined action of tensile stresses (applied
and/or residual) and a corrosive environment [27].
The condition for SCC [28]:
1) The use of susceptible material to SCC
2) Tensile stress, either from structural loading or present as residual stresses from
forming or welding operations during manufacture and installation; and
3) The presence of a specific aggressive environment, e.g. Chloride
The mechanism of SCC [27]:
1. The coating becomes degraded and corroded
2. An electrolyte comes into contact with the surface.
3. The corrosive environment (e.g. chloride and sulphur) and tensile stress cause
SCC, including transgranular stress corrosion cracking (TCSCC) and
intergranular stress corrosion cracking (ICSCC), to develop
4. The initiation and growth of multiple cracks
5. Dominant crack reaches grow a critical size for rapid growth to failure,
producing either a leak or a rupture

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Appendix D
The identification of EN 10269 material for the starting material of ISO 898-1:2013
property classes 5.6 and 8.8:
Table a: The chemical composition of ISO 898-1:2013 property classes 5.6 and 8.8:
Property
class

Material and heat treatment

5.6

Carbon steel or carbon steel

with additives

8.8

Carbon steel with additives

(e.g. Boron or Mn or Cr)
quenched and tempered
Carbon steel quenched and
tempered
Alloy steel quenched and
tempered

Chemical composition limits (cast analysis, %)

C
C
P
S
B
(min)
(max)
(max)
(max)
(max)
0.13
0.55
0.050
0.060
Not
specified
0.15
0.40
0.025
0.025
0.003
0.25

0.55

0.025

0.025

0.003

0.20

0.55

0.025

0.025

0.003

Others

min. Mn 0.6 % if
C < 0.25 %

Also contains Cr
or Ni or Mo or V

Table b: The matching of EN 10269 materials to property classes 5.6 and 8.8
according to the chemical composition:
EN 10269
material:

C%

Si %

Mn %

P%
max

S%
max.

Al %

B%

19MnB4

Suitable for
the property
class of steel:
5.6 / 8.8

Cr%

Mo%

Ni %

0.17 0.24

0.4

0.8
1.15

0.03

0.035

0.02

0.0008

0.005

C35E

5.6

0.32 0.39

0.4

0.50
0.80

0.030

0.035

0.4

0.10

0.4

C43E

5.6

0.42
0.50

0.4

0.50
0.80

0.030

0.035

0.4

0.10

0.4

35B2

5.6

0.32
0.39

0.4

0.50
0.80

0.030

0.035

0.02

20Mn5

5.6

0.17
0.23

0.4

1.00
1.50

0.030

0.035

0.02

0.4

0.10

0.4

42CrMo4

8.8

42CrMo5-6

8.8

40CrMoV4-6

8.8

0.38
0.45
0.39
0.45
0.36
0.45

0.4

0.60
0.90
0.40
0.70
0.45
0.85

0.025

0.035

0.025

0.035

0.025

0.030

0.015

0.90
1.20
1.20
1.50
0.90
1.20

0.15
0.30
0.50
0.70
0.50
0.65

0.4
0.4

V%

Others

Cr+Mn
+Ni
0.63
Cr+Mn
+Ni
0.63

0.0008

0.005
Cr+Mn
+Ni
0.63

0.25
0.35

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Table c: The matching of EN 10269 materials to property classes 5.6 and 8.8
according to the tensile strength:
ISO 898-1:2013 property class 5.6
ISO 898-1:2013 property class 8.8
EN 10269 material:

19MnB4
C35E
C43E
35B2
20Mn5
42CrMo4
42CrMo5-6
40CrMoV4-6

Tensile strength MPa

min. 500
min. 800
Tensile strength
match with the
property class of
steel:
5.6 / 8.8
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6
8.8
8.8
8.8

800 - 950
500 - 650
560 - 710
500 - 650
500 - 650
860 - 1060
860 - 1060
850 - 1000

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Reference:
[1] The Hendrix Group, Failure Analysis Case Histroy No.
http://hghouston.com/resources/failure-case-histories/case-history-001.aspx

001,

[2] American Society for Metals (ASM) Handbooks Vol 1, 2002

[3] Hydrogen-induced intergranular stress corrosion cracking (HI-IGSCC)
of 0.35C3.5Ni1.5Cr0.5Mo steel fastener, Abhay K. Jha *, Sushant Manwatkar, K.
Sreekumar, Engineering Failure Analysis 17 (2010) 777786
[4] Joe Greenslade, Here Is What A Hydrogen Embrittlement Failure Really Looks
Like Extracted from Distributors Link Magazine, Spring 2005
[5] Scott MacKenzie, Houghton International, Inc, Overview of the Mechanisms of
Failure in Heat Treated Steel Components, ASM International
[6] David E. Hendrix, the President of The Hendrix Group, Inc., Hydrogen
Embittlement of High Strength Fasteners in Atmospheric Service
[7] Review of the performance of high strength steels used offshore , HSE BOOKS,
UK Government, 2003
[8] European Pressure Equipment Directive 97/23/EC
[9] API 6D:2008, Specification For Pipeline Valves 23rd Edition, April 2008
[10] ISO 14313:2007, Petroleum and natural gas industries Pipeline transportation
systems Pipeline valves
[11] Are You Getting The Bolts You Specified? A Discussion Paper, Steel
Construction, Journal of The Australian Steel Institute, Volume 39 No. 2 Dec 2005
[12] Zinc-Nickel Alloy Plating Provides a Practical Alternative to Zinc Plating on
Socket Products and Other High-Hardness Fasteners. Industrial Fasteners Institute of
Independence, OH; Sept 2009

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[13] ASTM A490M-12 Standard Specification for High-Strength Steel Bolts, Classes
10.9 and 10.9.3, for Structural Steel Joints (Metric) , alloy steel, bolts, metric
[14] ISO 4014:2011 Hexagon head bolts. Product grades A and B
[15] ISO 4017:2014 Hexagon head screws. Product grades A and B
[16] BS 4190:2001 Metric black hexagon bolts, screws and nuts Specification
[17] ISO 4762:2004 Hexagon socket head cap screws
[18] ISO 898-1:2013 Mechanical properties of fasteners made of carbon steel and
alloy steel Part 1: Bolts, screws and studs with specified property classes Coarse
thread and fine pitch thread
[19] SAE J1199, Mechanical and Material Requirements for Metric

Externally. Threaded Fasteners

[20] South African National Standard: SANS 110094 The use of highstrength friction-grip bolts
[21] EN 1515-4:2009. Flanges and their joints Bolting Part 4: Selection
of bolting for equipment subject to the Pressure Equipment Directive
97/23/EC
[22] Davis, J.R. Tensile Testing Second Edition, ASM International, 2004
[23] EN 1515-1: 2000, Flanges and their joints - Bolting - Part 1: Selection of bolting
[24] BS 4882: 1990, Specification for Bolting for flanges and pressure containing
purposes
[25] ASTM F1624 - 09 Standard Test Method for Measurement of Hydrogen
Embrittlement Threshold in Steel by the Incremental Step Loading Technique
[26] Hydrogen Damage and Embrittlement, Failure Analysis and Prevention, Vol 11,
ASM Handbook, ASM International, 2002, p 809822

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[27] G.F. Vander Voort, Embrittlement of Steels, Properties and Selection: Irons,
Steels, and High-Performance Alloys, Vol 1, ASM Handbook, ASM International,
1990, p 689736
[28] Stress corrosion cracking of stainless steel in swimming pool building, Food and
Entertainment Sector, Commercial and Consumer Service, Transportation and
Utilities Sector, Health and Safety Executive, FOD Scotland, 2 August 2002

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